International Journal of Statistics and Probability; Vol. 8, No.

2; March 2019
ISSN 1927-7032 E-ISSN 1927-7040
Published by Canadian Center of Science and Education

Mechanical Proof of the Maxwell Speed Distribution

Tsung-Wu Lin1 & Hejie Lin2
1
Department of Civil Engineering, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan
2
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Oakland University, Rochester Hills, Michigan, USA
Correspondence: Tsung-Wu Lin, Department of Civil Engineering, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan. E-mail:
[email protected]

Received: December 26, 2018 Accepted: January 18, 2019 Online Published: January 25, 2019
doi:10.5539/ijsp.v8n2p90 URL: https://doi.org/10.5539/ijsp.v8n2p90

Abstract
This article derives the probability density function 𝜓(ξ; x, x ′ ) of the resulting speed 𝜉 from the collision of two
particles with speeds x and x′. This function had been left unsolved for about 150 years. Then uses two approaches to
obtain the Maxwell speed distribution: (1) Numerical iteration: using the equation
∞ ∞
𝑃𝑛𝑒𝑤 (ξ) = ∫0 ∫0 𝜓(ξ; x, x ′ ) ∙ 𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑑 (x) ∙ 𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑑 (x ′ ) 𝑑𝑥dx ′

to get the new speed distribution from the old speed distribution. Also, after 9 iterations, the distribution converges to
the Maxwell speed distribution. (2) Analytical integration: using the Maxwell speed distribution as the 𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑑 (x), and
then getting 𝑃𝑛𝑒𝑤 (ξ) from the above integration. The result of 𝑃𝑛𝑒𝑤 (ξ) from analytical integration is proved to be
exactly the Maxwell speed distribution.
Keywords: Maxwell speed distribution, Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution, collision of particles, kinetic theory of
gases
1. Overview
Maxwell first provided the Maxwell speed distribution in 1860 on statistical heuristic bases (Maxwell, 1860a,b).
Maxwell in 1867 (Maxwell) and Boltzmann in 1872 (Boltzmann) carried out some more investigations into the physical
meaning of the distribution. The simplest way to prove the Maxwell speed distribution is from the statistical view:
beginning from the Boltzmann distribution of energy state which is proportional to the square of velocity, and extending
to three velocities in three directions and summing the same speed distribution in all three directions to get the Maxwell
speed distribution (Brush, 1966, Landau et al., 1969, McQuarrie, 1976, Garrod, 1995, Maudlin, 2013). Therefore, the
distribution is also known as the Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution. The standard speed distribution function is listed as
follows along with a more compacted parameter ℎ which is the inverse of the most probable speed 𝑣𝑚𝑝 , i.e.,
𝑣𝑚𝑝 = ℎ−1 .
3/2 −𝑚𝑣2
4 𝑚 ( 2𝑘𝑇 ) 4ℎ3 2𝑣2
𝑃(𝑣) = . / 𝑣 2𝑒 = 𝑣 2 𝑒 −ℎ (1)
√𝜋 2𝑘𝑇 √𝜋
𝑚
where 𝑘 is the Boltzmann constant, 𝑇 is the equilibrium temperature, 𝑚 is the particle mass, and ℎ = √ .
2𝑘𝑇
In 1872, Boltzmann gave the following equation:
dn = f(x, t)dx ∙ f(x ′ , t)dx ′ ∙ 𝜓(ξ; x, x ′ )dξ (2)
where f(x, t)dx is the number of particles with speed between x and x+dx, and similarly for f(x′, t)dx′, dn is the
number of particles with speed between ξ and ξ + dξ. If we let f(ξ, t + dt) = dn/dξ, and rewrite Eq.(1) as
∞ ∞
f(ξ, t + dt) = ∫0 ∫0 𝜓(ξ; x, x ′ ) ∙ f(x, t) ∙ f(x ′ , t) 𝑑𝑥dx ′ (3)
As 𝑡 → ∞, f(x, t) → 𝑃(𝑥), the correct distribution, 𝑃(𝑥), should satisfy the following new integral equation
∞ ∞
P(ξ) = ∫0 ∫0 𝜓(ξ; x, x ′ ) ∙ P(x) ∙ P(x ′ ) 𝑑𝑥dx ′ (4a)
′ ),
Boltzmann said that “Since this calculation (𝜓(ξ; x, x add by authors), although tedious, is not at all difficult, …”.
However, until now, this calculation is still missing in the literature. As shown in Section 2, the function can be derived
based on Newton’s laws of motion, and therefore it is also a mechanical proof of the Maxwell speed distribution.

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After we get the function 𝜓(ξ; x, x ′ ), we use two approaches to get the Maxwell speed distribution: (1) Numerical
iteration: using the following equation to get the new distribution from the old one. Also, found that the final
distribution after 9 iterations converges to the Maxwell speed distribution as shown in Section 3.
∞ ∞
𝑃𝑛𝑒𝑤 (ξ) = ∫0 ∫0 𝜓(ξ; x, x ′ ) ∙ 𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑑 (x) ∙ 𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑑 (x ′ ) 𝑑𝑥dx ′ (4b)
(2) Analytical integration: using the Maxwell speed distribution as 𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑑 to get 𝑃𝑛𝑒𝑤 from integration. And the 𝑃𝑛𝑒𝑤
from analytical integration is exactly the Maxwell speed distribution as shown in Section 4.
2. Derivation of 𝝍(𝛏; 𝐱, 𝐱 ′ )
Before processing to derive the function 𝜓(ξ; x, x ′ ), we change the variables ξ to 𝑣, x to 𝑣𝑗 and x′ to 𝑣𝑘 and rewrite
the function as 𝜓(𝑣; 𝑣𝑗 , 𝑣𝑘 ). For ease of reference, the resulting function is listed as follows. Since 𝑣𝑗 and 𝑣𝑘 are
exchangeable, only the functions for 𝑣𝑗 ≥ 𝑣𝑘 are listed.
𝑣 2𝑣
𝜓(𝑣; 𝑣𝑗 , 𝑣𝑘 ) = sin−1 4 2 √𝑣 2 + 𝑣𝑘2 − 𝑣 2 5 , 0 ≤ 𝑣 ≤ 𝑣𝑘 or 𝑣𝑗 ≤ 𝑣 ≤ √𝑣𝑗2 + 𝑣𝑘2
𝑣𝑗 𝑣𝑘 𝑣𝑗 + 𝑣𝑘2 𝑗
𝑣 2𝑣𝑗 𝑣𝑘
= sin−1 ( ), 0 ≤ 𝑣𝑘 ≤ 𝑣 ≤ 𝑣𝑗
𝑣𝑗 𝑣𝑘 𝑣𝑗2 +𝑣𝑘2

= 0, 𝑣 ≥ √𝑣𝑗2 + 𝑣𝑘2 (5)

2.1 For Special Case of 𝑣𝑘 = 0

Let v0 = 𝑣𝑗 be the speed of particle 1 with mass M1 which will hit particle 2 with mass M2 at rest. After a collision,
the new particle speeds are v1 and v2 as shown in Fig. 1.

Figure 1. The collision of two particles where particle 2 is at rest

Based on Newton’s laws of motion, the total momenta before and after the collision are the same (Eqs.(6-7)). Also, for
elastic collision, the total energies before and after the collision are also the same (Eq.(8)).
M1 v0 = M2 v2 cos 𝜃 + M1 v1 cos 𝜙 (6)
0 = M2 v2 sin 𝜃 − M1 v1 sin 𝜙 (7)
M1 v02 /2 = M2 v22 /2 + M1 v12 /2 (8)
For M1 = M2 , we get the solutions as (Note 1)
v2 = v0 cos 𝜃 (9)
v1 = v0 sin 𝜃 (10)
𝜋
sin(𝜃 + 𝜙) = 1 or 𝜙 = − 𝜃 (11)
2
̅̅̅̅, and v2 = ̅̅̅̅
The solutions can be represented as Fig. 2, where v1 = 𝐵𝑃 𝐵𝑄. Note that, after the collision, P and Q are
always located on the sphere surface and the probability is uniform on this surface. Since the probability of the point
inside the circle in Fig. 2(b) (radius=diameter of a particle) is uniformly distributed (Note 2), we get the probability of
Q located between 𝜃 and 𝜃 + 𝑑𝜃 as P𝜃 (𝜃)𝑑𝜃 = 2π(v0 cos 𝜃 sin 𝜃)(v0 𝑑𝜃)/(𝜋v02 ). And change the variable from 𝜃
𝑑𝜃
to 𝑣 = v0 cos 𝜃 by P𝑣 (𝑣) = P𝜃 (𝜃) | | to get
𝑑𝑣

2𝑣
P𝑣 (𝑣) = , for 0 ≤ 𝑣 ≤ v0 ; and P𝑣 (𝑣) = 0, otherwise. (12)
v2
0

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Figure 2. The relation between collision point as shown in (b) and new velocity ̅̅̅̅
BQ in (a)
2.2 For General Case of 𝑣𝑗 ≥ 𝑣𝑘 > 0
Let 𝑣𝑗 = |v̅1 | and 𝑣𝑘 = |v̅2 | be the speeds of two particles before a collision. After the collision, the new particle
speeds are 𝑣𝑖1 = |ṽ1 | and 𝑣𝑖2 = |ṽ2 |. Let v0 = v̅1 − v̅2 , and follow the same procedures of Section 2.1 to get v1 and
v2 , and therefore to get ṽ1 = v̅2 + v1 and ṽ2 = v̅2 + v2 as shown in Fig. 3.

Figure 3. Solution P, Q located on a sphere surface

Then for fixed magnitudes of 𝑣𝑗 and 𝑣𝑘 , if 𝑣𝑘 is fixed in the horizontal direction but changed the direction of
𝑣𝑗 , then point A will be located on a spherical surface as shown in Fig. 4. And the probability of point A on the
surface is uniformly distributed since 𝑣𝑗 has equal opportunity in any direction. The center of the surface A is at
point O and its radius is 𝑣𝑗 . S is the middle point between B and A and is the center of the sphere surface P (also
in Fig. 2 and 3). The point S will be located on a smaller sphere surface center at C (middle point of O and B) with
̅̅̅̅ is always parallel to 𝑂𝐴
radius 𝑣𝑗 /2. Since 𝐶𝑆 ̅̅̅̅, the point S on the sphere surface S is also uniformly distributed
similarly to point A on the sphere surface A. Although the sphere surfaces S and A are fixed, the surface P is
variable in center S and radius r2 .

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Figure 4. Three sphere surfaces A, S, P with centers at O, C, S with radius 𝑣𝑗 , 𝑣𝑗 /2, r2

Next, the surface S and the surface P are used to find the probability of 𝑣𝑖 . The location of S is defined by α
(representing the relative moving direction before collision), and the location of P is defined by β (representing the
particle moving direction after collision).
1
1) The probability density of point S located on surface S at angle is 𝑃 ( ) = sin .
2
1
2) The probability density of point P located on surface P at angle is 𝑃 | ( ) = sin .
2
The 𝑟1 and 𝑟2 as shown in Fig. 4 can be computed from as

2 2
̅̅̅̅ = 1 √(𝑣𝑗 cos
𝑟1 ( ; 𝑣𝑗 , 𝑣𝑘 ) = 𝑂𝑆 + 𝑣𝑘 ) + (𝑣𝑗 sin ) = √𝑣𝑗2 + 𝑣𝑘2 + 2𝑣𝑗 𝑣𝑘 cos
1
(13)
2 2

1 2 2 1
𝑟2 ( ; 𝑣𝑗 , 𝑣𝑘 ) = ̅̅̅̅
𝑆𝐵 = √(𝑣𝑗 cos − 𝑣𝑘 ) + (𝑣𝑗 sin ) = √𝑣𝑗2 + 𝑣𝑘2 − 2𝑣𝑗 𝑣𝑘 cos (14)
2 2

So the relation between 𝑣 and for fixed 𝑟1 and 𝑟2 is

𝑣( ; 𝑟1 , 𝑟2 ) = ̅̅̅̅
𝑂𝑃 = √(𝑟2 cos + 𝑟1 )2 + (𝑟2 sin )2 = √𝑟12 + 𝑟22 + 2𝑟1 𝑟2 cos (15)
Hence
𝑑𝑣 −𝑟1 𝑟2 sin −𝑟1 𝑟2 sin
= = (16)
𝑑 𝑣
√𝑟12 +𝑟22 +2𝑟1 𝑟2 cos

1
Using the relation above to change 𝑃 | ( ) = sin to
2

𝑑 𝑣
𝑃𝑣| (𝑣) = 𝑃 | ( )| | = (17)
𝑑𝑣 2𝑟1 𝑟2

moreover, consider all density for to get (Note 3)

𝜋− 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝜋− 𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑣
𝜓(𝑣; 𝑣𝑗 , 𝑣𝑘 ) = ∫ 𝑃𝑣| (𝑣)𝑃 ( )𝑑 = ∫ sin 𝑑
𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑖𝑛
4𝑟1 𝑟2
𝜋− 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑣 sin 𝑑 𝑣 2𝑣𝑗 𝑣𝑘
=∫ = sin−1 ( cos 𝑚𝑖𝑛 ) (18)
𝑚𝑖𝑛 2 𝑣𝑗 𝑣𝑘 𝑣𝑗2 +𝑣𝑘2
√.𝑣 2 +𝑣 2 / −4𝑣 2 𝑣 2 cos2
𝑗 𝑘 𝑗 𝑘

where 𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 0 for 𝑣𝑘 ≤ 𝑣 ≤ 𝑣𝑗 , else 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑂𝑇 or 𝑣 = ̅̅̅̅̅

are where 𝑣 = ̅̅̅̅ 𝑂𝑇′ (Fig. 4) as follows
1
𝑣 = |𝑟1 ± 𝑟2 | = |√𝑣𝑗2 + 𝑣𝑘2 + 2𝑣𝑗 𝑣𝑘 cos 𝑚𝑖𝑛 ± √𝑣𝑗2 + 𝑣𝑘2 − 2𝑣𝑗 𝑣𝑘 cos 𝑚𝑖𝑛 | (19)
2

Both equations have identical solutions for cos 𝑚𝑖𝑛 as (Note 4)

𝑣
cos 𝑚𝑖𝑛 =
𝑣𝑗 𝑣𝑘
√𝑣𝑗2 + 𝑣𝑘2 − 𝑣 2 (20)

Substitution of Eq.(20) into Eq.(18) yields the probability density function as (Regions are shown in Fig. 6)

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𝑣 2𝑣
𝜓(𝑣; 𝑣𝑗 , 𝑣𝑘 ) =
𝑣𝑗 𝑣𝑘
sin−1 (
𝑣𝑗2 +𝑣𝑘2
√𝑣𝑗2 + 𝑣𝑘2 − 𝑣 2 ) , 0 ≤ 𝑣 ≤ 𝑣𝑘 (region 𝐴2 )

and 𝑣𝑗 ≤ 𝑣 ≤ √𝑣𝑗2 + 𝑣𝑘2 (region 𝐴1 )

𝑣 2𝑣𝑗 𝑣𝑘
= sin−1 ( ), 0 ≤ 𝑣𝑘 ≤ 𝑣 ≤ 𝑣𝑗 (regions 𝐵2 and 𝐵1 )
𝑣𝑗 𝑣𝑘 𝑣𝑗2 +𝑣𝑘2

= 0, 𝑣 ≥ √𝑣𝑗2 + 𝑣𝑘2 (region 𝐵0 ) (21)

3. Numerical Iteration
It is easy to do the iteration by 65 equal spaced discrete speeds beginning from v1 = 0.5 in increments of 1.0 and end
up to v65 = 64.5, where speeds over 64.5 are truncated, and therefore the probabilities are assumed to be zero. For
discrete speeds, the integration changes to summation as follows (∆𝑣𝑘 ∆𝑣𝑗 = 1)
P𝑛𝑒𝑤 (𝑣𝑖 ) = ∑65 65
𝑗=1 ∑𝑘=1 𝜓(𝑣𝑖 ; 𝑣𝑗 , 𝑣𝑘 )P𝑜𝑙𝑑 (𝑣𝑗 )P𝑜𝑙𝑑 (𝑣𝑘 ) , 𝑖 = 1,2,3, … ,65 (22)
If we assume the Root-Mean-Square speed is 16.5, and the initial speeds of all particles are 16.5, that is P𝑜𝑙𝑑 (𝑣17 ) =
1 and all others P𝑜𝑙𝑑 (𝑣𝑖 ) = 0, for 𝑖 ≠ 17. Use the equation above to get P𝑛𝑒𝑤 (𝑣𝑖 ), and set P𝑜𝑙𝑑 (𝑣𝑖 ) = P𝑛𝑒𝑤 (𝑣𝑖 ) for
next iteration. After nine iterations, the distribution curves converge to the Maxwell speed distribution as shown in
Figure 5.

Figure 5. Nine iterations converge to the Maxwell speed distribution

As shown in Fig. 5, the horizontal axis for the speed, 𝑣, has been normalized by the most probable speed, 𝑣𝑚𝑝 .
Therefore the peak dirtribution density is just at 𝑣 ⁄𝑣𝑚𝑝 = ℎ𝑣 = 1 as we would expect. Where 𝑣𝑚𝑝 = √2/3𝑣𝑟𝑚𝑠 =
13.47, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡he peak distribution density is (4ℎ⁄√𝜋)𝑒 −1 = 0.0616. Any initial distribution may be assumed, as long
as the initial RMS speed less than 25% of the maximum speed used, i.e., 64.5 in the presented case, the distribution
curve always converges to the Maxwell speed distribution.
4. Analytical Integration
4ℎ3 2𝑣2
Let 𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑑 be the Maxwell speed distribution 𝑃(𝑣) = 𝑣 2 𝑒 −ℎ and compute 𝑃𝑛𝑒𝑤 from the following
√𝜋

equation with four regions as shown in Fig. 6.

∞ ∞
𝑃𝑛𝑒𝑤 (𝑣) = ∫0 ∫0 𝜓(𝑣; 𝑣𝑗 , 𝑣𝑘 ) 𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑑 (𝑣𝑗 )𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑑 (𝑣𝑘 )𝑑𝑣𝑗 𝑑𝑣𝑘

32ℎ6 2𝑣 2 (𝑣 2 +𝑣 2 )
= ∫ ∫𝐴 𝑣𝑣𝑗 𝑣𝑘 sin−1 (
𝑣𝑗2 +𝑣𝑘2
√𝑣𝑗2 + 𝑣𝑘2 − 𝑣 2 ) 𝑒 −ℎ 𝑗 𝑘 𝑑𝑣𝑗 𝑑𝑣𝑘
𝜋 1 +𝐴2

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32ℎ6 2𝑣𝑗 𝑣𝑘 2 (𝑣 2 +𝑣 2 )
+ ∫ ∫𝐵 𝑣𝑣𝑗 𝑣𝑘 sin−1 ( ) 𝑒 −ℎ 𝑗 𝑘 𝑑𝑣𝑗 𝑑𝑣𝑘 (23)
𝜋 1 +𝐵2 𝑣𝑗2 +𝑣𝑘2

Figure 6. Five regions for integrations (for fixed 𝑣)

Change rectangular coordinates to polar coordinates: 𝑣𝑗 = 𝑟 cos 𝜃, 𝑣𝑘 = 𝑟 sin 𝜃

32ℎ6 𝑣 2𝑣 𝑣 2 2 2
𝑃𝑛𝑒𝑤 (𝑣) = ∫ ∫𝐴 𝑟 2 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃 sin−1 4 √1 − . / 5 𝑒 −ℎ 𝑟 𝑟 𝑑𝑟𝑑𝜃
𝜋 1 +𝐴2 𝑟 𝑟

32ℎ6 𝑣 2𝑟 2
+ ∫ ∫𝐵 𝑟 2 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃 sin−1 (2sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃) 𝑒 −ℎ 𝑟 𝑑𝑟𝑑𝜃 (24)
𝜋 1 +𝐵2

𝑣 𝑣
In Fig. 6, 𝜃0 = cos−1 is the angle at the boundary of regions 𝐴1 and 𝐵1 , and 𝜃0 = sin−1 when in regions 𝐴2 and
𝑟 𝑟

2𝑣 𝑣 2
𝐵2 . And since sin−1 4 √1 − . / 5 = 2𝜃0 , we have
𝑟 𝑟

16ℎ6 𝑣 ∞ 𝜋/4 𝜃0
2 2
𝑃𝑛𝑒𝑤 (𝑣) = ∫ {∫ sin 2𝜃 (2𝜃0 )𝑑𝜃 + ∫ sin 2𝜃 (2𝜃)𝑑𝜃} 𝑒 −ℎ 𝑟 𝑟 3 𝑑𝑟
𝜋 𝑣 𝜃0 0

8ℎ6 𝑣 ∞ 𝜋/4 𝜃 2𝑟 2 3
=
𝜋
∫𝑣 22𝜃0 ,− cos 2𝜃-𝜃0 + ,−2𝜃 cos 2𝜃 + sin 2𝜃-00 3 𝑒 −ℎ 𝑟 𝑑𝑟

8ℎ6 𝑣 ∞ 2𝑟2 3
=
𝜋
∫𝑣 * 2𝜃0 cos 2𝜃0 − 2𝜃0 cos 2𝜃0 + sin 2𝜃0 +𝑒 −ℎ 𝑟 𝑑𝑟

8ℎ6 𝑣 ∞ 8ℎ6 𝑣 ∞ 2𝑣 2
= ∫𝑣 sin 2𝜃0 𝑒 −ℎ
2𝑟2 3
𝑟 𝑑𝑟 = ∫𝑣 √1 − .𝑣/ 𝑒 −ℎ2𝑟 2 𝑟 3 𝑑𝑟
𝜋 𝜋 𝑟 𝑟

16ℎ6 𝑣 2 ∞ 2𝑟2
=
𝜋
∫𝑣 √𝑟 2 − 𝑣 2 𝑒 −ℎ 𝑟𝑑𝑟 (25)

∞ 4ℎ3 ∞ 2 𝑢2
Change variable by 𝑢2 = 𝑟 2 − 𝑣 2 , 2𝑢𝑑𝑢 = 2𝑟𝑑𝑟, and use ∫0 𝑃𝑢 (𝑢)𝑑𝑢 = ∫0 𝑢2 𝑒 −ℎ 𝑑𝑢 = 1 to get
√𝜋

16ℎ6 𝑣 2 ∞ 2 (𝑣 2 +𝑢2 ) 4ℎ3 2𝑣2 4ℎ3 ∞ 2 𝑢2 4ℎ3 2𝑣2

𝑃𝑛𝑒𝑤 (𝑣) =
𝜋
∫0 𝑢 𝑒 −ℎ 𝑢𝑑𝑢 = 𝑣 2 𝑒 −ℎ 0 ∫0 𝑢2 𝑒 −ℎ 𝑑𝑢1 = 𝑣 2 𝑒 −ℎ (26)
√𝜋 √𝜋 √𝜋

The analytical integration result of 𝑃𝑛𝑒𝑤 (𝑣) is just the Maxwell speed distribution as we would expect. This concludes
the proof that the Maxwell speed distribution is correct from the random collisions of the particles.
5. Conclusions and Further Studies
It is not only interesting but also very important to get the function 𝜓(𝑣; 𝑣𝑗 , 𝑣𝑘 ) since this is from which the Maxwell
speed distribution can be proved. From the derivation of the function 𝜓(𝑣; 𝑣𝑗 , 𝑣𝑘 ), we can reveal the basic mechanism
behind the macroscopic phenomenon. The mechanics of the collision of particles is a bridge between microscopic

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behavior and macroscopic phenomenon.

This paper only investigates the collisions of equal mass particles. Further study may be on the collisions of unequal
mass particles and may be used to give a mechanical proof of Avogadro’s law. The procedures of this paper may also be
used for the collisions of charged particles.
Acknowledgments
We are grateful to Dr. Steven K. Lang, Applications Engineering Director of Intel Microelectronics Asia Ltd. Taiwan
Branch, for his valuable suggestions. We also thanks to the reviewers for their valuable suggestions.
References
Boltzmann, L. (1872). Weitere studien uber das Warmegleichgewicht unter Gasmolekulen, Sitzungsbenchte der
Kaiserlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften in Wien, Mathematisch-Naturwissenschaftliche Classe, 66, 275-370.
Brush, S. G. (1966). Kinetic theory Vol.2. Irreversible processes. Pergamon Press, ISBN 9781483155937
1483155935.Selection.2:Ludwig Boltzmann:Further Studies on the Thermal Equilibrium of Gas Molecules (from
Sitzungsbenchte der Kaiserlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften,Vienna, 1872), 88-175.
Garrod, C. (1995). Statistical mechanics and thermodynamics. University of California, Davis, New York Oxford:
Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-508523-X (IBM software).
Landau L. D., & Lifshitz, E. M. (1969). Statistical physics. Institute of Physical Problems, U.S.S.R. Academy of
Science, Vol.5 of Course of Theoretical Physic, Translated from the Russian by Peierls, E. and Peierls, R.F.,
London, Paris: Pergamon Press, ISBN 0-201-0-04167-7.
Maudlin, T. (2013). How to derive the equilibrium velocity distribution two ways (Neither of which is what you are
expecting). Cosmology Summer School, Santa Cruz, July 26, 2013, NYU, Retrieved from
http://hipacc.ucsc.edu/IPC2013/slides/130626_TimMaudlin.pdf
Maxwell, J. C. (1860a). V. Illustrations of the dynamical theory of gases, Part I. On the motions and collisions of
perfectly elastic spheres, The London, Edinburgh, and Dubin Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science, 4th
Series, 19, 19-32. https://doi.org/10.1080/14786446008642818
Maxwell, J. C. (1860b). II. Illustrations of the dynamical theory of gases, Part II. On the process of diffusion of two or
more kinds of moving particles among one another, The London, Edinburgh, and Dubin Philosophical Magazine
and Journal of Science, 4th Series, 20, 21-37. https://doi.org/10.1080/14786446008642902
Maxwell, J. C. (1868). XV. On the dynamical theory of gases, The London, Edinburgh, and Dubin Philosophical
Magazine and Journal of Science, 4th Series, 35, 129-145, 185-217. https://doi.org/10.1080/14786446808639951,
https://doi.org/10.1080/14786446808639963
McQuarrie, D. A. (1976). Statistical mechanics. Indiana University, Harper Collins Publishers, ISBN 06-044366-9.
Notes
Note 1.
Begin from following equations
M1 v0 = M2 v2 cos 𝜃 + M1 v1 cos 𝜙 (N1)
0 = M2 v2 sin 𝜃 − M1 v1 sin 𝜙 (N2)
M1 v02 /2 = M2 v22 /2 + M1 v12 /2 (N3)
Regroup and take the square of Eqs.(N1) and (N2) to get
M12 v12 cos 2 𝜙 = (M2 v2 cos 𝜃 − M1 v0 )2
= M22 v22 cos2 𝜃 + M12 v02 − 2M1 M2 v0 v2 cos 𝜃 (N4)
2 2 2 2 2 2
M1 v1 sin 𝜙 = M2 v2 sin 𝜃 (N5)
Add Eqs.(N4) and (N5) to get Eq.(N6), multiply Eq.(N3) by M1 to get Eq.(N7), and then subtract Eq.(N6) from
Eq.(N7) to get Eq.(N8).
M12 v12 − M22 v22 = M12 v02 − 2M1 v0 M2 v2 cos 𝜃 (N6)
M12 v12 + M1 M2 v22 = M12 v02 (N7)
(M1 M2 + M22 )v22 = 2M1 v0 M2 v2 cos 𝜃 (N8)
From Eq.(N8) we get v2 also, substitute to Eq.(N3) to get v1 as

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2M1
v2 = v0 . / cos 𝜃 (N9)
M1 +M2

4M1 M2
v1 = v0 √1 − (M 2 cos 2 𝜃 (N10)
1 +M2 )

Next, we will find the solution for 𝜙: multiply Eq.(N1) & (N2) by sin 𝜙 & cos 𝜙 and add together to get
M1 v0 sin 𝜙 = M2 v2 (cos 𝜃 sin 𝜙 + sin 𝜃 cos 𝜙) (N11)
Since cos 𝜃 sin 𝜙 + sin 𝜃 cos 𝜙 = sin(𝜃 + 𝜙), we get
M1 v0
sin(𝜃 + 𝜙) = sin 𝜙 (N12)
M2 v2

From Eq.(N2) to get Eq.(N13). Substitute to Eq.(N12) and by Eq.(N10) to get

M2 v2
sin 𝜙 = sin 𝜃 (N13)
M1 v1

v0 sin 𝜃
sin(𝜃 + 𝜙) = sin 𝜃 = 4M M
(N14)
v1
√1−(M 1 2)2 cos2 𝜃
1 +M2

For M1 = M2 , from Eqs.(N9)(N10)(N14), we get the solutions as

v2 = v0 cos 𝜃 (N15)
v1 = v0 sin 𝜃 (N16)
𝜋
sin(𝜃 + 𝜙) = 1 or 𝜙 = − 𝜃 (N17)
2

Note 2.
P and Q are always located on the sphere surface, and the probability is uniform on this surface. Since the probability
of the point inside the circle in Fig. 2(b) (radius=diameter of particle=D) is uniformly distributed. The reasons are based
on the following factors:
v v
1) The area of the ring on the sphere surface (Fig. 2(a)) is 2π . 0 sin 2𝜃/ . 0 2𝑑𝜃/ = 2𝜋v02 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝜃.
2 2
2) The area of the ring inside the circular plane disk (Fig. 2(b)) is 2𝜋( sin 𝜃)𝑑( sin 𝜃) = 2𝜋𝐷 2 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
3) The ratio of the two areas is v02 /𝐷2 , it is not dependent on 𝜃.
4) When the center of the particle hits inside the ring of the disk, the Q point must locate inside the ring on the sphere
surface.
5) It has equal opportunity to hit on any point inside the circle.

Note 3.
𝜋− 𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑣
𝜓(𝑣; 𝑣𝑗 , 𝑣𝑘 ) = ∫ 𝑃𝑣| (𝑣)𝑃 ( )𝑑 = ∫ sin 𝑑
𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑖𝑛
4𝑟1 𝑟2
2𝑣𝑗 𝑣𝑘
𝑣2 2 sin 𝑑
𝜋− 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑣 sin 𝑑 𝑣 𝜋− 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑗 +𝑣𝑘
=∫ 2
= ∫
𝑚𝑖𝑛 2𝑣𝑗 𝑣𝑘 𝑚𝑖𝑛 2
√.𝑣 2 +𝑣 2 / −4𝑣 2 𝑣 2 cos2 2𝑣 𝑣
𝑗 𝑘 𝑗 𝑘
√1−( 2 𝑗 𝑘2 cos )
𝑣𝑗 +𝑣𝑘

2𝑣𝑗 𝑣𝑘 2𝑣𝑗 𝑣𝑘
Change variable by sin 𝑢 = cos , cos 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = − sin 𝑑 , to get
𝑣𝑗2 +𝑣𝑘2 𝑣𝑗2 +𝑣𝑘2

−𝑣 𝑢𝑚𝑎𝑥 cos 𝑢𝑑𝑢 −𝑣 𝑢𝑚𝑎𝑥 cos 𝑢𝑑𝑢 𝑣

𝜓(𝑣; 𝑣𝑗 , 𝑣𝑘 ) = ∫ = ∫ = (𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑛 − 𝑢𝑚𝑎𝑥 )
2𝑣𝑗 𝑣𝑘 𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑛 √1−sin2 𝑢 2𝑣𝑗 𝑣𝑘 𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑛 cos 𝑢 2𝑣𝑗 𝑣𝑘

𝑣 2𝑣𝑗 𝑣𝑘 2𝑣𝑗 𝑣𝑘
= (sin−1 ( cos 𝑚𝑖𝑛 ) − sin−1 ( cos(𝜋 − 𝑚𝑖𝑛 )))
2𝑣𝑗 𝑣𝑘 𝑣𝑗2 +𝑣𝑘2 𝑣𝑗2 +𝑣𝑘2

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𝑣 2𝑣𝑗 𝑣𝑘
= sin−1 ( cos 𝑚𝑖𝑛 )
𝑣𝑗 𝑣𝑘 𝑣𝑗2 +𝑣𝑘2

Note 4.
Begin from the equation
1
𝑣 = |𝑟1 ± 𝑟2 | = |√𝑣𝑗2 + 𝑣𝑘2 + 2𝑣𝑗 𝑣𝑘 cos 𝑚𝑖𝑛 ± √𝑣𝑗2 + 𝑣𝑘2 − 2𝑣𝑗 𝑣𝑘 cos 𝑚𝑖𝑛 |
2
Square to get

2 2
4𝑣 2 = 𝑣𝑗2 + 𝑣𝑘2 + 2𝑣𝑗 𝑣𝑘 cos 𝑚𝑖𝑛 + 𝑣𝑗2 + 𝑣𝑘2 − 2𝑣𝑗 𝑣𝑘 cos 𝑚𝑖𝑛 ± 2√(𝑣𝑗2 + 𝑣𝑘2 ) − (2𝑣𝑗 𝑣𝑘 cos 𝑚𝑖𝑛 )

Square again to get

2 2 2 2
(𝑣𝑗2 + 𝑣𝑘2 ) − (2𝑣𝑗 𝑣𝑘 cos 𝑚𝑖𝑛 ) = (𝑣𝑗2 + 𝑣𝑘2 − 2𝑣 2 ) = (𝑣𝑗2 + 𝑣𝑘2 ) − 4𝑣 2 (𝑣𝑗2 + 𝑣𝑘2 ) + 4𝑣 4

or
2
(2𝑣𝑗 𝑣𝑘 cos 𝑚𝑖𝑛 ) = 4𝑣 2 (𝑣𝑗2 + 𝑣𝑘2 − 𝑣 2 )

Hence
𝑣
cos 𝑚𝑖𝑛 =± √𝑣𝑗2 + 𝑣𝑘2 − 𝑣 2
𝑣𝑗 𝑣𝑘
Therefore we have
𝑣
cos 𝑚𝑖𝑛 = √𝑣𝑗2 + 𝑣𝑘2 − 𝑣 2
𝑣𝑗 𝑣𝑘
𝑣
cos 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = cos(𝜋 − 𝑚𝑖𝑛 ) =− √𝑣𝑗2 + 𝑣𝑘2 − 𝑣 2
𝑣𝑗 𝑣𝑘

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