PARAPHARASING, SUMMARIZING, PLAGIARISM & TEXT ORGANIZATION

I. PARAPHRASING

Reading Versus Writing Paraphrases

Any time you paraphrase, you use your own words to restate the author’s ideas, changing the
language but not the meaning. Reading paraphrases, however, don’t require you to be as
complete and grammatically correct the way paraphrasing for a term paper does. For reading
paraphrases, all you have to do is to re-create, in your own words, a barebones version of the
topic sentence. For an illustration, here are some of the topic sentences you have encountered so
far, along with paraphrases appropriate to reading and writing.

Paraphrasing while reading, though, is different from paraphrasing for a term paper. A reading
paraphrase certainly requires you to be accurate. However, it doesn’t require you to be quite so
complete. Compare, for instance, two different paraphrases of the original text shown below. The
first paraphrase is for a paper. The second is a reading paraphrase, created solely for the purposes
of monitoring comprehension or taking marginal notes.

Paraphrasing to Test Comprehension (Reading)

Recognizing the topic sentence and understanding the main idea of a paragraph are critical to
understanding what you read. A word of caution here, though. It’s easy to believe you have
understood the main idea when the paragraph—and along with it, the topic sentence—are right
1
before your eyes. In this situation, even the most experienced and skillful readers can fool
themselves into thinking their understanding is better than it is. The truth—that our
understanding of the main idea is somewhat fuzzy—only dawns on us when we try to recall the
author’s point in a class discussion or on a test. To avoid such unpleasant surprises, get into the
habit of paraphrasing topic sentences whenever you are dealing with unfamiliar or hard-to-read
material.

Pointers on Paraphrasing While Reading

As you can tell from the previous examples, paraphrases for reading are less formal than
paraphrases created for term papers, where completeness and grammatical correctness are
essential. However, that does not mean that there are no guidelines for the kind of reading
2
paraphrases you should jot into the margins of your textbooks. There are some things you need
to know and do in order to make paraphrasing topic sentences an effective comprehension
strategy.

1. Stick with the topic. If you are paraphrasing a topic sentence, you already know the
subject of the sentence. It’s the same topic you identified based on the chain (or chains) of
repetition and reference in the paragraph.

2. Use your own words to comment on or describe the topic. Finding your own words to
express the author’s original idea about the topic is what makes paraphrasing work. If you
can’t find different words to make the same point, that’s an indication that you haven’t
understood the author’s point. Yet even when you can fi nd the right words to paraphrase the
topic sentence, the time spent searching for those words gives your long-term memory a
chance to store the idea away for later recall. This double benefit is what makes paraphrasing
such an effective learning tool.

3. Use the question about the main idea to get started. When paraphrasing a topic sentence,
use the same question that took you from the topic of the paragraph to the main idea:
―What’s the author saying about the topic?‖ Asking that question to paraphrase the topic
sentence leads to any number of answers, for instance: ―Antarctic seals survive near
extinction,‖ ―Antarctic seals bounce back.‖ Both paraphrases are correct because they both
follow the central rule of paraphrasing: Change the language, not the meaning.

4. Don’t get bogged down trying to paraphrase word by word. Instead, use the general
question about the main idea to generate an answer. Then check to see how closely the
answer, in terms of content and language, matches the original topic sentence. If your answer
has almost the same wording as the topic sentence, see where you can substitute your own
words for the author’s.

5. Recognize that some words and phrases can’t be paraphrased. Some words and terms in
your textbooks are part of a highly specialized vocabulary specific to the subject matter.
These specialized vocabulary words and terms might have few, if any, synonyms.
Remember, for example, the paragraph on the ―Mandan earth lodges.‖ It would be hard to
find a substitute for that particular phrase. For this reason, just about any paraphrase would
keep the original wording of the topic, e.g., ―19th-century Americans and Europeans bowled
over by Mandan earth lodges.‖

6. Don’t stand on formality. Note the use of the idiom ―bowled over‖ in the above
paraphrase. Such informal language would be unacceptable if you were paraphrasing for a
research or term paper. But it’s perfectly acceptable for a reading paraphrase because it’s
likely that you are the only one who will see the paraphrase during exam reviews.

3
 7. Abbreviate without losing the message. Reading paraphrases, which go into the margins of
your textbooks or the pages of your notebook, should be as brief as possible. Just don’t make
them too short. You’ll need to re-read your notes later on to add details or to review for
exams. At that time, you should be able to grasp the original meaning from the words jotted
in your text or notebook. The examples in the following chart show the difference between
effective and ineffective abbreviations.

DIRECTIONS Read each paragraph, paying special attention to the underlined topic sentence.
Then circle the letter of the most accurate paraphrase.

1. Western visitors to India are oft en astonished to see stray cows wandering in public
places. In some parts of the country, cows wander in and out of markets or browse in
carefully cultivated gardens, a seeming nuisance for the local populace. But for devotees
of Hinduism, cows are never an annoyance: They are considered sacred, and their
presence is encouraged. In Hindu-populated regions of the country, cows are free to
gather at the edges of highways, even if they occasionally cause traffic snarls. Cows are
also permitted to wander into the middle of busy intersections, along railroad tracks, and
munch on park grass (grass is a staple of their diet). Hindus decorate young cows with
garlands of flowers and bring the animals offerings of food. Older cows are well taken
care of. They are boarded in homes especially designed for geriatric bovines.

Topic Sentence: ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Paraphrase:

4
 a. In parts of India, Hindus treat cows as holy animals and won’t chase animals from
public places.
b. Everywhere in India, cows worshipped like gods.
c. In India, cows gather on highways and cause traffic jams.

2. Although the Clean Water Act has been justly credited for improving the condition of the
waters in the United States, many lakes, streams, and rivers in the United States still suffer from
high levels of toxic* pollutants.* Among the serious threats posed by water pollutants are
respiratory irritation, cancer, kidney and liver damage, anemia, and heart failure. Toxic
pollutants also damage fish and other forms of wildlife. In fish they cause tumors or
reproductive* problems; shellfi sh and wildlife living in or drinking from toxininfested
waters also develop genetic* defects. (Adapted from Pride, Hughes, and Kapoor, Business, p.
57.)

Topic Sentence: ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Paraphrase:

a. Birth defects among fi sh indicate the presence of polluted water.

b. Thanks to the Clean Water Act, the drinking supply is no longer in danger.
c. Despite the Clean Water Act, water sources in the U.S. are still polluted.
d. Polluted water is the main cause of cancerous tumors and birth defects.

Paraphrasing In Writing

Academic writing normally requires that you support your ideas and opinions with facts,
statistics, quotations, and similar kinds of information. There are four ways to use information
from outside sources. You can quote it directly or indirectly. You can also paraphrase or
summarize it, skills that you will practice in this chapter. Writing paraphrases and summaries are
important tools in academic writing.

When you paraphrase, you rewrite information from an outside source in your own words
without changing the meaning. Because you include in your rewriting all or nearly all of the
content of the original passage, a paraphrase is almost as long as the original. (A summary, by
contrast, is much shorter than the original.)

5
Writing Technique Questions

1. How many sentences are there in the original passage? In the paraphrase?

2. Compare the original passage and the paraphrase sentence by sentence. Analyze how the
sentence structure and words differ by answering the following questions.

a. What is the first word of the first sentence in the original passage? Where does this
word appear in first sentence of the paraphrase?

b. What is the first word of the second sentence in the original passage? What word
replaces it in the second sentence of the paraphrase?

c. What words replace have dreamed ofin the third sentence? What word replaces
arguments in favor of in the fourth sentence?

d. Which sentence in the original becomes two sentences in the paraphrase? You can
write a good paraphrase if you follow these steps.

Step 1 Read the original passage several times until you understand it fully. Look up unfamiliar
words, and find synonyms for them. It may not be possible to find synonyms for every word,
especially technical vocabulary. In this case, use the original word.

Step 2 It helps to take notes. Write down only a few words for each idea not complete sentences.
Derive it from the topic sentence and the supporting details. Add some important information if
necessary.

Here are one writer's notes on the topic and supporting details of the original passage about
universal language: language-people use to communicate-but so many-difficult to understand

6
one another-people wish-universal international language-reasons: cultural, economic bonds,
better feelings between countries. It may be helpful to make a brief outline such as the following:

A. Language-people use to communicate

1. So many languages make it difficult to understand one another.
2. People wish for one universal international language.
B. Reasons
1. Cultural, economic bonds
2. Better feelings between countries

Step 3 Write your paraphrase from your notes. Don't look at the Original while you are writing.

Step 4 Check your paraphrase against the original to make sure you have not copied vocabulary
or the sentence structure too closely. Above all, make sure that you have not changed the
meaning of the original or given any wrong information.

Step 5 Add an in-text citation at the end.

EXAMPLE:

While making the 1996 hit movie Evita, the pop diva Madonna claimed to feel a special kinship
for the movie’s heroine, Eva Perón, once one of the most powerful women in Latin America. But
Madonna might want to think twice before paying homage to the wife of Argentinean dictator
Juan Perón. Glamorous as Maria Eva Duarte (1919–1952) was, she was hardly a role model.
Nicknamed ―Evita‖ by the people who loved her, Evita Perón said all the right things about
helping the poor, but her devotion rarely went beyond grand gestures, designed to polish her
image as a modern-day saint. As the wife of the president, Evita traveled the country handing out
small sums of money to anyone who reached out a hand. Warmed by such seeming generosity,
the poor of Argentina did not begrudge Evita the much larger sums of money she spent on
clothes, jewelry, and travel. Fond of starting spectacular housing and health projects that were
dedicated to helping the needy, Evita usually lost interest in the projects before completion.
Nevertheless, her personal charisma seemed to protect her from the anger of those she
disappointed. For that matter, it still seems to enchant. Even today many people insist, despite all
evidence to the contrary, that she was an early feminist and generous philanthropist.

TOPIC SENTENCE: Madonna might want to think twice before paying homage to the wife of
Argentinean dictator Juan Perón

Paraphrasing for reading:

a. Madonna adopts causes she doesn’t understand.

b. Evita Perón used beauty and charm to claw her way to the heights of

7
political power.
c. Evita Perón is still beloved by people all over the world.
d. Evita Perón, despite her glamour and power, was not someone to be admired.

Paraphrasing for Writing:

Notes:
Madonna adopts causes she doesn’t understand (Topic Sentence)
Evita Perón, despite her glamour and power, was not someone to be admired (supporting detail)
Evita travelled and distributed small sum of money to the poor but use most for herself (Major
Supporting Detail)
She started health and housing project and did not complete them (Major Supporting Detail)
charisma vs evidence (minor supporting detail)

Madonna adopted a phenomenon that she was not conscious of. Evita has the quality of being
powerfully and mysteriously attractive that overcome the truth. Evita was fond of travelling and
distributing small sum of money to the poor but she spent more on her personal wishes. She also
initiated project on housing and health and lost passion before finalization.

EXERCISE: PARAPHRASING FOR READING AND WRITING

DIRECTIONS Read each paragraph, paying special attention to the underlined topic sentence.
Then circle the letter of the most accurate paraphrase.

1. Western visitors to India are oft en astonished to see stray cows wandering in public
places. In some parts of the country, cows wander in and out of markets or browse in carefully
cultivated gardens, a seeming nuisance for the local populace. But for devotees of Hinduism,
cows are never an annoyance: They are considered sacred, and their presence is encouraged. In
Hindu-populated regions of the country, cows are free to gather at the edges of highways, even if
they occasionally cause traffic snarls. Cows are also permitted to wander into the middle of busy
intersections, along railroad tracks, and munch on park grass (grass is a staple of their diet).
Hindus decorate young cows with garlands of flowers and bring the animals offerings of food.
Older cows are well taken care of. They are boarded in homes especially designed for geriatric
bovines.

Topic Sentence: ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Paraphrase for reading (choose one)

a. In parts of India, Hindus treat cows as holy animals and won’t chase animals from public
places.
b. Everywhere in India, cows worshipped like gods.
c. In India, cows gather on highways and cause traffic jams.

8
Paraphrase for writing:

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

2. Although the Clean Water Act has been justly credited for improving the condition of the
waters in the United States, many lakes, streams, and rivers in the United States still suffer from
high levels of toxic* pollutants.* Among the serious threats posed by water pollutants are
respiratory irritation, cancer, kidney and liver damage, anemia, and heart failure. Toxic
pollutants also damage fish and other forms of wildlife. In fish they cause tumors or reproductive
problems; shell fish and wildlife living in or drinking from toxininfested waters also develop
genetic defects. (Adapted from Pride, Hughes, and Kapoor, Business, p. 57.)

Topic Sentence: ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Paraphrase for reading (choose one):

a. Birth defects among fish indicate the presence of polluted water.

b. Thanks to the Clean Water Act, the drinking supply is no longer in danger.
c. Despite the Clean Water Act, water sources in the U.S. are still polluted.
d. Polluted water is the main cause of cancerous tumors and birth defects.

Paraphrase for writing:

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

9
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

3. Scientists have long known that some animals use tools. Chimpanzees, for example, use sticks
to catch insects. Otters pry open shells with rocks. Recently, though, researchers discovered that
some bottlenose dolphins in western Australia also use tools to search for food. Before the
dolphins root around the ocean floor to find prey hiding in the sand, they stick sea sponges on
their snouts. Wearing the sponges allows the dolphins to locate prey they wouldn’t otherwise be
able to find without risking injury. The sponges are like nose gloves. They protect the dolphins’
sensitive skin from hidden dangers, like poisonous stonefish and stingrays. This dolphin
behavior, scientists believe, is not based on instinct. It appears that the dolphins learned how to
use the sponges after they got their noses injured, and then passed their knowledge on to their off
spring.

Topic Sentence: …………………………………………………………………………………..

Paraphrase for reading:

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Paraphrase for writing:

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

10
II. PLAGIARISM

It is important to learn how to use information from outside sources without committing
plagiarism. Plagiarism is wrongly using someone else's words or ideas, and it is a serious
offense. Students who plagiarize may fail a class or even be expelled from school.

There are two kinds of plagiarism.

1. When you use information from an outside source without citing the source (telling where you
got the information), you are guilty of plagiarism.

2. Even when you cite your source, if your paraphrase is too similar to the original, you are
guilty of plagiarism.

Read the following paraphrases and decide which kind of plagiarism each example is guilty of.

11
Paraphrase 1 is plagiarism because the source is not cited. Paraphrase 2 is plagiarism because it
is too similar to the original passage. For example, in the first sentence, only one word has been
changed: main replaces principal. In the second sentence, only a few words have been changed.
You can avoid the first kind of plagiarism by always citing your sources. You can avoid the
second kind of plagiarism by learning to paraphrase correctly.

EXERCISE

Step 1 Read the original passages.

Step 2 Choose the best paraphrase from the choices given and mark it "Best."

Step 3 Mark the others "Too sim." for too similar, "No cit." if there is no in-text citation, or
"Inc./lnacc." for incomplete and/or inaccurate information. The first one has been done for you as
an example.

Original Passage 1

Source: Page 16 of a three-page article in the October 15, 2003, issue of Space Science
magazine. The title of the at1icle is "Manned Mars Flight: Impossible Dream?" The author is
Patrick Clinton, a NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration) physician.

Living aboard a space station in orbit around Earth for months at a time poses problems for
astronauts' bodies as well as for their minds.

12
Original Passage 2

Source: Page 16 of the same article in passage 1.

One major problem is maintaining astronauts' physical health. Medical treatment may be days or
even weeks away, as there may not be a doctor on board. Illnesses such as appendicitis or ulcers,
routinely treated on Earth, could be fatal in space because of the delay in getting to a doctor.

Original Passage 3

13
Source: Page 17 of the same article as in passages 1 and 2. Another health problem is the
potential for bone deterioration. In a weightless environment, the body produces less calcium.
Astronauts must exercise at least three hours a day to prevent bone loss.

Write a paraphrase of each of the passages that follow.

Step 1 Read the original passage several times until you understand it well. You may find it
helpful to underline the main points.

Step 2 Make notes in the space provided, changing vocabulary words wherever possible.

Step 3 Write your paraphrase in your own words. Remember to change both vocabulary and
sentence structure.

Step 4 Check your paraphrase to make sure you have not changed the meaning of the original
passage.

Step 5 Add an in-text citation in the proper form at the end of each paraphrase.

Step 6 If your instructor requests, prepare an entry for a works-cited list for each source.

Original Passage 1

Source: Page 18 of a three-page article in the October 15,2003, issue of Space Science magazine.
The title of the article is "Manned Mars Flight: Impossible Dream?" The author is PatIick
Clinton, a NASA physician.

A second major problem is maintaining astronauts' mental health. Being confined for long
periods of time in dark and hostile space undoubtedly produces anxiety. Loneliness and boredom
are other psychological concerns.
14
Notes

Your Paraphrase

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Original Passage 2

Source: Page 18 of the same article as in passage 1.

Finally, how can astronauts "let off steam" when interpersonal conflicts develop? Even best
friends can irritate each other when forced to spend weeks together in isolation. Space stations
are small, cramped, busy workplaces, and there is little privacy. Also, space exploration is
dangerous, which adds to the stress aboard a spaceship.

Notes

Your Paraphrase

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

USING PARAPHRASES AS SUPPORT

The purpose of learning to paraphrase is to be able to use paraphrases as supporting material in

your writing. As you read the following model, notice how a student in a media studies class
used a paraphrase of a passage from an online news article to support her idea.

15
 Original Passage

Souce: Paragraph 2 of an article written by Kivi Leroux in the online magazine E Magazine
titlaed ―Subliminal Messages: Primetime TV Programs Educate Viewers on the Environment.‖ It
appeared in the ―Currents‖ section of the July-August 1999 edition.

For 10 years, the Environmental Media Association (EMA) has been working to weave the
environment into prime-time television programming. Created by and for professinals in the
entertainment industry, EMA works with the starts in front of the cameras as well as the creative
staff behind them to include environmental themes in scripts, show environmental products on
sets, and make environmentally sound decisions in the studios.

Paraphrase

According to an article in E Magazine, environmental messages have been deliberately put into
prime-time television shows for the past decade. Environmental Media Association, an
organization of professionals in the entertainment business, encourages television actors, writers,
directors, and producers to promote environmentalism in three ways: by using environmental
issues in scripts, by using environmental products as props, and by making environmentally
conscious choices in studios (Leroux, par. 2)

Writing Topic

Television programming in the United States is often criticized for promoting the wrong values.
Do you agree or disagree with this criticism?

Completed Paragraph

Although it is sometimes true that television programming in the United states promotes the
wrong values, I do not entirely agree. Many educational television channels promote good
values. For example, the Discovery Channel, the History Channel, National Geographic, and
other similar channels educate the public about science, history, nature, and the environment.
Also, even prime-time television programming often provides a public service by spreading
public service messages. In fact, environmental messages have been deliberately put into prime-
time television shows for the past decade. Environmental Media Association, an organization of
professionals in the entertainment business, encourages television actors, writers, directors, and
producers to promote environmentalism in three ways: by using environmental issues in scripts,
by using environmental products as props, and by making environmentally conscious choices in
studios (Leroux, par. 2). Seeing the star of a prime-time television show recycling plastic bottles
or using an environmentally friendly product is more persuasive than almost any other type of
public service message. In short, television programs promote positive values in both direct and
indirect ways.

16
SUMMARIZING

Another way to use borrowed information from an outside source is to summarize it. What is the
difference between a paraphrase and a summary? When you retell a story that someone has told
you, you repeat the story in your own words. If your retelling is about the same length as the
original, it is a paraphrase. If you shorten the story-retelling only the most important points and
leaving out the details-it is a summary.

Original Passage (85 words)

Language is the main means of communication between peoples. But so many different
languages have eveloped that language has often been a barrier rather than an aid to
understanding among peoples. For many years, people have dreamed of setting up an
international universal language which all people could speak and understand. The arguments in
favor of a universal language are simple and obvious. If all peoples spoke the same tongue,
cultural and economic ties might be much closer, and good will might in crease between
countries (Kispert)
Paraphrase (63 words, about the same length as the original)

Humans communicate through language. Because there are so many different languages,
however, people around the world have a dl It time understanding one another. Some people
have wished for a universal international language that speakers all over the world could
understand. Their reasons are straightforward and clear. A universal language would build
cultural and economic bonds. It would also create better feelings among countries (Kispert).
Summary (28 words, much shorter)

People communicate through language; however, having different languages creates

communication barriers. A universal language could bring countries tohether culturally and
economically as well as increase good feelings among them (Kispert)

Writing Technique Questions

1. How many sentences are there in the Oliginal passage? In the paraphrase? In the summary?

2. Compare the paraphrase and the summary. What two details were left out of the summary?

Like paraphrasing, only in a more extended form, summarizing is also a way of monitoring your
understanding. It can tell you if you have really mastered the difficult chapter section you just
read. While you clearly can’t jot summaries in the margins of your texts—well, maybe very brief
ones—you can jot them into the pages of a notebook. Summarizing a chapter section will tell

17
you how well you have understood both the author’s general point and the specifi c details used
to explain it.

In addition to being a comprehension strategy and a way of anchoring information in memory,

summarizing is an essential skill to master if you want to succeed in college. Instructors assign
summaries for homework and use them as the basis for essay exams.

To get you off to a good start, here are some tips. The first seven apply to all kinds of summaries,
whether they are written for your own personal use or for an instructor’s assignment. The last
two apply mainly to summaries written for other people to read.

1. Mark your text before you summarize. To make sure you have thoroughly mastered the
author’s ideas before you try to summarize them, underline, mark, and annotate the page,
indicating what’s important and what’s not. As you learned earlier in this chapter, marking your
text can help solidify your understanding of the material. Thoroughly marking up the material
you plan on summarizing is also a good way of deciding which sentences or passages are
essential and which ones are not. Some people prepare for summary writing by penciling a line
through any sentences they consider nonessential.

2. Paraphrase the key point of each paragraph. Generally, how you annotate pages should vary
with the material. But if you are annotating and underlining in preparation for writing a
summary, then you should identify the key point of every paragraph and note the main idea in
the margins. When you are fi nished, go through your marginal list and put an asterisk or
checkmark next to the ideas essential to your summary.

3. Use the author’s main idea to guide your selection of details. If the main idea, or central point,
of the paragraph or chapter section you are summarizing identifies a set number of theories,
stages, studies, and so on—for example, ―Erik Erikson described four stages of psychosocial
development‖—then your summary needs to include one of each theory, stage, or study. Skip
one and you haven’t fully explained the overall main idea. Where you can abbreviate is in the
amount of time you spend describing each stage. Although the author might have given each
stage three sentences of description apiece, you might describe each one in a sentence. However,
if the central point is something like ―Adolescence is an especially turbulent time of life‖ and the
rest of the chapter section describes four or five ways in which adolescence is a time of conflict
and change, then it’s probably safe to include only two or three of the illustrations given. After
all, what makes adolescence so turbulent is, to some degree, general knowledge, even common
sense. You don’t need lots of examples to explain the point.

4. Look for underlying relationships. As you read, try to determine how the author connects ideas
as he or she moves from sentence to sentence. Is the author identifying the specifi c causes of
one event or comparing and contrasting opposing points of view on the same subject? Does he
trace a series of dates and events that preceded some major social change, or is she listing the
various solutions experts have proposed for a pressing problem?

18
5. Maintain relationships in your summary. If the author compares and contrasts Th omas Jeff
erson and Andrew Jackson to illustrate how differently each president viewed the issue of
government intervention in state politics, your summary should make the same overall point:
When it came to intervening in state politics, the two presidents differed. Your summary should
not treat each man individually as if two separate portraits of two famous presidents had been the
author’s original purpose, or intention. If the material you are reading is organized by a
comparison and contrast relationship, your summary should rely on the same organizational
pattern.

6. Get right to the point. Although textbook writers are more inclined than most to open with the
central, or key, point of a chapter section, they, too, frequently start with an introductory
sentence or two.

Read the original passage and the two summaries that follow it. Then answer these questions.

1. Which of the two is the better summary? Why?

2. Which summary contains an idea that was not in the original? Which sentence expresses this
added idea?

Original Passage

Source: The following passage is excerpted from a newspaper article written by Marc Lacey. It
appeared on page A3 of the New York Times on November 12, 2004. The title of the article is
"Using a New Language in Mrica to Save Dying Ones."

Swahili speakers wishing to use a "compyuta"-as computer is rendered in Swahili-have been out
of luck when it comes to communicating in their tongue. Computers, no matter how bulky their
hard drives or sophisticated their software packages, have not yet mastered Swahili or hundreds
of other indigenous African languages.

But that may soon change. Across the continent, linguists are working with experts in
information technology to make computers more accessible to Africans who happen not to know
English, French, or the other major languages that have been programmed into the world's
desktops. There are economic reasons for the outreach. Microsoft, which is working to
incorporate Swahili into Microsoft Windows, Microsoft Office, and other popular programs, sees

19
a market for its software among the roughly 100 million Swahili speakers in East Africa. The
same goes for Google, which last month launched www.google.co.ke. offering a Kenyan version
in Swahili of the popular search engine. But the campaign to Africanize cyberspace is not all
about the bottom line. There are hundreds of languages in Africa-some spoken only by a few
dozen elders-and they are dying out at an alarming rate. The continent's linguists see the
computers as one important way of saving them. UNESCO estimates that 90 percent of the
world's 6,000 languages are not represented on the Internet and that one language disappears
somewhere around the world every two weeks.

Summary A

People who speak Swahili who want to communicate using a "compyuta," which is the Swahili
word for computer, are unable to do so in their own language. It makes no difference that
computers have huge hard drives and sophisticated software. They cannot operate in Swahili or
other African languages, of which there are hundreds. Soon, however, they may be able to.
Linguists in Africa are working with information technology specialists to make computers
operable to Africans who do not know any of the languages currently used on the Internet.
Economics is bringing about this change. Microsoft sees a market for its software among Swahili
speakers in East Africa. Google now has a search engine for speakers of Swahili in Kenya. Other
software companies will probably soon develop products for African consumers. In addition to
economics, there is another reason for making the computer accessible to Africans. Hundreds of
African languages are dying out, and linguists view the computer as a way to save them.
According to UNESCO estimates, 90 percent of the world's 6,000 languages are not on the
Internet, and one language becomes extinct every day somewhere in the world. The hope is that
computers can help save them (Lacey).

Summary B

Many Africans who do not speak any of the major languages on the Internet have been unable to
use computers in their native languages. Computers cannot yet accommodate languages such as
Swahili. However, that situation may soon change. Linguists and computer experts are working
to develop computers that work in Swahili and other African languages. Economics is one reason
for doing so. Computer companies such as Microsoft and Google see a potentially huge market
for its products in Africa. Another important reason is to save languages that are in danger of
becoming extinct (Lacey).

Exercise for summarizing

Step 1 Read the original passage several times until you understand it fully. Look up any words
that you don't understand.
Step 2 Decide what the important ideas are. It helps to underline important ideas. It also helps to
take notes. Write down only a few words for each idea-not complete sentences.
Step 3 Write your summary from your notes. Don't look at the Original while you are writing.

20
Step 4 Check your summary against the original to make sure you have not changed the
meaning.
Step 5 Add an in-text citation at the end of the summary.

An Environmental Success Story

1 The cleanup of Ohio’s Cuyahoga River is one of the most significant successes in
environmental history. In the nineteen sixties, the river was so polluted it caught fi re several
times. In 1969, photographs were taken of the flaming river flowing through the city of
Cleveland. Highly publicized, the photos of the burning river ignited public outrage. That
outrage forced elected offi cials to enact laws limiting the discharge of industrial wastes into
river and sewage systems. City officials also allotted funds to upgrade sewage treatment
facilities. Today the river is cleaner, no longer flammable, and widely used by boaters and
anglers. This accomplishment illustrates the power of bottom-up pressure by citizens, who
prodded elected officials to transform a dangerously polluted river into a valuable public
resource. (Adapted from Miller and Spoolman, Sustaining the Earth, p. 176.)

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

2. Toxic Agents

1 There are three major types of potentially toxic agents. Mutagens are chemicals or forms of
radiation that cause or increase the frequency of mutations, or changes, in the DNA molecules
found in cells. Most mutations cause no harm but some can lead to cancers and other disorders.
For example, nitrous acid, formed by the digestion of nitrite preservatives in foods, can cause
mutations linked to increases in stomach cancer in people who consume large amounts of
processed foods. 2 Teratogens are chemicals that cause harm or birth defects to a fetus or an
embryo. Ethyl alcohol is a teratogen. Drinking during pregnancy can lead to off spring with low
birth weight and a number of physical, developmental, behavioral, and mental problems. Other
teratogens are arsenic, benzene, chlorine, chloroform, chromium, DDT, lead, mercury, PCBs,
thalidomide, and vinyl chloride.

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

21
PATTERNS OF TEXT ORGANIZATION

Chronological Order : Chronos is a Greek word meaning time. Chronological order is a way of
organizing ideas in the order of their occurrence in time. Chronological order has all sorts of
uses. We use it to tell stories, to relate historical events, and to write biographies and
autobiographies. We also use it to explain processes and procedures. For example, we would use
chronological order to explain how to take a photograph, how to make a piece of pottery, how to
perform a chemistry experiment, or how to set up an accounting system. Such essays are called
"how to" essays, or process essays.

A thesis statement for a process essay in some way indicates the time order. Expressions such as
the process of, the procedure for, plan, develop, evolve, five stages, and several phases indicate
that time order will be used. Here are some examples:

Follow these steps to make a beautiful ceramic vase for your home.
The field of genetic engineering has developed rapidly in the past 10 years.
A child learns to share over a period of time.
Heating water by solar radiation is a simple process.

Sometimes the thesis statement tells the number of steps in the process. For example: The
process of heating water by solar radiation involves three main steps.

The thesis statement may even name the steps. The main steps in the process of heating water by
solar radiation are (1) trapping the sun's energy, (2) heating and storing the hot water, and (3)
distributing the hot water to its points of use.

Step 1 Check (√) the thesis statements that suggest a chronological order. Put a double check
(√√) next to the thesis statements that suggest the essay will describe a process or procedure.

22
Step 2 In the sentences you have checked, circle the word or words that indicate chronological
order.

The first one has been done for you as an example.

----- 1. A child learns to handle responsibility in a series of small~

------2. A person's intelligence is the product of both heredityl and environment.

------3. There are two main reasons I believe women in the army should not be allowed in a war
zone along with men.

------4. The procedure for submitting expense reports has recently changed.

------5. The tensions that led to last year's student riots had been developing for several years.

------6. North American directness often conflicts with Asian modesty.

------7. The two busiest travel days in the United States are the-Wednesday before and the
Sunday after Thanksgiving.

------8. Cultures celebrate the end of winter and the arrival of spring in different ways.

------9. The preparation of the poisonous puffer fish for eating is a delicate process that is not for
amateur chefs.

__ 10. The life cycle of the monarch butterfly is an interesting phenomenon.

B. Write a thesis statement for a process essay on five of the following topics. Note: You may
want to use one of these topics for your own essay at the end of the chapter.

1. How to take a good photograph

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

2. How to research a topic for an essay

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

3. How diamonds are processed from a diamond mine to a diamond ring

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

4. How to perform a particular chemistry or physics experiment

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

23
 5. How to transplant a tree

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

6. How a hybrid automobile works

7. How to shop successfully on Tokopedia

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

8. How to get an A (or an F) in a class

Cause and Effect

Another common pattern of essay organization is called cause and effect. In a cause/effect essay,
you discuss the causes (reasons) for something, the effects (results), or both causes and effects.
You might use cause/effect organization to answer typical test questions such as these:

 Explain the decline in reading ability among schoolchildren.

 Discuss the effects of global warming on the environment.
 Discuss NAFTA1 and its effects on the U.S. economy.

You can organize a cause/effect essay in two main ways: "block" organization and "chain"
organization. In block organization, you first discuss all the causes as a block (in one, two, three,
or more paragraphs, depending on the number of causes). Then you discuss all the effects
together as a block. You can discuss either causes or effects first. Of course, you can also discuss
only causes or only effects.

In block organization, a short paragraph often separates one major section from another major
section. This paragraph is called a transition paragraph. Its purpose is to conclude one section
and introduce another section. You do not always have to write a transition paragraph, but it is
helpful when your topic is long and complex.For example, an essay about global warming might
include several paragraphs about the causes and several paragraphs about the effects, with a
transition paragraph between the two blocks.

Essays that discuss mainly (or only) causes or mainly (or only) effects might have a transition
paragraph between blocks of different kinds of causes or between blocks of different kinds of
effects. For example, you might use a transition paragraph to separate the personal effects of our
increased life expectancy from its many effects on the economy. In short, a block-style
cause/effect essay could have many different patterns.

24
Some possibilities are shown below.

EXERCISE

Every year when it gets cold, people get sick. They get headaches, fevers and runny noses, and
they sneeze, cough and even throw up. All this discomfort is caused by one or another seasonal
flu, which spreads fast and far because of the weather.

When it is cold, people stay indoors more than when it is warm. They also keep their doors and
windows closed. The air in their homes, classrooms and offices becomes less fresh and more full
of germs like the flu virus. If someone in the room has the flu and is coughing or sneezing, the
germs in their throat and nose spread quickly through the air in the room and are breathed in by
other people in the room. These people also become sick and carry the virus to other homes,
classrooms and offices where the windows and doors are closed.

Students and workers who have the flu are often encouraged to stay home until they are well so
that fewer people in their classrooms and offices will get sick. People should also open their
doors and windows once or twice a day to let the germ-filled air out and the germ-free air in. The
flu will always be with us, but we can control it a little. (213)

Writing Technique Questions

1. Is the topic of this essay primarily the causes or the effects of flu?
2. Which paragraph(s) discuss(es) the causes?
3. Which paragraph(s) discuss(es) the effects?

25
4. What two subtopics are named in the thesis statement?
5. Which paragraph(s) discuss(es) the first subtopic?
6. Which paragraph(s) discuss(es) the second subtopic?
7. Which pattern (A, B, C, or D) does the model follow?

Chain Organization

The other organizational pattern you can use to write about causes and effects is chain
organization. In this pattern, causes and effects are linked to each other in a chain. One event
causes a second event, which in turn causes a third event, which in turn causes a fourth event,
and so on. Each new cause and its effect are links in a chain. Depending on the complexity of the
ideas in each link, you can devote an entire paragraph to one lillic, or you may include several
links in one paragraph, or you may desclibe the entire chain in one paragraph. Chain
organization usually works better than block organization when the causes and effects are too
closely linked to be separated. Notice the chain pattern in the following diagram.

26
Writing Technique Questions

1. Which paragraph contains the chain of causes and effects?

2. What is the effect of decreased sunlight in winter?
3. What other change results from a decrease in the amount of sunlight?
4. What is the final result?

The type of cause/effect organization you choose depends on your topic.

27
• A chain pattern is usually easier if the causes and effects are very closely interrelated. You
might use a chain pattern to write about the causes of a particular disease or phenomenon in
nature such as a thunderstorm or a rainbow.

• The block pattern is usually easier with larger, complex topics such as global warming or
homelessness.

• Sometimes you will want to use a combination of block and chain organization.

Exercise: Recognizing cause signal words

28
29
EXERCISE:

Step 1 Underline the part of the sentence that states an effect.

Step 2 Circle the word or words that introduce the effect.
Step 3 Be able to discuss the use of each word or phrase that you have circled. What kind of
grammatical structure follows each one? How is the sentence punctuated?

1. The performance of electric cars is inferior to the performance of cars with conventional
internal combustion engines; consequently, some improvements must be made in them if they
are to become popular.
2. However, electric cars are reliable, economical, and nonpolluting; therefore, the government is
spending millions of dollars to improve their technology.
3. Electric cars use relatively inexpensive electricity for power; thus, they cost less to operate
than cars that use gasoline.
4. The cost of gasoline is rising; as a result, some automobile manufacturers have begun to
produce electric models.
5. His patient diplomacy resulted in the successful negotiation of a peace treaty.

30
6. It has been documented that lack of sleep affects a person's ability to think clearly.
7. Cold water is denser than warm water and will therefore sink.
8. Freshwater is less dense than salt water, so it tends to float on the surface of a body of salt
water.
9. Air pollution creates holes in the protective ozone layer of the stratosphere, thereby allowing
harmful ultraviolet radiation to reach Earth's surface.
10. The cause of the patient's rapid recovery was the excellent care he received from his doctor.

COMPARISON/CONTRAST ESSAY

In a comparison/contrast essay, you explain the similarities and the differences between two
items. Comparison and contrast is a very common pattern in most academic fields. It is also a
common type of essay test question. You might encounter questions such as these:
Compare the forms of government of Great Britain and the United States.
Compare the characters of Uncle Melik and his nephew in William Saroyan's short story "The
Pomegranate Trees."

As you read the following model essay, study its organization.

Compare and Contrast Paragraph Example

Basketball and Soccer

Basketball and soccer are sports with many similarities and differences. Both sports are fun to
play and each one has many beneficial qualities. Here are some of the similarities and differences
with basketball and soccer.

Basketball and soccer are played with a round ball. They both provide a ton of cardiovascular
exercise such as running; so if you want to get in shape these are the sports to play. A referee
judges each game. When a player breaks the rules he or she is called for a foul. A soccer player
receives a red or yellow card and a basketball player is called for a foul. Finally a score is kept in
each game. The team with the highest score wins.

Even though basketball and soccer are similar, differences do exist. Even though an athlete
dribbles the ball in both sports, a basketball player uses his hands and a soccer player uses his
feet. Usually soccer is played outside on a large field and basketball is played indoor on a court
made out of wood. Basketball is played with 5 players and soccer has 11. Lastly, basketball has
four quarters and soccer has two halves.

In conclusion both sports are fun and exciting to play. Each one offers exercise and
competitiveness. Also, they are unique in their own way.

31
Writing Technique Questions

1. In which paragraph(s) are the similaIities discussed?

2. In which paragraph(s) are the differences discussed?

The first key to writing a successful comparison/contrast essay is to organize it carefully.

One way to organize a comparison/contrast essay is to use point-by-point organization. Suppose,

for example, that you want to compare two jobs. First, make a list of factors that are important to
you: salary, benefits, opportunities for advancement, workplace atmosphere, commuting distance
from your home, and so on. Each factor, or point of comparison, is like a subtopic in a logical
division essay.

In your essay, each point of comparison becomes the topic of a paragraph. You can put the
paragraphs in any order you wish-perhaps in the order of their importance to you personally.

I. Introduction
Thesis statement: One way to decide between two job offers is to compare them on
important points
II. Body
A. Salary
B. Benefits
C. Opportunities for advancement
D. Workplace atmosphere
E. Commuting distance from home
III. Conclusion

32
The other way to organize a comparison/contrast essay is to arrange all the similarities together
in a block and all the differences together in a block. You could discuss either the similarities
first or the differences first. You often insert a transition paragraph or transition sentence
between the two blocks.

I. Introduction

Thesis statement: One way to decide between two job offers is to compare them on
important points
II. Body
A. Similarities
1. Benefits
2. Commute distance from home
B. Differences
1. Salary
2. Opportunity for Advancement
3. Workplace atmosphere
III. Conclusion

The number of paragraphs in each block depends on the topic. For some topics, you may write
about all the similarities in a single paragraph; for other topics, you may need to discuss each
similarity in a separate paragraph. The same is true for differences. Of course, some topics may
have one paragraph of similarities and several paragraphs of differences, or vice versa.

Complete the outline of the model essay "Basketball and Soccer: Different but Alike." Follow
the above pattern.

33
Add comparison signal words to connect the following comparisons. The items contain both
sentences and shOlt phrases. You should write one complete new sentence for each item and use
different comparison signal words in each. The first one has been done for you as an example.

1. The United States has a democratic form of govemment. Great Britain has a democratic form
of govemment.

The United states has a democratic form of government. just as Great Britain does.

2. The United States operates under a two-party system. Great Blitain operates under a two-party
system.

34
3. The British Parliament has two separate houses, the House of Commons and the House of
Lords. The United States Congress has two separate houses, the Senate and the House of
Representatives.

EXERCISE

Write five sentences of your own, compaRing two things with which you are familiar. Use a
different comparison signal in each sentence.

Contrast signal words fall into two main groups according to their meaning. The words in the
first group show a relationship that is called concession. The words in the second group show an
opposition relationship.

Contrast Signal Word!;: Concession (Unexpected Result) Concession signal words indicate that
the information in one clause is not the result you expect from the information given in the other
clause.

My failing the exam is not the result you might expect from the information in the first clause: I
studied all night.

35
Contrast Signal Words: Direct Opposition

The second group of contrast signal words shows that two things are direct opposites. With direct
opposites, the signal word can introduce either piece of information. I am short, whereas my
brother is tall. OR My brother is tall, whereas I am short.

36
Add contrast signal words to connect the following items. The items contain both complete
sentences and short phrases. You should write one complete new sentence for each item, and use
a different contrast signal in each.

The first one has been done for you as an example.

1. The government of the United States/the government of Great Britain!dissimilar in several

aspects

The governments of the United states and Great Britain are dissimilar in several
aspects.

2. The chief executive in Great Britain is called the prime minister. The chief executive in the
United States is called the president.

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

3. In the United States, the president fulfills the functions of both political leader and head of
state. These two functions are separate in Great Britain.

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
4. In other words, Great Britain has both a monarch and a prime minister. The United States has
only a president.

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
5. The president of the United States may be of a different political party than the majority of
Congress. The British prime minister is the head of the political party that has the most seats in
Parliament.

Write five sentences of your own, contrasting two things with which you are familiar. Use a
different contrast signal in each sentence.

37
COMPETENCY ASSESSMENT

Write a one-paragraph summary based on the competency map that you developed as
homework. Make sure you include a paraphrase, a summary and pay extra attention to the
organization of your paragraph. To avoid plagiarism use documentation of source.

38