Logical Agents

(AIMA - Chapter 7)

CIS 391 - Intro to AI 1

Outline
1. Wumpus world
2. Logic-based agents
3. Propositional logic
• Syntax, semantics, inference, validity, equivalence
and satifiability

Next Time:
 Automated Propositional Theorem Provers
• Resolution
• A Practical Method: Walksat

CIS 391 - Intro to AI 2

 1. Automating “Hunt the Wumpus”:
A different kind of problem

CIS 391 - Intro to AI 3

 The Wumpus World

Wumpus

A Hunt the Wumpus Flash version: http://www.flashrolls.com/puzzle-

games/Hunt-The-Wumpus-Flash-Game.htm
CIS 391 - Intro to AI 4
 PEAS description
 Performance measure
• gold: +1000, death: -1000
• -1 per step

 Environment
• Squares adjacent to wumpus are smelly
• Squares adjacent to pit are breezy
• Glitter iff gold is in the same square
• Gold is picked up by reflex, can’t be dropped
• You bump if you walk into a wall

 Actuators: Move <dir>

 Sensors: Stench, Breeze, Glitter, Bump

CIS 391 - Intro to AI 5

 Full PEAS description
 Performance measure
• gold: +1000, death: -1000
• -1 per step, -10 for using the arrow

 Environment
• Squares adjacent to wumpus are smelly
• Squares adjacent to pit are breezy
• Glitter iff gold is in the same square
• Shooting kills wumpus if you are facing it. It screams
• Shooting uses up the only arrow
• Grabbing picks up gold if in same square
• Releasing drops the gold in same square
• You bump if you walk into a wall

 Actuators: Face <direction>, Move, Grab, Release, Shoot

 Sensors: Stench, Breeze, Glitter, Bump, Scream
CIS 391 - Intro to AI 6
Wumpus world characterization
 Deterministic Yes – outcomes exactly specified
 Static Yes – Wumpus and Pits do not move
 Discrete Yes
 Single-agent Yes – Wumpus is essentially a natural
feature

 Fully Observable No – only local perception

 Epis`odic No—What was observed before
(breezes, pits, etc) is
very useful.

A New Kind of Problem!

CIS 391 - Intro to AI 7
Exploring the Wumpus World

1. The KB initially contains the rules of the environment.

2. Location: [1,1]
Percept: [Stench, Breeze, Glitter,  Bump]
Action: Move to safe cell e.g. 2,1

3. Location: [2,1]
Percept: [Stench, Breeze, Glitter,  Bump]
INFER: Breeze indicates that there is a pit in [2,2] or [3,1]
Action: Return to [1,1] to try next safe cell
CIS 391 - Intro to AI 8
Exploring the Wumpus World

4. Location: [1,2] (after going through [1,1])

Percept: [Stench, Breeze, Glitter,  Bump]
INFER: Wumpus is in [1,1] or [2,2] or [1,3]
INFER … stench not detected in [2,1], thus not in [2,2]
REMEMBER….Wumpus not in [1,1]
THUS … Wumpus is in [1,3]
THEREFORE [2,2] is safe because of lack of breeze in [1,2]
Action: Move to [2,2]
REMEMBER: Pit in [2,2] or [3,1]
THEREFORE: Pit in [3,1]!
CIS 391 - Intro to AI 9
 2. Logic-based Agents

CIS 391 - Intro to AI 10

 Logical Agents
 Most useful in non-episodic, partially
observable environments
 Logic (Knowledge-Based) agents combine
1. A knowledge base (KB): a list of facts that are
known to the agent.
2. Current percepts
to infer hidden aspects of the current state using
Rules of inference
 Logic provides a good formal language for both
• Facts encoded as axioms
• Rules of inference
CIS 391 - Intro to AI 11
The Knowledge Base
A set of sentences
 that encodes assertions about the worldi
 in a formal knowledge representation language.

Declarative approach to building an agent:

 Tell it what it needs to know – add fact to KB.
 Ask it what to do – compute using inference
rules also in KB

CIS 391 - Intro to AI 12

Generic KB-Based Agent Pseudocode

 Agent must be able to:

1. Represent states and actions,
2. Incorporate new percepts
3. Update internal representation of the world
4. Deduce hidden properties of the world
5. Deduce appropriate actions – requires some logic of action

CIS 391 - Intro to AI 13

 3. Propositional Logic

 Propositional logic is the simplest logic –

illustrates basic ideas
 Inference in propositional logic is also tractable
with reasonable constraints – therefore very useful

CIS 391 - Intro to AI 14

 LOGIC: What is a logic?
 A formal language with associated
• Syntax – what expressions are legal (well-formed)
• Semantics – what legal expressions mean
—in logic, meaning is defined by the truth of each sentence with respect to
a set of possible worlds
– Possible world (simplified): an assignment of values to all logical variables

 e.g. the language of arithmetic

• Syntax: X+2  y is a legal sentence, x2+y is not a legal sentence
• Semantics: X+2  y is true in a world where x=7 and y =1
• Semantics: X+2  y is false in a world where x=0 and y =6

CIS 391 - Intro to AI 15

 Propositional logic: Syntax
Recursively defined:
Base case:
 The atomic proposition symbols P1, P2 etc are sentences
Recursion:
 If S is a sentence, S is a sentence (negation)
 If S1 and S2 are sentences, S1  S2 is a sentence (conjunction)
 If S1 and S2 are sentences, S1  S2 is a sentence (disjunction)
 If S1 and S2 are sentences, S1  S2 is a sentence (implication)
 If S1 and S2 are sentences, S1  S2 is a sentence (biconditional)

CIS 391 - Intro to AI 16

Propositional logic: Semantics
Each model/world specifies true or false for each proposition symbol
E.g. P1,2 P2,2 P3,1
false true false
With these three symbols, 23 possible models (worlds) , can be
enumerated automatically.

Rules for evaluating truth with respect to a model m:

(not) S is true iff S is false

(and) S1  S2 is true iff S1 is true and S2 is true
(or) S1  S2 is true iff S1 is true or S2 is true
(if..then) S1  S2 is true iff S1 is false or S2 is true
i.e., is false iff S1 is true and S2 is false
(if and only if) S1  S2 is true iff S1S2 is true and S2S1 is true

Simple recursive process evaluates an arbitrary sentence, e.g.,

P1,2  (P2,2  P3,1) = true  (true  false) = true  true = true

CIS 391 - Intro to AI 17
Wumpus world sentences
Let Pi,j be true if there is a pit in [i, j].
Let Bi,j be true if there is a breeze in [i, j].

start:  P1,1
 B1,1
B2,1

"Pits cause breezes in adjacent squares"

B1,1  (P1,2  P2,1)
B2,1  (P1,1  P2,2  P3,1)

CIS 391 - Intro to AI 18

Model Theory
 Logicians often think in terms of models
• Formally structured “worlds” with respect to
which truth can be evaluated

 We say m is a model of a sentence  if  is true in

m

 M() is the set of all models of 

(Usually, logicians are interested in models of
mathematical structures. AI-types are interested in
models of common-sense objects and activities.)

CIS 391 - Intro to AI 19

A key semantic relation: Entailment
 Entailment means that the truth of one sentence
follows from the truth of another:
KB ╞ 
Entails
Knowledge base KB entails sentence 
if and only if
 is true in all worlds where KB is true
• e.g., the KB containing the Giants won and the Reds lost
entails The Giants won
• e.g., the KB containing x+y = 4 entails 4 = x+y

 Entailment is a relationship between sentences

based on semantics
CIS 391 - Intro to AI 20
Models II
 Review:
• m is a model of a sentence  if  is true in m
• M() is the set of all models of 
 Entailment:
• KB ╞  iff M(KB)  M()
• Example:
—KB = Giants won and M()
Reds lost
 = Giants won

CIS 391 - Intro to AI 21

Entailment in the wumpus world
 Consider possible models for KB assuming only pits
and a reduced Wumpus world with only 5 squares and
pits

 Situation after
A. detecting nothing in [1,1],
B. moving right, breeze in [2,1]:

CIS 391 - Intro to AI 22

Wumpus models I

Pit

Breeze
All possible models (exactly 8) in this reduced Wumpus world.

CIS 391 - Intro to AI 23

Wumpus models II

 In Red: all possible wumpus-worlds consistent

with the observations on slide 22 and the
“physics” of the Wumpus world.

CIS 391 - Intro to AI 24

 Deciding what to do by model checking I

α1 = "[1,2] is safe", KB ╞ α1, proved by model checking

CIS 391 - Intro to AI 25

Deciding what to do by model checking II

α2 = "[2,2] is safe", KB ╞ α2

CIS 391 - Intro to AI 26

 Truth tables for connectives
 Truth tables enumerate all possible propositional
models
 Thus, truth tables are a simple form of model checking

OR: P or Q is true or both are true. Implication is always true

XOR: P or Q is true but not both. when the premises are False!

CIS 391 - Intro to AI 27

Inference Procedures
 KB ├i α : sentence α can be derived from KB by
procedure i
 Soundness: i is sound if whenever KB ├i α, it is
also true that KB╞ α
• No false inferences
• (but all true statements might not be derived)
 Completeness: i is complete if whenever KB╞ α, it
is also true that KB ├i α
• All true sentences can be derived,
• (but some false statements might be derived)

 Desirable: sound and complete

CIS 391 - Intro to AI 28

Inference by enumeration
 Enumeration of all models (truth tables) is sound
and complete.

 For n symbols, time complexity is O(2n)...

 We need a smarter way to do inference!

 One approach: infer new logical sentences from

the data-base and see if they match a query.

CIS 391 - Intro to AI 29

 Logical equivalence
 To manipulate logical sentences we need some rewrite rules.
 Two sentences are logically equivalent iff they are true in same models: α
≡ ß iff α╞ β and β╞ α

You need to
know these !

CIS 391 - Intro to AI 30

Validity and satisfiability
A sentence is valid if it is true in all models,
e.g. True, A A, A  A, (A  (A  B))  B

Validity is connected to inference via the Deduction Theorem:

KB ╞ α if and only if (KB  α) is valid

A sentence is satisfiable if it is true in some model

e.g. A B, C

A sentence is unsatisfiable if it is false in all models

e.g. AA

Satisfiability is connected to inference via the following:

KB ╞ α if and only if (KB α) is unsatisfiable
(there is no model for which KB=true and  is false)

CIS 391 - Intro to AI 31