CHAPTER 5

Science Literacy
Involves the comprehension not just of basic concepts, but just as important it requires
comprehension of the importance of “falsifiability” of scientific theories and hypotheses,
the knowledge that scientific inquiry is value-laden, and an understanding of the
problem-solving nature of scientific inquiry. Science literacy is important because it
provides a context for addressing societal problems, and because a science-literate
populace can better cope with many of its problems and make intelligent and informed
decisions that will affect the quality of their lives and those of their children.

Science-education strategies should focus on the more general problem of increasing the
science literacy of the general public rather than the recruitment of future scientists. This
approach should foster interdisciplinary cooperation and reduce competition for limited
resources.

Earth-science literacy has a pivotal role in addressing critical environmental problems,

including the influence of explosive population growth on the consumption and depletion
of natural resources and the avoidance of natural hazards.

Things To Consider
 Scientific literacy starts in early childhood and continues through elementary
school. Scientific knowledge is necessary to fully participate in human culture and
democracy—especially as it becomes more technological. The future of our nation depends
on a scientifically literate public.The new vision for science education emphasizes the need
for consistent science instruction throughout a student’s academic career. Scientific literacy is
a developmental process that takes years of concerted effort to cultivate.
 Science learning takes significant time—but that time is not being provided. A recent
study shows that science instructional time is decreasing in elementary school. Only 20% of
K-3 students and 35% of students in grades 4-6 have access to daily science instruction. (See
this report on teachers’ practices around science instruction).
 Students are ready to reason about science in early childhood. Children enter elementary
school with reasoning skills and perceptions of the natural world that provide a sound basis
for science learning. A recent report calls for greater attention to monitoring instructional
time in elementary science. Multidisciplinary, long-term science projects are often easier to
do with students in elementary school years. Elementary science can promote narrow views
of how science works. Efforts should be made to broaden what counts as science and
engineering.
Attending to Equity
 Start science instruction early. Participation in quality science instruction from a young age
helps students develop favorable attitudes towards science. To make science accessible to
“all” start with 3D science investigations in preschool and continue with them through
elementary school and beyond.
 Focus instruction on personal and cultural relevance. Build on the interests, experiences,
and desired futures of learners and their communities. This heightens the relevance of
science.
 Leverage students’ existing design knowledge. Many elementary school children have
engineering design-related hobbies that can be leveraged as they learn science. Engineering
design is a great entry-point for many students.

Recommended Actions You Can Take

 Engage in cross-subject integration. There are significant overlaps between the new vision
for K-12 science education. Importantly, allowing for an unprecedented degree of cross-
subject teacher learning and sharing. Reading, writing, and mathematical analysis should be
substantial portions of science investigations.
 Leverage and cultivate student’s wonder about the natural world. Students in elementary
school are deeply interested in science, and rate it higher than any other subject. Leverage
that interest to cultivate a sense of curiosity and wonderment about how things work as
students engage in science investigations.
 Help students see how contemporary science relates to careers and endeavors in the
world. Students identify with science when they see how it can be used to improve
conditions in the world. Go on fieldtrips to view ‘science in action.’ Explore video
documentaries. Bring in STEM experts. This can support the development of student’s
scientific literacy and progress towards STEM-related careers.

The Learning Cycle in Elementary Science

Hands-on activity is important in science. As students observe, measure, and manipulate, they are exploring
content as well as the very nature of science. Yet these hands-on investigations don’t always equate with deep,
meaningful, and correct understanding of scientific concepts. In many cases, students will interpret an activity
in a way that strengthens misconceptions, rather than corrects them.

How can teachers ensure that hands-on science leads to real learning? One effective way is through the
implementation of the learning cycle.

WHAT IS THE LEARNING CYCLE?

The learning cycle incorporates hands-on activity, reading science text, directed discussion, and problem
solving. By alternating hands-on and minds-on activities, teachers can ensure that students receive needed
guidance as they develop conceptual understanding. In general, the learning cycle can be broken into three
phases:

1. Exploration: Students are engaged through firsthand experiences and investigations.

2. Concept Introduction: Students build ideas through text and guided discussions.
3. Concept Application: Students use ideas to solve new problems.
Since the learning cycle was introduced in 1967, many variations have been created. One popular version, the
5-E model, uses the following sequence:

1. Engage: The teacher uses an object, event, or question to spark student interest in the topic.
2. Explore: Students conduct firsthand experiences and investigations.
3. Explain: Students read, participate in guided discussions, and explain their understanding.
4. Elaborate: Activities allow students to apply concepts or to extend their thinking.
5. Evaluate: The teacher assesses knowledge, skills, and abilities and students reflect on their
understanding.
Some explain the 5-E model as four sequential steps, with the fifth E (Evaluate) occurring throughout the
cycle.

Related models range from three to seven “e-word” phases, but all involve hands-on activity, directed
discussions, and opportunities to solve problems and apply new concepts.

WHY IS IT A CYCLE?
The “cycle” in learning cycle refers to more than the alternating hands-on and minds-on experiences. Instead,
the sequence is meant to lead back to the beginning, with Elaboration and Evaluation flowing back into
Engagement and Exploration. Too many times, students (and teachers) view learning as sequential steps with a
clearly defined start and finish. The learning cycle mimics the ongoing nature of learning – and of science.

WHY USE A LEARNING CYCLE?

Alternating hands-on activities with directed discussions has been found to increase achievement and retention.
Learning cycles also lend themselves to inquiry-based instruction, in which students actively investigate the
answer to a question they do not know the answer to.

HOW CAN I USE A LEARNING CYCLE?

Using a learning cycle to plan and select lessons doesn’t have to be difficult. Many existing lessons and
activities can be adapted to fit within the learning cycle or to promote inquiry-based learning. Several of the
resources listed at the end of this article provide suggestions and guidance for teachers looking to use learning
cycles in their instruction.

Learning Cycle
It is not hard to learn more. What is hard, is to unlearn when you discover yourself wrong. 
 Martin H. Fischer

About this teacher move

A Learning Cycle lesson can be used for any content area in which the goal is to create a
motivational learning context in which students are actively engaged in exploring, discussing,
and synthesizing information. The Learning Cycle approach to instructional planning capitalizes
on what is known about how people learn and is designed to cause lasting changes in a student’s
conceptual understanding. The model used here was adapted from the 5E Learning Cycle
popularized by the Biological Sciences Curriculum Study. Although this Learning Cycle
framework is geared toward building individual lessons, the Learning Cycle approach is more
commonly applied when designing instructional units that consist of multiple lessons.

Each step in a learning cycle serves a different purpose and incorporates specially structured
activities. What makes this type of lesson format particularly effective is its emphasis on active
engagement of the learner and that it requires students to explore their prior understanding as
they encounter new material. Finally, the 5 E Model provides opportunities that challenge
students to apply these new understanding in novel, but related situations.

Learning Cycles cast teachers in the role of curriculum developers. During the lesson’s actual
implementation, teacher responsibilities vary according to what happens during each stage of the
Learning Cycle. Sometimes the situation calls for direct instruction. In cases where activities are
more student-centered, the teacher plays a less prominent, background role.

Implementing this teacher move

1. Choose a topic and identify the related student Learning Expectations to which the topic is
aligned.

2.  Design an assessment that is closely tied to the Learning Expectations that you are targeting.
Build a corresponding scoring rubric if necessary.

3. Apply the focusing questions in the Learning Cycle framework to determine the ideal stage for
introducing an activity.

 Always ask, “Does this activity really help students to meet the learning expectations on
which the assessment is based?”
 If an activity is a good one, but does not really address the targeted learning goals,
consider using it for enrichment purposes.

4. Assess student understanding.

5. Consider supplementing the Learning Cycle with a Learning Center where students can
further explore the topic.

Managing this teacher move with students

The key to building a quality Learning Cycle is to carefully select activities that address the goals
for each particular stage in the 5E Model.

1. A quality Engagement activity promotes student involvement in the topic or question in an

exciting way.

 Tends to be of short duration and is highly motivational and interesting.

 “Hooks” the learner and generate interest in the topic.
 Focusing Question: What is your plan for generating excitement about the topic?

2. A quality Exploration activity taps into and activates student’s prior knowledge.

 Offers opportunity for students to mess around and investigate objects, materials, and
events based on their own ideas and prior knowledge of the topic.
 Often reveals student misconceptions.
 Provides information to the teacher about student readiness for learning about the topic.
 Focusing Question: What is your plan for activating students’ prior knowledge?

3. A quality Explanation activity provides direct instruction or active learning experiences that

build new content knowledge or promote skill acquisition.

 Often requires a more active role by the teacher.

 Focusing Question: What is your plan for introducing students to new content knowledge
or skills?

4. A quality Extension activity enables students to compare the efficacy of former ideas about

the topic with new understandings.

 Encourages students to apply or transfer their new knowledge or skills in new and
different contexts.
 Can be used to make connections with other content areas.
 Focusing Question: What is your plan for allowing students to extend their new content
knowledge to a new, but related context?
5. A quality Evaluation activity is the opportunity for students to demonstrate their
understanding of the topic or question.

 Is a formative assessment that reveals if Learning Expectations have been met by the
student.
 Provides an indication of teacher effectiveness.
 Focusing Question: What is your plan for assessing students’ understanding of this topic?

What is Inquiry-Based Science?

Inquiry-based science adopts an investigative approach to teaching and learning where students
are provided with opportunities to investigate a problem, search for possible solutions, make
observations, ask questions, test out ideas, and think creatively and use their intuition. In this
sense, inquiry-based science involves students doing science where they have opportunities to
explore possible solutions, develop explanations for the phenomena under investigation,
elaborate on concepts and processes, and evaluate or assess their understandings in the light of
available evidence. This approach to teaching relies on teachers recognizing the importance of
presenting problems to students that will challenge their current conceptual understandings so
they are forced to reconcile anomalous thinking and construct new understandings.

How does inquiry-based science help students?

Inquiry-based science challenges students' thinking by engaging them in investigating

scientifically orientated questions where they learn to give priority to evidence, evaluate
explanations in the light of alternative explanations and learn to communicate and justify their
decisions. These are dispositions needed to promote and justify their decisions. In short,
"Scientific inquiry requires the use of evidence, logic, and imagination in developing
explanations about the natural world" (Newman et al., 2004, p.258).

How does a teacher know if he/she is successfully teaching science using an inquiry-based
approach?

Teachers can gauge the success of their teaching through students' level of engagement with the
topic and each other, the scientific language they use to communicate their ideas, and the quality
of the work they produce. Subtle comments such as "Are we doing science today? I really liked
the way we did...." Are typical of the types of comments students will make when they have
enjoyed participating in science investigations.
Does inquiry-based science look different in a lower-elementary classroom than in a
middle-school classroom?

The principles are the same -- the need to excite and engage students' attention so they want to
investigate the topic is critically important at any age. However, the way teachers actually teach
it has to be more hands-on, directive or guided, and concrete for younger children.

What are some common misconceptions that teachers have regarding inquiry-based
science?

... Teacher[s] often think they are 'doing inquiry' because they are out at the front of the
classroom directing the inquiry or investigation or demonstrating how to do it. This is not inquiry
science. Inquiry science requires teachers to be able to excite the students' interest in a topic and
then provide them with opportunities to undertake the investigation either by themselves or
preferably in collaboration with others. The teacher, though, needs to remain active in the lesson,
guiding the students and asking questions to help them consolidate their understandings.
Providing feedback is critically important to helping students understand how they are
progressing.

You have observed many teachers over the years. Can you describe any teachers and/or
students who exemplified inquiry-based science?

Good teachers engage students' interest through novelty, something unusual that spurs their
curiosity and then they use language that is very dialogic or language that lets the student know
that they are interested in what they think or want to say about the topic. Good teachers then
carefully guide students as they begin to explore or investigate the topic, being careful not to
dominate the conversation but allow student time to develop responses or think about the issue
more carefully. In this sense they give students the time to reflect and think more carefully about
the issue. However, good teachers are always careful to ensure that the inquiry-based science
lesson moves forward and they do this be asking questions that probe and challenge students'
thinking as well as giving them feedback that is meaningful and timely. Teachers who do inquiry
well tend have a very good understanding of both the content they are teaching and the processes
involved. They tend to use language that is very collaborative and friendly and take a genuine
interest in what students are doing. They ask questions that challenge students' thinking and they
acknowledge students' efforts.

What advice do you have for teachers who do not have a lot of time to teach science? 

Recognize your limitations but try to optimize on what time you have. Be well prepared and try
to ensure that science activities are interesting -- stimulate students' interest in science. If they are
interested, they will continue to be interested even if they have not covered the full curriculum.

Can you provide an example of higher-level thinking and problem-solving questions that
you may see with 7 and 8 year-old students?

Children will engage in higher-level thinking if teachers give them time to talk about a topic.
Angela O'Donnell (Rutgers University) demonstrated how this can be achieved through her
approach to Scripted Cooperation where two students work together on a topic. One then asks
the other to recount as much as possible what they have learned while the listener asks the
speaker questions. The students then switch roles and again they recount and ask each other
questions. Over time, the questions become more complex so the respondent is compelled to
provide more elaborate explanations.

SCIENTIFIC LITERACY. 

Scientific literacy is the knowledge and understanding of scientific concepts and processes
required for personal decision making, participation in civic and cultural affairs, and economic
productivity. It also includes specific types of abilities. In the National Science Education
Standards, the content standards define scientific literacy.

Scientific literacy means that a person can ask, find, or determine answers to questions derived
from curiosity about everyday experiences. It means that a person has the ability to describe,
explain, and predict natural phenomena. Scientific literacy entails being able to read with
understanding articles about science in the popular press and to engage in social conversation
about the validity of the conclusions. Scientific literacy implies that a person can identify
scientific issues underlying national and local decisions and express positions that are
scientifically and technologically informed. A literate citizen should be able to evaluate the
quality of scientific information on the basis of its source and the methods used to generate it.
Scientific literacy also implies the capacity to pose and evaluate arguments based on evidence
and to apply conclusions from such arguments appropriately.

Individuals will display their scientific literacy in different ways, such as appropriately using
technical terms, or applying scientific concepts and processes. And individuals often will have
differences in literacy in different domains, such as more understanding of life-science concepts
and words, and less understanding of physical-science concepts and words.

Scientific literacy has different degrees and forms; it expands and deepens over a lifetime, not
just during the years in school. But the attitudes and values established toward science in the
early years will shape a person's development of scientific literacy as an adult.

CONTENT AND CURRICULUM.

 The content of school science is broadly defined to include specific capacities, understandings,
and abilities in science. The content standards are not a science curriculum. Curriculum is the
way content is delivered: It includes the structure, organization, balance, and presentation of the
content in the classroom.

The content standards are not science lessons, classes, courses of study, or school science
programs. The components of the science content described can be organized with a variety of
emphases and perspectives into many different curricula. The organizational schemes of the
content standards are not intended to be used as curricula; instead, the scope, sequence, and
coordination of concepts, processes, and topics are left to those who design and implement
curricula in science programs.

Curricula often will integrate topics from different subject-matter areas—such as life and
physical sciences—from different content standards—such as life sciences and

Scientific literacy implies that a person can identify scientific issues underlying national and
local decisions and express positions that are scientifically and technologically informed.

science in personal and social perspectives—and from different school subjects—such as science
and mathematics, science and language arts, or science and history.

KNOWLEDGE AND UNDERSTANDING.

 Implementing the National Science Education Standards implies the acquisition of scientific

knowledge and the development of understanding. Scientific knowledge refers to facts, concepts,
principles, laws, theories, and models and can be acquired in many ways. Understanding science
requires that an individual integrate a complex structure of many types of knowledge, including
the ideas of science, relationships between ideas, reasons for these relationships, ways to use the
ideas to explain and predict other natural phenomena, and ways to apply them to many events.
Understanding encompasses the ability to use knowledge, and it entails the ability to distinguish
between what is and what is not a scientific idea. Developing understanding presupposes that
students are actively engaged with the ideas of science and have many experiences with the
natural world.

INQUIRY. 

Scientific inquiry refers to the diverse ways in which scientists study the natural world and
propose explanations based on the evidence derived from their work. Inquiry also refers to the
activities of students in which they develop knowledge and understanding of scientific ideas, as
well as an understanding of how scientists study the natural world.

Inquiry is a multifaceted activity that involves making observations; posing questions; examining
books and other sources of information to see what is already known; planning investigations;
reviewing what is already known in light of experimental evidence; using tools to gather,
analyze, and interpret data; proposing answers, explanations, and predictions; and
communicating the results. Inquiry requires identification of assumptions, use of critical and
logical thinking, and consideration of alternative explanations. Students will engage in selected
aspects of inquiry as they learn the scientific way of knowing the natural world, but they also
should develop the capacity to conduct complete inquiries.

Although the Standards emphasize inquiry, this should not be interpreted as recommending a

single approach to science teaching. Teachers should use different strategies to develop the
knowledge, understandings, and abilities described in the content standards. Conducting hands-
on science activities does not guarantee inquiry, nor is reading about science incompatible with
inquiry.

As used in the Standards, the central distinguishing characteristic between science and

technology is a difference in goal: The goal of science is to understand the natural world, and the
goal of technology is to make modifications in the world to meet human needs. Technology as
design is included in the Standards as parallel to science as inquiry.

Technology and science are closely related. A single problem often has both scientific and
technological aspects. The need to answer questions in the natural world drives the development
of technological products; moreover, technological needs can drive scientific research. And
technological products, from pencils to computers, provide tools that promote the understanding
of natural phenomena.
The use of "technology" in the Standards is not to be confused with "instructional technology,"
which provides students and teachers with exciting tools—such as computers—to conduct
inquiry and to understand science.

Additional terms important to the National Science Education Standards, such as "teaching,"

"assessment," and "opportunity to learn," are defined in the chapters and sections where they are
used. Throughout, we have tried to avoid using terms that have different meanings to the many
different groups that will be involved in implementing the Standards.

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