Dye Penetrant Inspection (DPI) 

– Liquid Penetrant Inspection (LPI) – Liquid

Penetrant Testing (PT)

Dye Penetrant Inspection (DPI), also called Liquid Penetrant Inspection (LPI) or
Liquid Penetrant Testing (PT), is a widely applied and low-cost inspection method
used to locate surface-breaking defects in all non-porous materials (metals, plastics,
or ceramics). For applications where a greater sensitivity to smaller defects is
required, the fluorescent penetrant method is preferred.
The Penetrant may be applied to all non-ferrous materials and ferrous materials, but for
inspection of ferrous components magnetic-particle inspection may be preferred for
its subsurface detection capability.
Commonly, DPI is used to detect cracks, surface porosity, lack of penetration in
welds and defects resulting from in-service conditions (e.g. fatigue cracks of
components or welds) in castings, forgings, and welding surface defects.

.
1. Section with a normally not visible surface-breaking crack.

2. Penetrant is applied to the surface.

3. Excess Penetrant is removed.

4. Developer is applied, rendering the crack visible.

  .
  .
. 
The effectiveness of this method relies on many factors including the training/skill of
the technician, how clean the part is, and the procedure that is being used to perform
the test. DPI is a relatively cost effective method, considering the amount of training
required, and the cost of materials used. DPI can be used in both manufacturing and
in-service inspections. As with other inspection methods, DPI requires that a known
defect standard has been defined using standard parameters. Thus indications can
be compared to with defined allowable limits.
The basic steps are:

1. Clean the part 

2. Apply the Penetrant and allow dwelling
3. Remove excess Penetrant.
4. Apply a developer and allow developing
5. Read the part for indications.
6. Clean the part.

Dye penetrant inspection (DPI), also called liquid penetrant

inspection (LPI) or penetrant testing (PT), is a widely applied and low-cost
inspection method used to locate surface-breaking defects in all non-
porous materials (metals, plastics, or ceramics). The penetrant may be
applied to all non-ferrous materials and ferrous materials, although for ferrous
components magnetic-particle inspection is often used instead for its
subsurface detection capability. LPI is used to detect casting, forging and
welding surface defects such as hairline cracks, surface porosity, leaks in new
products, and fatigue cracks on in-service components.

Principles[edit]
DPI is based upon capillary action, where low surface tension fluid penetrates
into clean and dry surface-breaking discontinuities. Penetrant may be applied
to the test component by dipping, spraying, or brushing. After adequate
penetration time has been allowed, the excess penetrant is removed and a
developer is applied. The developer helps to draw penetrant out of the flaw so
that an invisible indication becomes visible to the inspector. Inspection is
performed under ultraviolet or white light, depending on the type of dye used
- fluorescent or nonfluorescent (visible)

Inspection steps[edit]
Below are the main steps of Liquid Penetrant Inspection:
1. Pre-cleaning:
The test surface is cleaned to remove any dirt, paint, oil, grease or any loose
scale that could either keep penetrant out of a defect, or cause irrelevant or
false indications. Cleaning methods may include solvents, alkaline cleaning
steps, vapor degreasing, or media blasting. The end goal of this step is a
clean surface where any defects present are open to the surface, dry, and free
of contamination. Note that if media blasting is used, it may "work over" small
discontinuities in the part, and an etching bath is recommended as a post-
blasting treatment.
2. Application of Penetrant:
The penetrant is then applied to the surface of the item being tested. The
penetrant is allowed "dwell time" to soak into any flaws (generally 5 to 30
minutes). The dwell time mainly depends upon the penetrant being used,
material being tested and the size of flaws sought. As expected, smaller flaws
require a longer penetration time. Due to their incompatible nature one must
be careful not to apply solvent-based penetrant to a surface which is to be
inspected with a water-washable penetrant.
3. Excess Penetrant Removal:
The excess penetrant is then removed from the surface. The removal method
is controlled by the type of penetrant used. Water-washable, solvent-
removable, lipophilic post-emulsifiable, or hydrophilic post-emulsifiable are the
common choices. Emulsifiersrepresent the highest sensitivity level, and
chemically interact with the oily penetrant to make it removable with a water
spray. When using solvent remover and lint-free cloth it is important to not
spray the solvent on the test surface directly, because this can remove the
penetrant from the flaws. If excess penetrant is not properly removed, once
the developer is applied, it may leave a background in the developed area that
can mask indications or defects. In addition, this may also produce false
indications severely hindering your ability to do a proper inspection. Also, the
removal of excessive penetrant is done towards one direction either vertically
or horizontally as the case may be.
4. Application of Developer:
After excess penetrant has been removed, a white developer is applied to the
sample. Several developer types are available, including: non-aqueous wet
developer, dry powder, water-suspendable, and water-soluble. Choice of
developer is governed by penetrant compatibility (one can't use water-soluble
or -suspendable developer with water-washable penetrant), and by inspection
conditions. When using non-aqueous wet developer (NAWD) or dry powder,
the sample must be dried prior to application, while soluble and suspendable
developers are applied with the part still wet from the previous step. NAWD is
commercially available in aerosol spray cans, and may
employ acetone, isopropyl alcohol, or a propellant that is a combination of the
two. Developer should form a semi-transparent, even coating on the surface.
The developer draws penetrant from defects out onto the surface to form a
visible indication, commonly known as bleed-out. Any areas that bleed out can
indicate the location, orientation and possible types of defects on the surface.
Interpreting the results and characterizing defects from the indications found
may require some training and/or experience [the indication size is not the
actual size of the defect].
5. Inspection:
The inspector will use visible light with adequate intensity (100 foot-candles or
1100 lux is typical) for visible dye penetrant. Ultraviolet (UV-A) radiation of
adequate intensity (1,000 micro-watts per centimeter squared is common),
along with low ambient light levels (less than 2 foot-candles) for fluorescent
penetrant examinations. Inspection of the test surface should take place after
10- to 30-minute development time, depends of product kind. This time delay
allows the blotting action to occur. The inspector may observe the sample for
indication formation when using visible dye. It is also good practice to observe
indications as they form because the characteristics of the bleed out are a
significant part of interpretation characterization of flaws.
6. Post Cleaning:
The test surface is often cleaned after inspection and recording of defects,
especially if post-inspection coating processes are scheduled.

Advantages and disadvantages[edit]

The main advantages of DPI are the speed of the test and the low cost.
Disadvantages include the detection of only surface flaws, skin irritation, and
the inspection should be on a smooth clean surface where excessive
penetrant can be removed prior to being developed. Conducting the test on
rough surfaces, such-as "as-welded" welds, will make it difficult to remove any
excessive penetrant and could result in false indications. Water-washable
penetrant should be considered here if no other option is available. Also, on
certain surfaces a great enough color contrast cannot be achieved or the dye
will stain the workpiece.[1]
Limited training is required for the operator — although experience is quite
valuable. Proper cleaning is necessary to assure that surface contaminants
have been removed and any defects present are clean and dry. Some
cleaning methods have been shown to be detrimental to test sensitivity, so
acid etching to remove metal smearing and re-open the defect may be
necessary.[2]

Magnetic particle Inspection (MPI) is a non-destructive testing (NDT)

process for detecting surface and slightly subsurface discontinuities
in ferromagnetic materials such as iron, nickel, cobalt, and some of
their alloys. The process puts a magnetic field into the part. The piece can be
magnetized by direct or indirect magnetization. Direct magnetization occurs
when the electric current is passed through the test object and a magnetic
field is formed in the material. Indirect magnetization occurs when no electric
current is passed through the test object, but a magnetic field is applied from
an outside source. The magnetic lines of force are perpendicular to the
direction of the electric current, which may be either alternating current (AC) or
some form of direct current (DC) (rectified AC).

A technician performs MPI on a pipeline to check for stress corrosion cracking using

what is known as the "black and white" method. No indications of cracking appear in this
picture; the only marks are the "footprints" of the magnetic yoke and drip marks.
A close-up of the surface of a (different) pipeline showing indications of stress corrosion
cracking (two clusters of small black lines) revealed by magnetic particle inspection.
Cracks that would normally have been invisible are detectable due to the magnetic
particles clustering at the crack openings. The scale at the bottom is numbered in
centimetres.

The presence of a surface or subsurface discontinuity in the material allows

the magnetic flux to leak, since air cannot support as much magnetic field per
unit volume as metals. Ferrous particles are then applied to the part. The
particles may be dry or in a wet suspension. If an area of flux leakage is
present, the particles will be attracted to this area. The particles will build up at
the area of leakage and form what is known as an indication. The indication
can then be evaluated to determine what it is, what may have caused it, and
what action should be taken, if any.

Types of electrical currents used[edit]

There are several types of electrical currents used in magnetic particle
inspection. For a proper current to be selected one needs to consider the part
geometry, material, the type of discontinuity one is seeking, and how far the
magnetic field needs to penetrate into the part.

 Alternating current (AC) is commonly used to detect surface

discontinuities. Using AC to detect subsurface discontinuities is limited due
to what is known as the skin effect, where the current runs along the
surface of the part. Because the current alternates in polarity at 50 to 60
cycles per second it does not penetrate much past the surface of the test
object. This means the magnetic domains will only be aligned equal to the
distance AC current penetration into the part. The frequency of the
alternating current determines how deep the penetration.
 Full wave DC [clarification needed  -  discussion] (FWDC) is used to detect subsurface
discontinuities where AC can not penetrate deep enough to magnetize the
part at the depth needed. The amount of magnetic penetration depends on
the amount of current through the part.[1] DC is also limited on very large
cross-sectional parts in terms of how effectively it will magnetize the part.
 Half wave DC (HWDC, pulsating DC) works similar to full wave DC, but
allows for detection of surface breaking indications and has more magnetic
penetration into the part than FWDC. HWDC is advantageous for
inspection process as it actually helps move the magnetic particles during
the bathing of the test object. The aid in particle mobility is caused by the
half-wave pulsating current waveform. In a typical mag pulse of 0.5
seconds there are 15 pulses of current using HWDC. This gives the
particle more of an opportunity to come in contact with areas of magnetic
flux leakage.
Each method of magnetizing has its pros and cons. AC is generally the best
for discontinuities on the surface, while some form of DC is better for
subsurface defects.

Equipment[edit]
A wet horizontal MPI machine with a 36 in (910 mm) coil

Using a similar machine, a U.S. Navy technician sprays magnetic particles on a test part
under ultraviolet light.

An automatic wet horizontal MPI machine with an external power supply, conveyor, and
demagnetizing system. It is used to inspect engine cranks.

 A wet horizontal MPI machine is the most commonly used mass-

production inspection machine. The machine has a head and tail stock
where the part is placed to magnetize it. In between the head and tail stock
is typically an induction coil, which is used to change the orientation of the
magnetic field by 90° from the head stock. Most of the equipment is built
for a specific application.
 Mobile power packs are custom-built magnetizing power supplies used
in wire wrapping applications.
 Magnetic yoke is a hand-held device that induces a magnetic field
between two poles. Common applications are for outdoor use, remote
locations, and weld inspection. The draw back of magnetic yokes is that
they only induce a magnetic field between the poles, so large-scale
inspections using the device can be time-consuming. For proper inspection
the yoke needs to be rotated 90 degrees for every inspection area to
detect horizontal and vertical discontinuities. Subsurface detection using a
yoke is limited. These systems used dry magnetic powders, wet powders,
or aerosols.

Demagnetizing parts[edit]
After the part has been magnetized it needs to be demagnetized. This
requires special equipment that works the opposite way of the magnetizing
equipment. The magnetization is normally done with a high current pulse that
reaches a peak current very quickly and instantaneously turns off leaving the
part magnetized. To demagnetize a part, the current or magnetic field needed
has to be equal to or greater than the current or magnetic field used to
magnetize the part. The current or magnetic field is then slowly reduced to
zero, leaving the part demagnetized.

 AC demagnetizing
  Pull-through AC demagnetizing coils: seen in the figure to the
right are AC powered devices that generate a high magnetic field where
the part is slowly pulled through by hand or on a conveyor. The act of
pulling the part through and away from the coil's magnetic field slows
drops the magnetic field in the part. Note that many AC demagnetizing
coils have power cycles of several seconds so the part must be passed
through the coil and be several feet (meters) away before the
demagnetizing cycle finishes or the part will have residual
magnetization.
 AC decaying demagnetizing: this is built into most single phase
MPI equipment. During the process the part is subjected to an equal or
greater AC current, after which the current is reduced over a fixed
period of time (typically 18 seconds) until zero output current is
reached. As AC is alternating from a positive to a negative polarity this
will leave the magnetic domains of the part randomized.
 AC demag does have significant limitations on its ability to demag
a part depending on the geometry and the alloys used.
 Reversing full wave DC demagnetizing: this is a demagnetizing method
that must be built into the machine during manufacturing. It is similar to AC
decaying except the DC current is stopped at intervals of half a second,
during which the current is reduced by a quantity and its direction is
reversed. Then current is passed through the part again. The process of
stopping, reducing and reversing the current will leave the magnetic
domains randomized. This process is continued until zero current is
passed through the part. The normal reversing DC demag cycle on
modern equipment should be 18 seconds or longer. This method of demag
was developed to overcome the limitations presented by the AC demag
method where part geometry and certain alloys prevented the AC demag
method from working.
 Halfwave DC demagnetizing (HWDC): this process is identical to full-
wave DC demagnetization, except the waveform is half-wave. This method
of demagnetization is new to the industry and only available from a single
manufacturer. It was developed to be a cost-effective method to
demagnetize without needing a full-wave DC bridge design power supply.
This method is only found on single-phase AC/HWDC power supplies.
HWDC demagnetization is just as effective as full-wave DC, without the
extra cost and added complexity. Of course, other limitations apply due to
inductive losses when using HWDC waveform on large-diameter parts.
Also, HWDC effectiveness is limited past 410 mm (16 in) diameter using a
12-volt power supply.

Magnetic particle powder[edit]

A common particle used to detect cracks is iron oxide, for both dry and wet
systems.
 Wet system particle range in size from less than 0.5 micrometres to 10
micrometres for use with water or oil carriers. Particles used in wet
systems have pigments applied that fluoresce at 365 nm (ultraviolet A)
requiring 1000 µW/cm2 (10 W/m2) at the surface of the part for proper
inspection. If the particles do not have the correct light applied in
a darkroom the particles cannot be detected/seen. It is industry practice to
use UV goggles/glasses to filter the UV light and amplify the visible light
spectrum (normally green and yellow) created by the fluorescing particles.
Green and yellow fluorescence was chosen, because the human eye
reacts best to these colors. It is often called "Magnaglo", after a
trademarked name for this process.[2]
After applying wet magnetic particles, a U.S. navy technician examines a bolt for cracks
under ultraviolet light.

 Dry particle powders range in size from 5 to 170 micrometres, designed

to be seen in white light conditions. The particles are not designed to be
used in wet environments. Dry powders are normally applied using hand
operated air powder applicators.
 Aerosol applied particles are similar to wet systems, sold in premixed
aerosol cans similar to hair spray.
Magnetic particle carriers[edit]
It is common industry practice to use specifically designed oil and water-based
carriers for magnetic particles. Deodorized kerosene and mineral spirits have
not been commonly used in the industry for 40 years. It is dangerous to use
kerosene or mineral spirits as a carrier due to their low flash points, and
inhalation of fumes by the operators.

Inspection[edit]
The following are general steps for inspecting on a wet horizontal machine:

1. Part is cleaned of oil and other contaminants.

2. Necessary calculations done to know the amount of current required to
magnetize the part. Refer ASTM E1444/E1444M for formulas.
3. The magnetizing pulse is applied for 0.5 seconds, during which the
operator washes the part with the particle, stopping before the magnetic
pulse is completed. Failure to stop prior to end of the magnetic pulse
will wash away indications.
4. UV light is applied while the operator looks for indications of defects that
are 0 to ±45 degrees from path the current flowed through the part.
Indications only appear 45 to 90 degrees of the magnetic field applied.
The easiest way to quickly figure out which way the magnetic field is
running is grab the part with either hand between the head stocks
laying your thumb against the part (do not wrap your thumb around the
part) this is called either left or right thumb rule or right hand grip rule.
 The direction the thumb points tell us the direction current is flowing,
the magnetic field will be running 90 degrees from the current path. On
complex geometry, like a crankshaft, the operator needs to visualize
the changing direction of the current and magnetic field created. The
current starts at 0 degrees then 45 degrees to 90 degree back to 45
degrees to 0 then -45 to -90 to -45 to 0 and this is repeated for
each crankpin. Thus, it can be time consuming to find indications that
are only 45 to 90 degrees from the magnetic field.
5. The part is either accepted or rejected, based on pre-defined criteria.
6. The part is demagnetized.
7. Depending on requirements, the orientation of the magnetic field may
need to be changed 90 degrees to inspect for indications that cannot be
detected from steps 3 to 5. The most common way to change magnetic
field orientation is to use a "coil shot". In Fig 1 a 36 inch coil can be
seen then steps 4, 5, and 6 are repeated.