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Notes on Time and Tense

1. Time, Temporality, Tenses

Humans conceive of time in terms of space, as shown by the language that we use to talk about temporal relations:
we habitually speak of stretching out or compressing an activity, heading toward the future, returning to the past
and so on (Whorf 1956, Lakoff and Johnson 1980).
Every language has ways of talking about time. In most languages there is a variety of expressions that can be
used to show when something happened or will happen. These may include temporal adverbs (soon, later, then),
PPs (in the morning, after the election), NPs (last year, that week, the next day), auxiliary verbs (will, has, did),
affixes on the verb, etc. The term tense is used only for time reference which is marked grammatically – that is,
by purely grammatical elements such as affixes, auxiliaries, or particles.
TIME is expressed by:
- verb tenses
- time adverb(ial)s and adverbial phrases
- other
Definitions:
“Tense is the grammaticalised expression of location in time.” Comrie (1985)
“Tense refers to the grammatical expression of the time of the situation described in the
proposition, relative to some other time.” Bybee (1985)
Most linguists use the term tense only when the time reference is indicated by verbal morphology –
morphological tense.
Our experience of time is one-dimensional and moves in only one direction.
A possible analogy, reflected in the words used to refer to time in some languages, is to picture yourself
sitting on the bank of a river facing downstream. Time flows past in one direction, like the water of the river.
You can “see” what has flowed past, but not what is flowing toward you.
Tense systems always define the time of a situation with reference to some other time. Normally this
reference point is the time of the speech event, in which case we speak of an absolute tense system. In
some languages, another time can be selected as the reference point; this is called a relative tense system.
The time of the speech event normally functions as the reference point relative to which other
events are located in time. This type of tense marking is called absolute tense. In a relative tense system, a
different reference point is used – tense marking is used to locate the time of one situation relative to
another situation, rather than in relation to the speech event.
The tense-aspect verb forms associated with the three axes:
- the present axis: Present, Present Perfect, Future
- the past axis: Past, Past Perfect, Future-in-the Past
- the future axis: Future, Future Perfect
In terms of time reference, the time of the speech situation is called now. All times which lie in the direction
of “travel” relative to this point are called future, while those in the opposite direction are called past.
While our words for speaking about time make a three-way distinction between past, present, and future, it is
actually somewhat unusual for a language to encode all three of these categories morphologically (e.g.
Lithuanian). The most common morphological tense systems involve a two-way distinction: either past vs.
non-past, or future vs. non-future.
A number of languages distinguish more than three tense categories. An example is found in the
Bantu language ChiBemba, which has a symmetric set of four past and four future tenses.
In languages which distinguish future vs. non-future, the future tense form is often used in an
extended sense for unrealized, possible, or potential situations, while the non-future form is used for
actual situations. In such systems the future tense form may be called irrealis, in contrast to the non-future
form which is called realis.
When analysing time consider three elements:
- the speech moment – SPEECH TIME (“now”) = ST
- the time of the action/state/event... – EVENT TIME = ET
- REFERENCE TIME (--> present, past or future axis) = RT

Discuss in terms of ST, ET and RT:

I am writing this sentence (now).
The packages arrived yesterday.
John had already arrived last week.

2. Ways of indicating time relations. Using the English tense system – in relation to aspect.
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Here is a table of the basic tense-aspect forms of the indicative mood (to discuss in class):
(© R. Albu):
Aspect
Simple/ Progressive/ Perfect Perfect
Tense
Indefinite Continuous Simple Continuous
Present he works/ he is working/ he has he has been
sings singing worked/sung working/singing
Past he worked/ he was working/ he had he had been
sang singing worked/ sung working/singing
Future he will work/ he will be he will have he will have been
sing working/singing worked/sung working/singing
Future in the he would he would be he would have he would have been
Past work/sing working/singing worked/ sung working/singing

The meanings associated with the forms of the tense-aspect system

When it comes to the English tense system, many grammar books deal with the tenses one by one and
describe the various purposes for which each tense is used.

Here is the list of verb forms together with the meanings (connected with time) which they typically express:
timeless situations, present
simple present states, commentary, permanent habit,
narrative, future +
simple past definite past +

present progressive present actions/events +

past progressive definite past period, future-in-the-past

pre-present, state/habit up to present,

present perfect(ive) indefinite past (possible with current
relevance) +
past-in-the-past, state/habit up to past
past perfect(ive)
point +
state/habit up to present,
present perfect(ive) progressive
(+limited duration)
past perfect(ive) progressive state/habit up to past point
(+duration)

used to + main verb past habit or state

will + main verb future +

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will + perfect infinitive of main verb

past-in-future
(future perfect)

be going to + main verb future, future-in-past

be about to + main verb post-present, post-past

would + main verb future-in-past

Notice that considerations of tense (moment/ period and order in time) and aspect (temporal contour
of the event/action) cannot be separated. Now let us consider the ways in which various time values
may be expressed.

1 The Immediate (Real) Present (“now”)

2 All-inclusive Time (unrestrictive use, “timeless”)
3 Past Time
4 The Inclusive Present (“up to now”)
5 The Inclusive Past (“before past”)
6 Ways of expressing future time (Present Simple, Present Progressive, be going to, be to, be about
to, Future Simple “will do”, Future Progressive “will be doing”, Future Perfect “will have done”,
Future Perfect Progressive “will have been doing”)
7 Repeated or habitual activities. Continuing states. (“usually”, “repeatedly”)

8 Verbs of perception
9 Non-conclusive verbs (See Hornby, Guide to Patterns and Usage in English, London: OUP, 1975)
10 Inchoative verbs

The Sequence of Tenses (Backshift) in a Nutshell

Basic Rule I:
PRESENT + ANY TENSE

Basic Rule II:

PAST + PAST

Basic Rule III:

DO NOT USE shall, should, will, would
in subordinate clauses of time and condition

‘The Present Sphere’

Main Clause Subordinate Clause
I know that he is in Iaşi.
I have heard that he has been in Iaşi for three days.
She will soon find out that he had been in Iaşi before getting married.
Tell her that he will soon be in Iaşi.
that in two months’ time he will have completed his training.

“The Past Sphere”

PAST PERFECT SIMPLE PAST
Jack had spent two hours on the problem when Jack spent two hours on the problem before he
he gave up. (The sequence of events is reflected in gave up. (The sequence of events is expressed by
the verb tenses. The first event is expressed in the the use of the time word before. The past perfect
past perfect.) can be used optionally: Jack had spent two hours on
the problem before he gave up.)
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Realis vs irealis
CONDITIONAL SENTENCES
Main Clause Conditional Clause
Sentence Type 0 (zero) Any time required by the logic of the events
Sentence Type I (ST I) PRESENT/FUTURE PRESENT (including PRESENT
IMPERATIVE PERFECT for prior actions)
Sentence Type II (ST II) PRESENT CONDITIONAL PAST
Sentence Type III (ST III) PAST CONDIOTIONAL PAST PERFECT
Mixed Types ... ...

Clauses of Purpose (Final Clauses)

Main Clause Connective Subordinate Clause of Purpose
so that (the commonest) will/can (common) /may(formal)/
PRESENT shall(rare) + INFINITIVE
PRESENT PERFECT in order that (formal) may(formal)/shall(rare) + INFINITIVE
FUTURE that (rare)
IMPERATIVE in case (informal) PRESENT TENSE or
should + INFINITIVE (less usual)
so that would/could/might/should + INFINITIVE
PAST TENSE in case PAST TENSE or
PAST PERFECT should + INFINITIVE
lest (formal) should + INFINITIVE

WORKSHEET 11

I. Discuss the following (pairs of) sentences with respect to their meaning:

1 a. The man was drowning. b. The man drowned.

1. a. I read from 10 p.m. to 11. p. m. b I was reading from 10 p.m. to 11p.m
2. a When we arrived she made some fresh coffee. b. When we arrived she was making some fresh
coffee.
3.a The old man died. b. The old man was dying.
4.a You have forgotten the moral arguments. b. You are forgetting the moral arguments.
5.a. He is a fool. b. He is being a fool.
6.a. Have you had lunch yet? b. Have you already had lunch?
7. a. Have you had breakfast this morning? b. Did you have breakfast this morning?
8.a. I will wait till 5 o’clock. b. I will have written the essay by 5 o’clock. c. I will have written the
essay by the time he returns.
9. A man and a woman were passing by; the man suddenly turned round and threatened me; he said
I had no right...
10.a. Who’s been eating my dinner? b. Who’s eaten my dinner?
11.a. They’ve been widening the road. b. They have widened the road.
12.a. The beauty contest was taking place the next day. b. The beauty contest was going to take
place the next day. c. She said the beauty contest would take place the next day.
13.a. He was rich when he was young. b. He used to be rich when he was young.
14.a. She’s going to have twins. b. She’s going to ask for a caesarean operation.

II. Translate:
1. De obicei se scoală la 7, dar saptamîna aceasta se scoală pe la 9 deoarece este în vacanţă.
2. Nu am chef să ies in oraş în seara asta. Am lucrat în grădină toată ziua.
3. Cărţile astea zac pe podeaua camerei tale de ani de zile.
4. Am gătit mai multe feluri de mîncare în dimineaţa aceasta şi, iată, mai am timp şi pentru un
duş.
5. Peste trei luni se împlinesc zece ani de cînd lucrez aici.
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6. Până mi-a venit rîndul, mi-am umplut coşul cu tot ce-mi trebuia: ulei, oţet, griş, migdale,
curmale, stafide...
7. În prezent citesc o biografie. E a treia biografie pe care o citesc luna aceasta.
8. Nu pleca de acasa pînă nu te speli pe față.
9. Era 6 după-amiază; Jack era obosit pentru că a lucrat din greu toată ziua. Era şi flămînd pentru
că n-a avut nimic de mîncare de la micul dejun. De obicei nevastă-sa îi aducea nişte sandvişuri
la ora prînzului, dar în ziua aceea, dintr-un motiv sau altul, n-a venit.
10. Sper că vor repara drumul pînă ne vom întoarce vara viitoare.
11. "Cum îţi place noua ta slujbă?" "Abia am început, aşa încît nu pot spune mare lucru. Cînd voi fi
lucrat două săptămîni, am să te anunţ."
12. Spălătorul de geamuri era de fapt unul din membrii unei bande de spărgători de seifuri. Spera
că în timp ce va spăla geamurile - sau va pretinde că le spală - va putea să arunce o privire la
seif.
13. Obişnuia să-şi ia o zi liberă pe săptămînă; în ziua aceea se scula devreme, lua micul dejun în
grabă şi se ducea la rîu.
14. Cînd te muţi in casa nouă?
15. Vei veni devreme acasă diseară?
(based on R. Albu, Semantics and Grammar, Notes on Time and Tense, Paul R. Kroeger, Analyzing
Grammar. An Introduction, CUP, 2005)