THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

NAME: Chonnette King

SUBJECT: Anatomy and Physiology
TOPIC: “The Reproductive System”
STATUS: First Year (Freshman)
BATCH: #129 B
SCHOOL: Georgetown School of Nursing, Kinston Annex
NAME OF TUTOR: Dr. W. C. Torrington
DATE: 13th December, 2018
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
 In the successful accomplishment of this assignment, many persons have contributed
immensely and I would like to thank them by taking this opportunity to express my deep sense
of gratitude to all those persons without whom this assignment would not have been completed.
Primarily, I wish to thank God for giving me the strength to be able to complete this
assignment successfully. Then I would like to thank Dr. Torrington, whose valuable guidance
has been the ones that helped me patch this assignment and make it a full proof success. His
suggestions and instructions have served as the major contributor towards the completion of this
assignment.
Then I would like to thank my parents who have been an inexhaustible source of inspiration
and who have also helped me in every phase leading up to the completion of this assignment.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
TITLE PAGE NUMBER…
Introduction………………………………………………………
Part A: General………………………………………………….
a) Overview…………………………………………………
b) Terminology……………………………………………...
c) Hormones and reproduction……………………………...
d) Meiosis and Mitosis……………………………………...

Part B: Male Reproductive System…………………………….

Drawings……………………………………………………….

Part C: Female Reproductive System…………………………...

Drawings………………………………………………………...

Conclusion………………………………………………………...

Bibliography………………………………………………………

INTRODUCTION
 This assignment is detailed with information that is intended of exploring “The
Reproductive System” as the topic states. Reproduction by definition refers to the process by
which new individuals of a species are produced and the genetic material is passed from
generation to generation.
The organs of reproduction are grouped as gonads (produce gametes), ducts (transport and store
gametes), accessory sex glands (produce materials that support gametes), and supporting
structures (have various roles in reproduction).
Aspects of this assignment includes:
1. A general overview of the reproductive system, terminologies, hormones and
reproduction; and meiosis and mitosis.

2. Areas for the male and female reproductive system such as organs and structures, and
disorders associated with each respectively.

3. Drawings showing parts and features of each reproductive system, that is, male and
female.
This assignment is aimed at ensuring a full comprehensive body knowledge about the
Reproductive System is acquired.
Part a
(General)
Overview:
a) What is the reproductive system concerned with?
The bodily system concerned with reproduction, especially sexual reproduction, including in mammals the
gonads, associated ducts, and external genitals. The male and female reproductive organs work together to
produce offspring. The organs of reproduction are grouped as gonads (produce gametes), ducts (transport and
store gametes), accessory sex glands (produce materials that support gametes), and supporting structures (have
various roles in reproduction).
Components:
i) Gonads:

- Males: testes
- Females: ovaries and,

ii) Associated organs:

- Females: uterine tubes, uterus, and vagina

- Males: epididymis, ductus deferens, and penis.
Functions:
- Gonads produce gametes (sperm or oocytes) that unite to form a new organism;
- Gonads also release hormones that regulates reproduction and other body processes;
- Associated organs transport and store gametes.

b) Write a short paragraph:

Reproduction is the process by which new individuals of a species are produced and the genetic material is
passed from generation to generation.
Sexual reproduction is the process by which organisms produce offspring by making germ cells called gametes
(egg and sperm). After the male gamete (sperm cell) unites with the female gamete (secondary oocyte) - an
event called fertilization - the resulting cell contains one set of chromosomes from each parent. Additionally,
the male and female reproductive organs can be grouped by function. The gonads—testes in males and ovaries
in females— produce gametes and secrete sex hormones. Various ducts then store and transport the gametes,
and accessory sex glands produce substances that protect the gametes and facilitate their movement. Finally,
supporting structures, such as the penis in males and the uterus in females, assist the delivery of gametes, and
the uterus is also the site for the growth of the embryo and fetus during pregnancy.
It should be noted that, reproduction involves several processes including formation of specialized sex cells
called gametes (egg and sperm), preparation of the female body for pregnancy, sexual intercourse (copulation),
fertilization (union of sperm and egg) and lactation (producing milk for nourishment of the infant). These events
are regulated and coordinated by the interaction of hormones secreted by the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland
and by the gonads, or sex glands.
The reproductive systems and homeostasis:
The male and female reproductive organs work together to produce offspring. In addition, the female
reproductive organs contribute to sustaining the growth of embryos and fetuses.

Terminology:
What do the following terms mean?
1. Gonads:
primary reproductive gland that produces reproductive cells (gametes) and secretes sex hormones. In
males the gonads are called testes; the gonads in females are called ovaries.
2. Fertility:
refers to the natural capability to produce offspring. It is the ability to conceive and bear children, i.e.
the ability to become pregnant through normal sexual activity.
3. Copulation:
sexual intercourse, also called coitus, or copulation, is the reproductive act in which the male
reproductive organ (in humans and other higher animals) enters the female reproductive tract. If the
reproductive act is complete, sperm cells are passed from the male body into the female, in the process
fertilizing the female egg and forming a new organism.
4. Sertoli cells:
any of the elongated striated cells in the seminiferous tubules of the testis to which the spermatids
become attached and from which they apparently derive nourishment. Sertoli cells secrete androgen-binding
protein (ABP), which binds to testosterone and keeps its concentration high in the seminiferous tubule.
5. Leydig cells:
also known as interstitial cells of Leydig, are found adjacent to the seminiferous tubules in the
testicle. They produce testosterone in the presence of luteinizing hormone (LH). Leydig cells are polyhedral in
shape, display a large prominent nucleus, an eosinophilic cytoplasm and numerous lipid-filled vesicles.
6. Testosterone:
This is a steroid hormone, that is synthesized from cholesterol in the testes and is the principal
androgen. Chemically, testosterone is 17-beta-hydroxy-4-androstene-3-one and it is lipid-soluble and readily
diffuses out of interstitial cells into the interstitial fluid and then into blood. It is a male sex hormone that
encourages the development of male sexual characteristics, such as such as a deep voice and a beard; they also
strengthen muscle tone and bone mass. It also stimulates the activity of the male secondary sex characteristics,
and prevents changes in them following castration.
7. Gonadotrophic hormones:
These hormones are secreted by the anterior pituitary gland and placenta; stimulates the gonads and
controls reproductive activity. They stimulate secretion of estrogens and progesterone and the maturation of
oocytes in the ovaries, and they stimulate sperm production and secretion of testosterone in the testes.
8. Spermatogonia: (plural: spermatogonia)
A spermatogonium is an undifferentiated male germ cell. Spermatogonia undergo spermatogenesis and divides
by mitosis to form mature spermatozoa (primary spermatocytes) in the seminiferous tubules of the testis.
9. Oogonia: (plural: oogonia)
 An oogonium is a small spherical or ovoid in shape diploid (2n) stem cell which upon maturation forms a
primordial follicle in a female fetus. Oogonia divides mitotically early in fetal development from primordial
germ cells to produce millions of germ cells.
10. Spermatogenesis:
Spermatogenesis, which occurs in the seminiferous tubules of the testes, is the process whereby immature
spermatogonia develop into sperm. The spermatogenesis sequence, which includes meiosis I, meiosis II, and
spermiogenesis, results in the formation of four haploid sperm (spermatozoa) from each primary spermatocyte.
Mature sperm consist of a head and a tail. Their function is to fertilize a secondary oocyte. In humans,
spermatogenesis takes 65–75 days.
11. Spermiogenesis:
The final stage of spermatogenesis is spermiogenesis, which is the development of haploid spermatids into
sperm. No cell division occurs in spermiogenesis; as each spermatid becomes a single sperm cell. During this
process, spherical spermatids transform into elongated, slender sperm. Spermiogenesis involves the maturation
of spermatids into mature, motile spermatozoa (sperm).
12. Oogenesis:
Oogenesis is the process of producing the female gametes, the ovum, from the primordial germ cells. In
contrast to spermatogenesis, which begins in males at puberty, oogenesis begins in females before they are even
born. Oogenesis (the production of haploid secondary oocytes) begins in the ovaries. The oogenesis sequence
includes meiosis I and meiosis II, which goes to completion only after an ovulated secondary oocyte is fertilized
by a sperm cell
13. Meiosis:
Meiosis is the process that produces haploid gametes; it consists of two successive nuclear divisions, called
meiosis I and meiosis II. During meiosis I, homologous chromosomes undergo synapsis (pairing) and crossing-
over; the net result is two haploid cells that are genetically unlike each other and unlike the starting diploid
parent cell that produced them. During meiosis II, two haploid cells divide to form four haploid cells.
14. Follicle:
Follicles are small sacs of fluid, it is a functional anatomical structure which forms part of the ovary and
contains immature eggs (oocytes) that will mature in a microscopic part of the inner wall of the follicle over
spontaneous or stimulated ovarian cycle in normal conditions.
15. Ovulation:
Ovulation is the rupture of the mature (Graafian) follicle and the release of a secondary oocyte into the
pelvic cavity, usually occurs on day 14 in a 28-day cycle. During ovulation, the secondary oocyte remains
surrounded by its zona pellucida and corona radiata. Ovulation is brought about by a surge of Luteinizing
Hormone. Signs and symptoms of ovulation include increased basal body temperature; clear, stretchy cervical
mucus; changes in the uterine cervix; and abdominal pain.
16. Conception:
Conception occurs when a sperm cell from a fertile man travels up through the vagina and into the uterus of
a woman and joins with the woman’s egg cell as it travels down one of the fallopian tubes from the ovary to the
uterus. As the fertilized egg continues to move down the fallopian tube, it begins to divide into two cells, then
four cells, then more cells as the division continues. About a week after the sperm has fertilized the egg, the
fertilized egg has travelled to the uterus and has become a growing cluster of about 100 cells called a blastocyst.
17. Fertilization:
Fertilization is the process by which male and female gametes are fused together, initiating the
development of a new organism. The male gamete or ’sperm’, and the female gamete, ’egg’ or ’ovum’ are
specialized sex cells, which fuse together to begin the formation of a zygote during a process called sexual
reproduction.
18. Erection:
An erection begins with sensory and mental stimulation. Nerve messages begin to stimulate the penis and the
impulses from the brain and local nerves causes the blood vessels and muscles of the corpora cavernosa to relax
and open up, allowing blood to rush in through the cavernous arteries and fill the open spaces. The blood then
creates high pressure in the corpora cavernosa, making the penis expand and creating an erection.
19. Ejaculation:
Sexual stimulation and friction provide the impulses that are delivered to the spinal cord and into the brain.
Ejaculation is a reflex action controlled by the central nervous system. It is triggered when the sexual act
reaches a critical level of excitement. It has two phases.
- In the first phase, the vas deferens (the tubes that store and transport sperm from the testes) contract to
squeeze the sperm toward the base of the penis and the prostate gland and seminal vesicles release
secretions to make semen. At this stage, the ejaculation is unstoppable.

- In the second phase, muscles at the base of penis contract every 0.8 seconds and force the semen out of the
penis in up to 5 spurts.

20. Salpingitis:
Salpingitis is a type of pelvic inflammatory disease (PID). PID refers to an infection of the reproductive
organs. It develops when harmful bacteria enter the reproductive tract. Salpingitis and other forms of PID
usually result from sexually transmitted infections (STIs) that involve bacteria, such as chlamydia or gonorrhea.
Salpingitis causes inflammation of the fallopian tubes. Inflammation can spread easily from one tube to the
other, so both tubes may become affected. If left untreated, salpingitis can result in long-term complications.
Hormones and Reproduction:

1.Gonadotrophic Hormones:

a) What are they?

Gonadotropins are glycoprotein polypeptide hormones secreted by gonadotropic cells of the anterior pituitary
gland and secreted by the placenta in pregnant humans. They act on the gonads, controlling gamete and sex
hormone production. These hormones are central to the complex endocrine system that regulates normal
growth, sexual development, and reproductive function.
b) List and describe their functions/effects (FSH, LH, ICSH, Prolactin)

Types of Gonadotrophic Hormones Functions/ Effects

- In females, initiates development of oocytes and
1. Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) induces ovarian secretion of estrogens. This hormone
stimulates the growth of ovarian follicles in the ovary
before the release of an egg from one follicle at
ovulation.

- In males, the hormone FSH, acts on the Sertoli cells

of the testes to stimulate sperm production
(spermatogenesis).

- In females, LH carries out different roles in the two

2. Luteinizing Hormone (LH) halves of the menstrual cycle.

In weeks one to two of the cycle, luteinizing hormone

is required to stimulate the ovarian follicles in the
ovary to produce the female sex hormone (estrogen).
Around day 14 of the cycle, a surge in luteinizing
hormone levels causes the ovarian follicle to tear and
release a mature oocyte (egg) from the ovary, a
process called ovulation.

For the remainder of the cycle (weeks three to four),

the remnants of the ovarian follicle form a corpus
luteum. Luteinizing hormone stimulates the corpus
luteum to produce progesterone, which is required to
support the early stages of pregnancy, if fertilization
occurs.

- In males, luteinizing hormone stimulates Leydig

cells in the testes to produce testosterone, which acts
locally to support sperm production. Testosterone
also exerts effects all around the body to generate
 male characteristics.

4. Interstitial Cell-Stimulating Hormone (ICSH) - The actions of interstitial cell stimulating hormone
in women include:

1. Stimulating estrogen and progesterone production

from the ovary: A surge of luteinizing hormone
midway through the menstrual cycle leads to
ovulation. Continued secretion of interstitial cell
stimulating hormone stimulates the corpus luteum to
produce progesterone.

2. In conjunction with follicle stimulating hormone,

controlling the secretion of estrogen from ovarian
follicles.

- The actions of interstitial cell stimulating hormone

in men include:

1. Stimulating testosterone production from the

interstitial cells of the testes (Leydig cells);

2. Interstitial cell stimulating hormone (and also

follicle stimulating hormone) are essential for the
maturation of spermatozoa - i.e. mature male sex
cells.

4. Prolactin (PRL) - In females, promotes milk production, regulation of

fluids (osmoregulation), regulation of the immune
system (immunoregulation) and behavioral functions.
Hypersecretion of prolactin causes galactorrhea and
amenorrhea.

- In males, the function is not known, but its

hypersecretion causes erectile dysfunction.

c) Where are they produced?

- Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH): is one of the gonadotrophic hormones that is secreted and released by
the anterior pituitary gland into the bloodstream. Follicle stimulating hormone is one of the hormones
essential to pubertal development and the function of the ovaries and testes.

- Luteinizing Hormone (LH): this is another gonadotrophic hormone produced and released by the anterior
pituitary gland. It is crucial in regulating the function of the testes and ovaries.

- Interstitial Cell-Stimulating Hormone (ICSH): is a glycoprotein gonadotropin hormone secreted by the

anterior pituitary gland. It is released by the anterior pituitary in hourly pulses called "circhoral oscillations".
This hormone binds to receptors in the testes (in males) and the ovaries (in females), and regulates gonadal
 function by promoting sex steroid production and "gametogenesis" - i.e. the processes by which
spermatozoa and ova are formed.
- Prolactin (PRL): is produced in the anterior pituitary gland. Lactotroph cells in the pituitary gland produce
prolactin, where it is stored and then released into the bloodstream. Human prolactin is also produced in the
uterus, immune cells, brain, breasts, prostate, skin and adipose tissue.

2. Sex Hormones:
a) List and describe their functions/effects (Estrogen, Testosterone, Progesterone)
Types of Sex Functions/ Effects
Hormones
1. Estrogen - They play an essential role in the growth and development of female secondary sexual
characteristics, such as breasts, pubic and armpit hair, and the regulation of the menstrual
cycle and reproductive system.

- Increases uterine blood flow and is a stimulation of uterine growth.

- Facilitates the placental oxygenation and nutrition to the fetus.

- Prepares the breast for lactation.

- Stimulates the production of hormone-binding globulin in the liver.

- Increases the excitability of the myometrium and prostaglandins synthesis.

- Estrogen vasodilates not only the non-pregnant uterus, but also the pregnant uterus.

2. Testosterone - Stimulates descent of testes before birth;

- Regulates spermatogenesis;

- Promotes development and maintenance of male secondary sex characteristics

3. Progesterone - Delays ovulation

- Thickens cervical mucus

- Changes uterine endometrial arteries from straight spiral

- Causes the development of endometrial glands.

b) Where are they produced?

- Estrogen: is a steroid hormone that is primarily produced in the syncytiotrophoblast of the placenta, with
the placenta becoming the primary source of this hormone approximately during the ninth week of
pregnancy. This hormone is also produced by the ovaries, and adipose tissues.
-
- Progesterone: is another major steroid hormone that is produced by the trophoblast of the placenta. Until
approximately ten weeks gestation, progesterone is produced by the corpus luteum that remains after
ovulation. This hormone is also produced by the ovaries.

- Testosterone: It is a type of androgen produced primarily by the testicles in cells called the Leydig cells and
produced in high levels in men. They are also produced by the adrenal glands.

4. Inhibin:
One of two hormones (inhibin-A and inhibin-B) secreted by the gonads (by Sertoli cells in the testes of males
and the granulosa cells in the ovaries of females), that inhibits the production and secretion of follicle-
stimulating hormone (FSH) from the anterior pituitary gland.
This hormone is also produced in the placenta and its level in the maternal circulation increases in very early
pregnancy in a parallel fashion with HCG. Inhibin appears actively involved in the GnRH-HCG steroid-
prostaglandin axis.

4. HCG:
Human Chorionic Gonadotropin (HCG) is a pregnancy hormone that is critical to both the establishment and
maintenance of the pregnancy, playing a role in multiple facets of the pregnancy process. HCG is a glycoprotein
hormone that is similar in structure to luteinizing hormone (LH). It is synthesized and secreted primarily by the
syncytiotrophoblast, and it binds to specific hCG receptors in target tissues.

Roles of HCG:
HCG in early pregnancy has a dual function:
1. To stimulate formation of the corpus luteum of pregnancy, which in turn produces progesterone;
2. To stimulate placental steroidogenesis by stimulating both progesterone and estrogen formation.

Other roles of HCG:

- During the first trimester, in the prevention of Luteolysis and stimulation of progesterone production in the
corpus luteum.
- Stimulates the thyroid gland to produce more thyroid hormone throughout pregnancy.
- Control the growth and development of the umbilical cord.
- Promotes angiogenesis in the uterine vasculature, allowing for circulation and maximum blood supply to the
area as the placenta forms.
Meiosis and Mitosis:
a) What is meiosis?
The process where the division of cell occurs by sexually reproducing organisms, following two nuclear
division (meiosis I and meiosis II) and results in the production of four haploid gametes or sex cells. Each cell
contains a pair of the homologous chromosomes, which means paternal and maternal chromosomes randomly
distributed among the cells.

b) What kind of cells are involved?

The cells involved are the ovum and sperm.

c) Are they autosomal or sex cells?

These cells are sex cells (ovum and sperm)

d) Describe the steps/stages in meiosis

The Stages of Meiosis:

MEIOSIS I:

Prophase I:
The DNA has already duplicated before the onset of meiosis. Therefore, just like at the beginning of mitosis in
interphase, each thread of DNA consists of two sister chromatids joined at their centromere. In prophase I the
duplicated chromosomes shorten, coil, thicken, and become visible. It is here in meiosis that now something
very different occurs. Each chromosome pairs up with its homologue. Remember that our 46 chromosomes
exist as 23 pairs. One member of each pair was inherited from our mother and the other member of each pair
from our father. In mitosis look-alike chromosomes did not pair up with one another. In meiosis homologous
chromosomes are brought so close together that they line up side by side in a process called synapsis. We now
have a pair of homologous chromosomes each with two sister chromatids. The visible pair of chromosomes is
called a tetrad. The chromosomes are so close together that they may actually exchange genetic material in a
process called crossing-over. Actual segments of DNA are exchanged between the sister chromatids of the
homologous chromosomes. Crossing-over is a common but random event and it occurring only in meiosis.
Evidence of crossing-over can be seen with a light microscope as an X-shaped structure known as a chiasma or
chiasmata (plural). The spindle forms from microtubules just as in mitosis; paired chromosomes separate
slightly and orient themselves on the spindle attached by their centromere.
Metaphase I:
Spindle microtubules attach to the kinetochore only on the outside of each centromere and the centromeres of
the two homologous chromosomes are attached to microtubules originating from opposite poles. This one-sided
attachment in meiosis is in contrast to mitosis whose kinetochore on both sides of a centromere are held by
microtubules. This ensures that the homologous chromosomes will be pulled to opposite poles of the cell. The
homologous chromosomes line up on the equatorial plate. The centromeres of each pair lie opposite one
another. The orientation on the spindle is random thus either homologue might be oriented to either pole.
Anaphase I:
The microtubules of the spindle shorten and pull the centromeres toward the poles, dragging both sister
chromatids with it. Thus, unlike mitosis, the centromere does not divide in this stage. Because of the random
orientation of the homologous chromosomes on the equatorial plate, a pole may receive either homologue of
each pair. Thus, the genes on different chromosomes assort independently.
Telophase I:
The homologous chromosome pairs have separated and now a member of each pair is at the opposite ends of
the spindle. Now at each pole is a cluster of “haploid” chromosomes. The number has been reduced from 46 to
23 at each pole. However, each chromosome still consists of two sister chromatids attached by a common
centromere. This “duplication condition” will be corrected in the second meiotic division. Now the spindle
disappears, the chromosomes uncoil and become long and thin, and a new nuclear membrane forms around each
cluster of chromosomes at the opposite poles. Cytokinesis occurs and we have two new cells formed at the end
of the first meiotic division.

MEIOSIS II:
The second meiotic division closely resembles the occurrences in mitosis.
Prophase II:
In each of the two daughter cells produced in the first meiotic division, a spindle forms, the chromosomes
shorten, coil, and thicken. The nuclear membrane disappears but no duplication of DNA occurs.
Metaphase II:
In each of the two daughter cells, the chromosomes line up on the equatorial plate. Spindle fibers bind to both
sides of the centromere. Each chromosome consists of two sister chromatids and one centromere.
Anaphase II:
The centromeres of the chromosomes divide. The spindle fibers contract, pulling the sister chromatids apart and
moving each one to an opposite pole. Now each chromosome is truly haploid, consisting of one chromatid and
one centromere.
Telophase II:
New nuclear membranes form around the separated chromatids, the spindle disappears, and the chromosomes
uncoil and decondense. The result is four haploid daughter cells each containing one half the genetic material of
the original parent cell or in our case each cell having 23 chromosomes instead of 46.
e) What are the similarities and differences between meiosis and mitosis?

- Differences between Mitosis and Meiosis:

Comparison based on Mitosis Meiosis
Differences
1. Meaning Mitosis is the process of cell division Meiosis is the process occurs in
which occurs in all types of cells the specialized type of cell called
(excluding sex cells), with the purpose as meiocytes, which supports the
of the asexual reproduction or the sexual reproduction by the
vegetative growth. gametogenesis.

2. Discovered by Walther Flemming Oscar Hertwig

3. Steps of cycle Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase and Prophase I, Metaphase I, Anaphase
Telophase. I, Telophase I; (Meiosis II),
Prophase II, Metaphase II,
Anaphase II and Telophase II.
4. Occurs in Somatic cells Germ cells
5. Functions - They are functional at the time of - This process a major role in
cellular growth. gamete formation and in sexual
- Active during the body repair and reproduction.
healing mechanisms. - These are active in maintaining
the number of chromosomes.
6. Nuclear Division There is only one nuclear division. There are two nuclear divisions.
7. Homologs There is no pairing of Homologs. Pairing occurs of Homologs.
8. Mother Cell Mother cell can be diploid or haploid. Mother cell is always diploid.
9. Number of The number of chromosomes remains The chromosome number is
chromosomes same, 46 chromosomes. reduced by half, 23.
10. Daughter cell There is the production of two daughter There is the production of four
cells, which are diploid. haploid daughter cells.
11. Type of cell produced Does not produce sex cells. Autosomal Only sex cells are produced which
cells are produced. can be either male sperm cells or
female egg cells.
12. Presence of Nucleus Nucleoli appear again in telophase. It is absent in telophase I.
13. Presence of Chiasmata Chiasmata absent. Chiasmata are seen during
prophase I and metaphase I.
14. Splitting of centromeres The splitting of centromeres takes place There is no such splitting of the
during anaphase. centromere in anaphase I and II.
15. Spindle Fibers Spindle Fibers completely disappear in Present in telophase I.
telophase.
16. Other Features - There is no process of synapsis and - Synapsis and crossing over take
crossing over. place of the Homologous
- The genetic identity remains same chromosomes during meiosis I.
even after the mitotic division. - Genetic variation is noticed
- The pairing of chromosomes does not during meiotic division.
occur. - The pairing of chromosomes
 - occurs during zygotene of
prophase I and continue till
metaphase I.

- Similarities between Mitosis and Meiosis:

• Both mitosis and meiosis are types of cell division.

• Both mitosis and meiosis produce daughter cells.

• Mitosis and Meiosis both occur in the nucleus of the cell and are observable under the light microscope.

• Both the process involves the division of the cell.

• Mitosis and Meiosis happen in M-phase of the cell cycle. Prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase are
the typical stages in both the cycle.

• Synthesis of DNA occurs in both the cycles.

• There is no involvement of the cells of the cardiac muscles tissue and the nervous tissue in the process of
Mitosis and Meiosis as they once formed, do not undergo further any division.
 PART B
(MALE REPRODUCTIVE
SYSTEM)
Organs of the male reproductive system produce and maintain male sex cells, or sperm cells; transport
these cells and supporting fluids to the outside; and secrete male sex hormones. A male’s primary sex organs
(gonads) are the two testes in which sperm cells and male sex hormones form. The accessory sex organs of the
male reproductive system are the internal and external reproductive organs.
The internal accessory organs of the male reproductive system are specialized to nurture and transport
sperm cells. These structures include the two epididymides, two ductus deferentia, two ejaculatory ducts, and
urethra, as well as the two seminal vesicles, prostate gland, and two bulbourethral glands.
The male external reproductive organs are the scrotum, which encloses the testes, and the penis. The urethra
passes through the penis.
Organs and Structures:
i) List the organs of the male reproductive system?
a) Essential organs b) Accessory organs
Essential organs Accessory Organs
Gonads System of Ducts Supporting Structures Accessory sex glands

- Testes - Epididymis - Seminal Vesicles - Penis

- Ductus (vas) deferens - Prostate - Scrotum
- Ejaculatory ducts - Bulbourethral (Cowper’s) gland
- Urethra

ii) Testes:
a) Location:
The testes develop near the kidneys, in the posterior portion of the abdomen, and they usually begin their
descent into the scrotum through the inguinal canals (passageways in the lower anterior abdominal wall); during
the latter half of the seventh month of fetal development.
b) Structure:
The testes, or testicles, are paired ovoid structures measuring about 5 cm (2 in.) length and 2.5 cm (1 in.) in
diameter. A tough, white, fibrous capsule encloses each testis. Along the capsule’s posterior border, the
connective tissue thickens and extends into the testis, forming thin septa that divide the testis into about 250
lobules. Each testis (singular) has a mass of 10–15 grams.
A serous membrane called the tunica vaginalis, which is derived from the peritoneum and forms during the
descent of the testes, partially covers the testes.
Internal to the tunica vaginalis the testis is surrounded by is a white fibrous capsule composed of dense irregular
connective tissue, the tunica albuginea; it extends inward, forming septa that divide the testis into a series of
internal compartments called lobules. Each of the 200–300 lobules contain one to three tightly coiled tubules,
the seminiferous tubules, where sperm are produced.
The seminiferous tubules contain two types of cells: spermatogenic cells, the sperm-forming cells, and
sustentacular cells or Sertoli cells, which have several functions in supporting spermatogenesis.
In the spaces between adjacent seminiferous tubules are clusters of cells called interstitial cells or Leydig cells.
These cells secrete testosterone, the most prevalent androgen.
c) Function:
The main function of the testes is producing and storing haploid sperm. They’re also crucial for creating
testosterone and other male hormones called androgens.

iii) Epididymis:
a) Location:
Each epididymis is connected to ducts within a testis. The epididymis emerges from the top of the testis,
descends along the posterior surface of the testis, and then courses upward to become the ductus deferens.
b) Structure:
The epididymis (epididymides; plural) is a comma-shaped organ about 4 cm (1.5 in.) long. Each epididymis
consists mostly of the tightly coiled ductus epididymis. The efferent ducts from the testis join the ductus
epididymis at the larger, superior portion of the epididymis called the head or caput epididymis. It is the
proximal part of the epididymis and carries the sperms from the testis. The body or corpus epididymis, is the
highly convoluted, narrow midportion of the epididymis. The last, smaller and inferior portion of the epididymis
is the tail or cauda. It takes part in carrying the sperms to the vas deferens. At its distal end, the tail of the
epididymis continues to form the less convoluted ductus (vas) deferens.
The ductus epididymis would measure about 6 m (20 ft) in length if it were uncoiled. It is lined with
pseudostratified columnar epithelium and encircled by layers of smooth muscle. The free surfaces of the
columnar cells contain stereocilia, which despite their name are long, branching microvilli (not cilia) that
increase the surface area for the reabsorption of degenerated sperm. Connective tissue around the muscle layer
attaches the loops of the ductus epididymis and carries blood vessels and nerves.

c) Function:
Functionally, the epididymis is the site of sperm maturation, the process by which sperm acquire motility and
the ability to fertilize an ovum. This occurs over a period of about 14 days. The epididymis also helps propel
sperm into the ductus (vas) deferens during sexual arousal by peristaltic contraction of its smooth muscle. In
addition, the epididymis stores sperm, which remain viable here for up to several months. Any stored sperm that
are not ejaculated by that time are eventually reabsorbed.

iv) Vas deferens:

a) Location:
Within the tail of the epididymis, the ductus epididymis becomes less convoluted, and its diameter increases.
Beyond this point, the duct is known as the ductus deferens or vas deferens, it ascends along the posterior
border of the epididymis through the spermatic cord and then enters the pelvic cavity. There it loops over the
ureter and passes over the side and down the posterior surface of the urinary bladder.
b) Structure:
The ductus deferens, is about 45 cm (18 in.) long. The dilated terminal portion of the ductus deferens is the
ampulla. The mucosa of the ductus deferens consists of pseudostratified columnar epithelium and lamina
propria (areolar connective tissue). The muscularis is composed of three layers of smooth muscle; the inner and
outer layers are longitudinal, and the middle layer is circular.
c) Function:
Functionally, the ductus deferens conveys sperm during sexual arousal from the epididymis toward the urethra
by peristaltic contractions of its muscular coat. Like the epididymis, the ductus deferens also can store sperm for
several months. Any stored sperm that are not ejaculated by that time are eventually reabsorbed.
d) Correlation with female reproductive system:
The embryos each have four ducts, the subsequent fate of which is of great significance in the eventual
anatomical differences between men and women. Two ducts closely related to the developing urinary system
are called Mesonephric Ducts, or Wolffian Ducts. In males, each mesonephric duct (the precursor structure of
the male internal genitalia) becomes differentiated into four related structures: a duct of the epididymis, a ductus
deferens, an ejaculatory duct, and a seminal vesicle. In females, the mesonephric ducts are largely suppressed.
The other two ducts, called the paramesonephric or Mullerian ducts, persist, in females, to develop into the
fallopian tubes, the uterus, and part of the vagina; in males they are largely suppressed.

v) Ejaculatory Duct:

a) Location:
The ejaculatory duct passes inferiorly and anteriorly through the prostate and open into the urethra at the
seminal colliculus.

b) Structure:
Are paired structures in the male anatomy. Each ejaculatory duct is about 2 cm (1 in.) long and is formed by the
union of the duct from the seminal vesicle and the ampulla of the ductus (vas) deferens. The short ejaculatory
ducts form just superior to the base (superior portion) of the prostate.

c) Function:
They terminate in the prostatic urethra, where they eject sperm and seminal vesicle secretions just before the
release of semen from the urethra to the exterior.

vi) Urethra:
a) Location:
Exits urinary bladder in both sexes. The male urethra first passes through the prostate, then through the deep
muscles of the perineal floor of the pelvis, and then finally through the penis to exit at its tip.

b) Length:
Distance of about 20 cm (8 in.) long.

c) Structure:
The urethra is a small tube leading from the internal urethral orifice in the floor of the urinary bladder to the
exterior of the body. It is the shared terminal duct of the reproductive and urinary systems. The lamina propria
of the male urethra is areolar connective tissue with elastic fibers and a plexus of veins.
The muscularis of the prostatic urethra is composed of mostly circular smooth muscle fibers superficial to the
lamina propria; these circular fibers help form the internal urethral sphincter of the urinary bladder.
The prostatic urethra contains the openings of:
- ducts that transport secretions from the prostate and,

- the seminal vesicles and ductus (vas) deferens, which deliver sperm into the urethra and provide secretions
that both neutralize the acidity of the female reproductive tract and contribute to sperm motility and
viability.
The muscularis of the intermediate (membranous) urethra consists of circularly arranged skeletal muscle fibers
of the deep muscles of the perineum that help form the external urethral sphincter of the urinary bladder.
Several glands and other structures associated with reproduction deliver their contents into the male urethra.
The openings of the ducts of the bulbourethral glands or Cowper’s glands empty into the spongy urethra. They
deliver an alkaline substance prior to ejaculation that neutralizes the acidity of the urethra. The glands also
secrete mucus, which lubricates the end of the penis during sexual arousal. Throughout the urethra, but
especially in the spongy urethra, the openings of the ducts of urethral glands or Littré glands discharge mucus
during sexual arousal and ejaculation.

d) Parts:
The male urethra, which also consists of a deep mucosa and a superficial muscularis, is subdivided into three
anatomical regions:
1. The prostatic urethra, is 2–3 cm (1 in.) long and passes through the prostate.

2. The intermediate (membranous) urethra, is about 1 cm (0.5 in.) in length and is the shortest portion.
It passes through the deep muscles of the perineum.

3. The spongy (penile) urethra, this duct passes through the corpus spongiosum of the penis, and is about
15–20 cm (6–8 in.) long. It is the longest portion of the urethra, passes through the penis, and ends at the
external urethral orifice.

e) Functions:
Drainage tube that transports stored urine from the body. In males, it discharges semen (fluid that contains
sperm) as well.

f) Type of Epithelium:

- The epithelium of the prostatic urethra is continuous with that of the urinary bladder and consists of
transitional epithelium that becomes stratified columnar or pseudostratified columnar epithelium more
distally.
- The mucosa of the intermediate urethra contains stratified columnar or pseudostratified columnar
epithelium.

- The epithelium of the spongy urethra is stratified columnar or pseudostratified columnar epithelium, except
near the external urethral orifice. There it is nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelium.

Accessory Sex Organs:

i) Seminal Vesicles:
a) Location:
Lying posterior to the base of the fundus of the urinary bladder and anterior to the rectum.

b) Structure:
The seminal vesicles are two lobulated, convoluted, membranous pouchlike structures, about 5 cm (2 in.) in
length. The seminal vesicles are composed of three coats:

- an external or areolar coat;

- a middle or muscular coat thinner than in the ductus deferens and arranged in two layers, an outer
longitudinal and inner circular;
- an internal or mucous coat, which is pale, of a whitish brown colour, and presents a delicate reticular
structure.
The epithelium is columnar, and in the diverticula goblet cells are present, the secretion of which increases the
bulk of the seminal fluid. The arteries supplying the seminal vesicles are derived from the middle and inferior
vesical and middle hemorrhoidal. The veins and lymphatics accompany the arteries. The nerves are derived
from the pelvic plexuses.

c) Functions:
The seminal vesicles serve as reservoirs for semen, and secreting a fluid to be added to the secretion of the
testes. Through the seminal vesicle ducts, they secrete an alkaline, viscous fluid that contains fructose (a
monosaccharide sugar), prostaglandins, and clotting proteins that are different from those in blood. The alkaline
nature of the seminal fluid helps to neutralize the acidic environment of the male urethra and female
reproductive tract that otherwise would inactivate and kill sperm. The fructose is used for ATP production by
sperm. Prostaglandins contribute to sperm motility and viability and may stimulate smooth muscle contractions
within the female reproductive tract. The clotting proteins help semen coagulate after ejaculation. Fluid secreted
by the seminal vesicles normally constitutes about 60% of the volume of semen.
 ii) Prostate Glands:
a) Location:
It is inferior to the urinary bladder and surrounds the prostatic urethra. It is enclosed in connective tissue and
composed of many branched tubular glands, whose ducts open into the urethra.

b) Structure:
The prostate is a single, doughnut-shaped gland about the size of a golf ball. It measures about 4 cm (1.6 in.)
from side to side, about 3 cm (1.2 in.) from top to bottom, and about 2 cm (0.8 in.) from front to back.
The prostate slowly increases in size from birth to puberty. It then expands rapidly until about age 30, after
which time its size typically remains stable until about age 45, when further enlargement may occur.

c) Functions:
The prostate gland secretes a thin, milky fluid that is slightly acidic (pH about 6.5) and contains several
substances.
1. Citric acid in prostatic fluid is used by sperm for ATP production via the Krebs cycle.
2. Several proteolytic enzymes, such as prostate-specific antigen (PSA), pepsinogen, lysozyme, amylase, and
hyaluronidase, eventually break down the clotting proteins from the seminal vesicles.
3. The function of the acid phosphatase secreted by the prostate is unknown.
4. Seminal plasmin in prostatic fluid is an antibiotic that can destroy bacteria. Seminal plasmin may help
decrease the number of naturally occurring bacteria in semen and in the lower female reproductive tract.
Secretions of the prostate enter the prostatic urethra through many prostatic ducts. Prostatic secretions make up
about 25% of the volume of semen and contribute to sperm motility and viability.

iii) Bulbourethral (Cowper’s) glands:

a) Location:
They are located inferior to the prostate on either side of the membranous urethra within the deep muscles of the
perineum, and their ducts open into the spongy urethra.

b) Structure:
The paired bulbourethral glands, or Cowper’s glands, are about the size of peas. These glands, measure only
about 1 cm (0.4 inch) in diameter, and have ducts that empty into the urethra, the tube through which both urine
and semen pass. They are composed of a network of small tubes, or tubules, and saclike structures; between the
tubules are fibers of muscle and elastic tissue that give the glands structural support. Cells within the tubules
and sacs contain droplets of mucus, a thick protein compound.

c) Function:
Functionally, during sexual arousal, the bulbourethral glands secrete an alkaline fluid into the urethra that
protects the passing sperm by neutralizing acids from urine in the urethra. They also secrete mucus that
lubricates the end of the penis and the lining of the urethra, decreasing the number of sperms damaged during
ejaculation. Some males release a drop or two of this mucus upon sexual arousal and erection. The fluid does
not contain sperm cells.

Supporting Structures:
i) Scrotum:
a) Location:
The scrotum can be found hanging from the body at the front of the pelvic cavity, between the legs. It sits next
to the upper thighs, just below the penis.

b) Structure:
The scrotum, the supporting structure for the testes, consists of loose skin and underlying subcutaneous layer
that hangs from the root (attached portion) of the penis. Externally, the scrotum looks like a single pouch of skin
separated into lateral portions by a median ridge called the raphe. Internally, the scrotal septum divides the
scrotum into two sacs each containing a single testis. The septum is made up of a subcutaneous layer and
muscle tissue called the dartos muscle, which is composed of bundles of smooth muscle fibers. The dartos
muscle is also found in the subcutaneous layer of the scrotum. Associated with each testis in the scrotum is the
cremaster muscle, a series of small bands of skeletal muscle that descend as an extension of the internal oblique
muscle through the spermatic cord to surround the testes.

c) Functions:
The scrotum has a protective function and acts as a climate control system for the testes. The location of the
scrotum and the contraction of its muscle fibers regulate the temperature of the testes. Normal sperm production
requires a temperature about 2–3o C below core body temperature. This lowered temperature is maintained
within the scrotum because it is outside the pelvic cavity. In response to cold temperatures, the cremaster and
dartos muscles contract. Contraction of the cremaster muscles moves the testes closer to the body, where they
can absorb body heat. Contraction of the dartos muscle causes the scrotum to become tight (wrinkled in
appearance), which reduces heat loss. Exposure to warmth reverses these actions.
Scrotal tissues help protect the structures inside the testicles, where sperm and important hormones are
produced.
In addition, the scrotum protects the testicles and major blood vessels, as well as tubes that release sperm from
the testicles into the penis for ejaculation.
 ii) Penis:
a) Location:
The penis is located in the pubic region superior to the scrotum and inferior to the umbilicus along the body’s
midline.

b) Parts:
The penis consists of a root, a body, and a glans penis.

- The root of the penis connects the penis to the bones of the pelvis via several tough ligaments.

- Roughly cylindrical in shape, the body of the penis is the largest region. Large masses of erectile tissue in
the body allow this region to harden and expand greatly during sexual stimulation.
- The glans penis is the enlarged tip of the penis that contains the urethral orifice where semen and urine exit
the body. Erectile tissue in the glans causes this region to harden and expand in width during sexual
stimulation.

c) Structure:
It is cylindrical in shape and consist of a body, glans penis and root. Deep to the skin of the penis is a layer of
subcutaneous tissue containing blood vessels and protein fibers that loosely anchor the skin to the underlying
tissue.
Under the subcutaneous tissue is a tough and elastic layer of fibrous connective tissue known as the tunica
albuginea. The tunica albuginea plays an important role by providing strength and support to the penis when it
becomes erect.
The body of the penis is composed of three cylindrical masses of erectile tissue, each surrounded by fibrous
tissue called the tunica albuginea.
The two dorsolateral masses are called the corpora cavernosa penis (corpora: main bodies; cavernosa:
hollow). The smaller midventral mass, the corpus spongiosum penis, contains the spongy urethra and keeps it
open during ejaculation. Skin and a subcutaneous layer enclose all three masses, which consist of erectile tissue.
Erectile tissue is composed of numerous blood sinuses (vascular spaces) lined by endothelial cells and
surrounded by smooth muscle and elastic connective tissue. The distal end of the corpus spongiosum penis is a
slightly enlarged, acorn-shaped region called the glans penis; its margin is the corona. The distal urethra
enlarges within the glans penis and forms a terminal slit-like opening, the external urethral orifice.
Covering the glans penis in an uncircumcised penis is the loosely fitting prepuce, or foreskin.
The root of the penis is the attached portion (proximal portion). It consists of the bulb of the penis, the
expanded posterior continuation of the base of the corpus spongiosum penis, and the crura of the penis, the two
separated and tapered portions of the corpora cavernosa penis. The bulb of the penis is attached to the inferior
surface of the deep muscles of the perineum and is enclosed by the bulbospongiosus muscle, a muscle that aids
ejaculation. Each crus of the penis bends laterally away from the bulb of the penis to attach to the ischial and
inferior pubic rami and is surrounded by the ischiocavernosus muscle.
The weight of the penis is supported by two ligaments that are continuous with the fascia of the penis.
 - The fundiform ligament arises from the inferior part of the linea alba.

- The suspensory ligament of the penis arises from the pubic symphysis.

d) Functions:
The penis functions as both a reproductive organ and an excretory organ. As a reproductive organ, the penis
becomes erect during sexual intercourse in order to deliver semen more effectively into the vagina. Semen
travels through the urethra to the tip of the penis where it is ejaculated out of the body.
As an excretory organ, the penis delivers urine out of the body through the urethra.

Seminal Fluid:

a) Describe seminal fluid:

In addition to water, seminal fluid may contain immune and glandular cells, salts, carbohydrates, organic acids,
vitamins, hormones, proteins, and microbes.
The majority of seminal fluid components are produced in specialized accessory glands, perhaps the best known
being the prostate of male mammals.
Seminal fluid supports the activities of sperm by providing energy and immune defense along with
contributions to their motility, transportation, capacitation, and fertilizing ability. Once in contact with females,
seminal fluid may stimulate ovulation, modulate immune activity, provide nutrition, alter reproductive-tract pH,
and form mating plugs.
Male Fertility:
a) Semen:
Semen is a mixture of sperm and seminal fluid, a liquid that consists of the secretions of the seminiferous
tubules, seminal vesicles, prostate, and bulbourethral glands.
The functional role of semen coagulation is not known, but the proteins involved are different from those that
cause blood coagulation. After about 10 to 20 minutes, semen re-liquefies because prostate-specific antigen
(PSA) and other proteolytic enzymes produced by the prostate break down the clot.
Abnormal or delayed liquefaction of clotted semen may cause complete or partial immobilization of sperm,
thereby inhibiting their movement through the cervix of the uterus. After passing through the uterus and uterine
tube, the sperm are affected by secretions of the uterine tube in a process called capacitation. The presence of
blood in semen is called hemo-spermia. In most cases, it is caused by inflammation of the blood vessels lining
the seminal vesicles; it is usually treated with antibiotics.

b) Volume of semen:
The volume of semen in a typical ejaculation is 2.5–5 milliliters (mL), with 50–150 million sperm per ml. When
the number falls below 20 million/mL, the male is likely to be infertile. A very large number of sperms is
required for successful fertilization because only a tiny fraction ever reaches the secondary oocyte. Despite the
slight acidity of prostatic fluid, semen has a slightly alkaline pH of 7.2–7.7 due to the higher pH and larger
volume of fluid from the seminal vesicles. The prostatic secretion gives semen a milky appearance, and fluids
from the seminal vesicles and bulbourethral glands give it a sticky consistency.

c) Sperm:
Males produce sperm cells continually, starting a puberty. Sperm cells collect in the lumen of each seminiferous
tubule, and then pass to the epididymis, where they accumulate and mature.
A mature sperm cell is a tiny, tadpole-shaped structure about 0.06 millimeters long. It consists of a flattened
head, a cylindrical midpiece (body), and an elongated tail.
The oval head of a sperm cell is composed primarily of a nucleus, developed from a spermatid cell and contains
highly compacted chromatin consisting of 23 chromosomes. A small protrusion at its anterior end, called the
acrosome contains enzymes that help the sperm cell penetrate an egg cell during fertilization. The rest of the
sperm cell develops from the cytoplasm of the spermatid cell.
The midpiece of a sperm cell has a central, filamentous core and many mitochondria in a spiral which produce
the high energy molecule adenosine triphosphate (ATP) that provides the energy for locomotion.
The tail (flagellum) consists of several microtubules enclosed in an extension of the cell membrane. The
mitochondria provide ATP for the tail’s lashing movement, which propels the sperm cell through fluid, as it
swims its way up the female reproductive tract in search of an ovum.

d) Numbers:
The quantity of sperm cells that men produce varies widely. In general, it is said that men may produce between
two milliliters and five milliliters of semen each time they ejaculate, and that each milliliter may contain from
20 million to 300 million sperm cells per day.
That means a fertile man may produce between 40 million and 1800 million sperm cells in total, though the
majority produce between 40 and 60 million sperm cells per milliliter, giving an average total of 80 to 300
million sperm per ejaculation.
Once ejaculated, sperms have a life expectancy of about 48 hours in the female reproductive tract. They will not
survive very long at all outside the female reproductive tract in the external environment.

e) Normal/Abnormal sperms:
A normal sperm has an oval head about 5–6 micrometres long and 2.5–3.5 micrometres wide, and a single long
tail. When you receive results from your semen analysis, you will see a number that represents the percentage of
sperm in the sample that have this normal size and shape. There are different standards for what counts as
normal, but a normal morphology range is between 4%-14%.
Abnormal sperm have head or tail defects — such as a large or misshapen head or a crooked or double tail.
These defects might affect the ability of the sperm to reach and penetrate an egg. However, having a large
percentage of misshapen sperm isn't uncommon. This matter because having an abnormal shape might make it
difficult for them to penetrate an egg. Abnormal sperm morphology may lead to male infertility.
Blood Vessels and Nerves:
a) Arteries:
Gonadal Artery:
The reproductive system receives blood supply from the gonadal artery, which is a generic term for a paired
artery, arising from the front of the abdominal aorta a little below the renal arteries for each gonad. Specifically,
it refers to:
- the testicular artery
Each gonad arteries passes obliquely downward and lateralward behind the peritoneum, resting on the Psoas
major, the right lying in front of the inferior vena cava and behind the middle colic and ileocolic arteries and the
terminal part of the ileum, the left behind the left colic and sigmoid arteries and the iliac colon. Each cross
obliquely over the ureter and the lower part of the external iliac artery to reach the abdominal inguinal ring,
through which it passes, and accompanies the other constituents of the spermatic cord along the inguinal canal
to the scrotum, where it becomes tortuous, and divides into several branches. The testis has collateral blood
supply from:
1. The cremasteric artery (a branch of the inferior epigastric artery, which is a branch of the external iliac
artery), and

2. The artery to the ductus deferens (a branch of the inferior vesical artery, which is a branch of the internal
iliac artery). Therefore, if the testicular artery is ligated, e.g., during a Fowler-Stevens orchiopexy for a
high undescended testis, the testis will usually survive on these other blood supplies.

b) Veins:
Gonadal vein:
Refers to the blood vessel that carries blood away from the gonad (testis, ovary) toward the heart. In males, the
gonadal vein is called the testicular vein. The left gonadal vein drains into the left renal vein, whereas the right
drains directly into the inferior vena cava.

c) Lymphatics:
Lymphatic drainage of the testes follows the testicular arteries back to the paraaortic lymph nodes, while lymph
from the scrotum drains to the inguinal lymph nodes.

d) Nerve supply:
Gonadal plexus:
The collection of parasympathetic and sympathetic nerves to the gonads.

Cremasteric Muscle:
In human males, the Cremaster muscle is a thin layer of skeletal muscle found in the inguinal canal and scrotum
between the external and internal layers of spermatic cord. One paired of Cremaster muscle is found in the male
body.
The Cremaster muscle is an involuntary muscle which functions is to raise and lower the testes in order to
regulate scrotal temperature for optimal spermatogenesis and survival of the resultant spermatozoa. It does this
by increasing or decreasing the exposed surface area or slower dissipation of body heat.
Sexual Dysfunction:
a) Premature ejaculation:
A premature ejaculation is ejaculation that occurs too early, for example, during foreplay or on or shortly after
penetration. It is usually caused by anxiety, other psychological causes, or an unusually sensitive foreskin or
glans penis. For most males, premature ejaculation can be overcome by various techniques (such as squeezing
the penis between the glans penis and shaft as ejaculation approaches), behavioral therapy, or medication.

b) Erectile dysfunction:
Erectile dysfunction (ED), previously termed impotence, is the consistent inability of an adult male to ejaculate
or to attain or hold an erection long enough for sexual intercourse. Many cases of impotence are caused by
insufficient release of nitric oxide (NO), which relaxes the smooth muscle of the penile arterioles and erectile
tissue. The drug Viagra® (sildenafil) enhances smooth muscle relaxation by nitric oxide in the penis. Other
causes of erectile dysfunction include diabetes mellitus, physical abnormalities of the penis, systemic disorders
such as syphilis, vascular disturbances (arterial or venous obstructions), neurological disorders, surgery,
testosterone deficiency, and drugs (alcohol, antidepressants, antihistamines, antihypertensives, narcotics,
nicotine, and tranquilizers). Psychological factors such as anxiety or depression, fear of causing pregnancy, fear
of sexually transmitted diseases, religious inhibitions, and emotional immaturity may also cause ED.

c) Viagra:
Viagra is a prescription medicine that was initially designed to help lower blood pressure (pulmonary arterial
hypertension) but is now typically used to treat erectile dysfunction and impotence in men. It works by
increasing blood flow to the penis in order to help a man get and sustain an erection when he is sexually aroused
or stimulated. The active ingredient in Viagra is sildenafil and the dose ranges from 25mg to 100mg per tablet.
Effects:

- Viagra can help men who cannot achieve or sustain an erection due to erectile dysfunction. It improves the
erectile response when a man is already sexually stimulated, but it does not provide sexual stimulation. If
there is no sexual stimulation, Viagra will not work.

- When sexual stimulation occurs, nitric oxide is released by the nervous system in the erectile tissue of the
penis. Nitric oxide stimulates an enzyme that produces messenger cyclic guanosine monophosphate
(cGMP). cGMP causes the arteries in the penis to dilate, so that the arteries and the erectile tissue fill with
blood. An erection results.

- Viagra prevents cGMP from becoming degraded, so the blood flow and the erection can continue.
Side effects:
According to clinical trial results, the most common side effects include:
- Headaches
- nasal congestion
- impaired vision
- photophobia (sensitivity to light)
- dyspepsia (indigestion)
- Less commonly, some users have experienced acyanopsia, where everything appears to have a tinted blue
tinge.
- In very rare cases, Viagra use can lead to non-arteritic anterior ischemic optic neuropathy, or damage to the
optic nerve.

Other potential side effects include:

- rarely, priapism, a painful, long-lasting erection
- heart attack
- sudden hearing loss
- increased intraocular pressure
- ventricular arrhythmias
- Viagra can decrease blood supply to the optic nerve, causing sudden vision loss. This very rare adverse event
occurs mainly in people with heart disease, hypertension, diabetes, high cholesterol, or pre-existing eye
problems. Nobody really knows whether the vision loss was caused by the Viagra.
Prostate diseases:
a) List and briefly describe
b) Include Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia (BPH) and Cancer of the Prostate.

Types of prostate disease:

The three most common forms of prostate disease are inflammation (prostatitis), non-cancerous enlargement of
the prostate (benign prostatic hyperplasia, or BPH) and prostate cancer. A man may experience one or more of
these conditions.

Symptoms of prostate disease:

In its earliest stages, prostate disease may or may not be associated with symptoms. The symptoms of prostate
disease depend on the condition, but may include:

- difficulties urinating, such as trouble starting the flow of urine

- the urge to urinate often, particularly at night
- feeling as though the bladder can't be fully emptied
- painful urination
- blood in the urine or blood coming from the urethra independent of urination.

NB: Blood in the urine is often due to causes not related to the prostate. Always see your doctor if you find
blood in your urine.
Diagnosis of prostate disease:
Prostate disease is diagnosed using a variety of tests, including:

- physical examination, including digital rectal examination (DRE), where the doctor inserts a gloved finger
into your rectum to check the size of your prostate

- blood test for prostate specific antigen (PSA test; discuss this with your doctor)

- mid-stream urine (MSU) tests to look for infection or blood in the urine

- ultrasound scans and urinary flow studies

- biopsies of the prostate.

1. Prostatitis (Inflammation of the prostate):

Prostatitis is swelling and inflammation of the prostate gland, a walnut-sized gland situated directly below the
bladder in men. The prostate gland produces fluid (semen) that nourishes and transports sperm.
Prostatitis often causes painful or difficult urination. Other symptoms include pain in the groin, pelvic area or
genitals and sometimes flu-like symptoms.
While prostatitis can affect men of any age, it is more common in younger men, aged between 30 and 50 years.
The main types of prostatitis are:

- Bacterial prostatitis – acute or chronic bacterial infection

- Non-bacterial prostatitis – inflamed prostate, also known as chronic pelvic pain syndrome (CPPS).
In most cases, the cause of prostatitis is unknown. Bacterial prostatitis responds well to antibiotic drugs that can
get into the prostate. Non-bacterial prostatitis, or Chronic Pelvic Pain Syndrome, is the most common form of
prostatitis and is more difficult to manage. Symptoms vary from one man to another. There is no single test to
diagnose CPPS, so your doctor will need to rule out other possible causes of your symptoms before making a
diagnosis.
Possible causes of CPPS include:

- a past bacterial prostatitis infection

- irritation from some chemicals
- a problem with the nerves connecting the lower urinary tract
- problems with pelvic floor muscles
- sexual abuse
- chronic anxiety problems.

Treatment for prostatitis may include antibacterial drugs and supportive treatments, depending on the type of
prostatitis.

2. Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia (BPH):

Non-cancerous enlargement of the prostate, or benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH), is more common as men get
older. It is not life threatening, but can significantly affect your quality of life.
The enlargement of the prostate gland (which surrounds the top of the urethra) causes the urethra to narrow, and
puts pressure on the base of the bladder. This can lead to obstruction (blockage) in the flow of urine.
Obstructions usually show up as lower urinary tract symptoms that sometimes result in the urine staying in the
bladder when it's supposed to be released. When this happens suddenly, it's called acute urinary retention. This
is very painful and is usually relieved temporarily by inserting a thin tube (a catheter) to release the urine.
Chronic (ongoing) retention, which is less common, can lead to a dangerous, painless accumulation of urine in
the bladder. An uncommon form of chronic urinary retention is associated with high bladder pressures, which
can damage kidney function.
Treatment for BPH may include medications to relax the smooth muscle of the gland or to shrink the size of
the prostate, and surgery to produce a permanently widened channel in the part of the urethra that passes
through the prostate.
3. Prostate cancer:
Prostate cancer typically affects men over the age of 50 years. Around 16,000 Australians are diagnosed every
year. The cause remains unknown, although advancing age and family history are known to be contributing
factors.
In the early stages, the cancer cells are confined to the prostate gland. With the more aggressive types of
prostate cancer, cancer cells enter the vascular and lymphatic systems early and spread to other parts of the
body where they develop secondary tumours, particularly in the bones.
Treatment for prostate cancer is tailored to suit individual circumstances. The nature of the cancer, other health
problems the person may have, and their wishes will all be taken into account.
Management approaches for prostate cancer include:

- active surveillance
- surgery – for example, prostatectomy (removal of the prostate)
- radiotherapy
- ablative treatments such as high-intensity focused ultrasound (HIFU) and NanoKnife®
- hormone treatment (androgen deprivation therapy)
- chemotherapy
- watchful waiting.

PART c
 (female REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM)
The organs of the female reproductive system produce and maintain the female sex cells, the egg cells (or
oocytes); transport these cells to the site of fertilization; provide a favorable environment for a developing
offspring; move the offspring to the outside; and produce female sex hormones. A female’s primary sex organs
(gonads) are the two ovaries, which produce the female sex cells and sex hormones. The accessory sex organs
of the female reproductive system are the internal and external reproductive organs.
The internal accessory organs of the female reproductive system include a pair of uterine tubes, a uterus,
and a vagina.
The external accessory organs of the female reproductive system include the labia majora, labia minora,
clitoris, and vestibular glands. These structures surround the openings of the urethra and vagina, and compose
the vulva

Organs and Structures:

i) List the organs of the female reproductive system?

a) Essential b) Accessory

Essential Organs Accessory Organs

Gonads Internal Organs External Organs
- Ovaries - Uterus - Vulva or pudendum
- Vagina - Mammary glands (breast)
- Fallopian Tubes or Oviducts (Uterine Tubes) - Labia majora
- Labia minora
- Clitoris
- Vestibular glands

i) Uterus:
a) Location:
It is located medially within the anterior portion of the pelvic cavity, superior to the vagina, and usually bends
forward over the urinary bladder.

b) Parts:
Anatomical subdivisions of the uterus include
(1) A dome-shaped portion superior to the uterine tubes called the fundus,
(2) a tapering central portion called the body, and
(3) an inferior narrow portion called the cervix that opens into the vagina. Between the body of the uterus and
the cervix is the isthmus, a constricted region about 1 cm (0.5 in.) long. The interior of the body of the uterus is
called the uterine cavity, and the interior of the cervix is called the cervical canal. The cervical canal opens into
the uterine cavity at the internal os and into the vagina at the external os.
Normally, the body of the uterus projects anteriorly and superiorly over the urinary bladder in a position called
anteflexion. The cervix projects inferiorly and posteriorly and enters the anterior wall of the vagina at nearly a
right angle. Several ligaments that are either extensions of the parietal peritoneum or fibromuscular cords
maintain the position of the uterus. The paired broad ligaments are double folds of peritoneum attaching the
uterus to either side of the pelvic cavity.
- The paired uterosacral ligaments, also peritoneal extensions, lie on either side of the rectum and connect
the uterus to the sacrum.
- The cardinal (lateral cervical) ligaments are located inferior to the bases of the broad ligaments and extend
from the pelvic wall to the cervix and vagina. The round ligaments are bands of fibrous connective tissue
between the layers of the broad ligament; they extend from a point on the uterus just inferior to the uterine tubes
to a portion of the labia majora of the external genitalia. Although the ligaments normally maintain the
anteflexed position of the uterus, they also allow the uterine body enough movement such that the uterus may
become mal-positioned.

c) Structure:
The uterus is a hollow, muscular organ shaped somewhat like an inverted pear. The size of the uterus changes
greatly during pregnancy. In its nonpregnant, adult state, the uterus is about 7 centimeters long, 5 centimeters
wide (at its broadest point), and 2.5 centimeters in diameter. During pregnancy, the uterus expands to 500 times
its normal size.
Histologically, the uterus consists of three layers of tissue:

- perimetrium,
- myometrium, and
- endometrium
The outer layer—the perimetrium or serosa—is part of the visceral peritoneum; it is composed of simple
squamous epithelium and areolar connective tissue. Laterally, it becomes the broad ligament. Anteriorly, it
covers the urinary bladder and forms a shallow pouch, the rectouterine pouch. Posteriorly, it covers the rectum
and forms a deep pouch between the uterus and urinary bladder, the rectouterine pouch or pouch of Douglas—
the most inferior point in the pelvic cavity.
The middle layer of the uterus, the myometrium, consists of three layers of smooth muscle fibers that are
thickest in the fundus and thinnest in the cervix. The thicker middle layer is circular; the inner and outer layers
are longitudinal or oblique. During labor and childbirth, coordinated contractions of the myometrium in
response to oxytocin from the posterior pituitary help expel the fetus from the uterus.
The inner layer of the uterus, the endometrium, is highly vascularized and has three components:
(1) An innermost layer composed of simple columnar epithelium (ciliated and secretory cells) lines the lumen.
(2) An underlying endometrial stroma is a very thick region of lamina propria (areolar connective tissue).
(3) Endometrial (uterine) glands develop as invaginations of the luminal epithelium and extend almost to the
myometrium. The endometrium is divided into two layers. The stratum functionalis (functional layer) lines the
uterine cavity and sloughs off during menstruation. The deeper layer, the stratum basalis (basal layer), is
permanent and gives rise to a new stratum functionalis after each menstruation.

d) Function:
The uterus (womb) serves as part of the pathway for sperm deposited in the vagina to reach the uterine tubes. It
is also the site of implantation of a fertilized ovum (if the secondary oocyte is fertilized in the uterine tube,
becoming a zygote), development of the fetus during pregnancy, and labor. During reproductive cycles when
implantation does not occur, the uterus is the source of menstrual flow.

ii) Fallopian tubes (Aka Uterine tubes and Oviducts)

a) Location:
Females have two uterine (fallopian) tubes, or oviducts, that extend laterally from the uterus.

b) Parts:
Histologically, the uterine tubes are composed of three layers:
- mucosa,
- muscularis, and
- serosa.
The mucosa consists of epithelium and lamina propria (areolar connective tissue). The epithelium contains
ciliated simple columnar cells, which function as a “ciliary conveyor belt” to help move a fertilized ovum (or
secondary oocyte) within the uterine tube toward the uterus, and non-ciliated cells called peg cells, which have
microvilli and secrete a fluid that provides nutrition for the ovum.
The middle layer, the muscularis, is composed of an inner, thick, circular ring of smooth muscle and an outer,
thin region of longitudinal smooth muscle. Peristaltic contractions of the muscularis and the ciliary action of the
mucosa help move the oocyte or fertilized ovum toward the uterus.
The outer layer of the uterine tubes is a serous membrane, the serosa.
c) Structure:
The tubes, which measure about 10 cm (4 in.) long, lie within the folds of the broad ligaments of the uterus. The
funnel-shaped portion of each tube, called the infundibulum, is close to the ovary but is open to the pelvic
cavity. It ends in a fringe of fingerlike projections called fimbriae, one of which is attached to the lateral end of
the ovary.
From the infundibulum, the uterine tube extends medially and eventually inferiorly and attaches to the superior
lateral angle of the uterus. The ampulla of the uterine tube is the widest, longest portion, making up about the
lateral two-thirds of its length. The isthmus of the uterine tube is the more medial, short, narrow, thick-walled
portion that joins the uterus.

d) Function:
They provide a route for sperm to reach an ovum and transport secondary oocytes and fertilized ova from the
ovaries to the uterus.

iii) Ovaries:
a) Location:
The ovaries lie in shallow depressions in the lateral wall of the pelvic cavity. The ovaries, one on either side of
the uterus, descend to the brim of the superior portion of the pelvic cavity during the third month of
development. The ovaries are each attached to the fimbria (tissue that connects the ovaries to the fallopian
tube).

b) Size:
Solid ovoid structures, each about 3.5 centimeters long, 2 centimeters wide, and 1 centimeter thick.

c) Function:
The ovaries are the female gonads, that produce:
(1) gametes, secondary oocytes that develop into mature ova (eggs) after fertilization, and
(2) hormones, including progesterone and estrogens (the female sex hormones), inhibin, and relaxin.

d) Microscopic Structure:
The ovaries, are paired glands that resemble unshelled almonds in size and shape; they are homologous to the
testes (Homologous meaning that the two organs have the same embryonic origin.)
Ovarian tissues are subdivided into two indistinct regions—an inner medulla and an outer cortex. The ovarian
medulla is composed of loose connective tissue and has many blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, and nerve
fibers. The ovarian cortex consists of more compact tissue and has a granular appearance due to tiny masses of
cells called ovarian follicles.
A layer of cuboidal epithelium covers the ovary’s free surface. Just beneath this epithelium is a layer of dense
connective tissue.
Each ovary consists of the following parts:
• The germinal epithelium: is a layer of simple epithelium (low cuboidal or squamous) that covers the surface
of the ovary. We now know that the term germinal epithelium in humans is not accurate because it does not
give rise to ova; the name came about because, at one time, people believed that it did. We have since learned
that the cells that produce ova arise from the yolk sac and migrate to the ovaries during embryonic
development.
• The tunica albuginea: is a whitish capsule of dense irregular connective tissue located immediately deep to
the germinal epithelium.
• The ovarian cortex: is a region just deep to the tunica albuginea. It consists of ovarian follicles (described
shortly) surrounded by dense irregular connective tissue that contains collagen fibers and fibroblast-like cells
called stromal cells.
• The ovarian medulla: is deep to the ovarian cortex. The border between the cortex and medulla is indistinct,
but the medulla consists of more loosely arranged connective tissue and contains blood vessels, lymphatic
vessels, and nerves.

e) Follicles:
Follicles are small sacs of fluid, it is a functional anatomical structure which forms part of the ovary and
contains immature eggs (oocytes) that will mature in a microscopic part of the inner wall of the follicle over
spontaneous or stimulated ovarian cycle in normal conditions.

f) Follicle types:

- Primordial Follicles:
During prenatal (before birth) development of a female, small groups of cells in the outer region of the ovarian
cortex form several million primordial follicles. Each of these structures consists of a single, large cell, called a
primary oocyte, which is closely surrounded by epithelial cells called follicular cells. Early in development,
primary oocytes begin to undergo meiosis, but the process soon halts and does not continue until the individual
reaches’ puberty. Once the primordial follicles appear, no new one’s form. Instead, the number of oocytes in the
ovary steadily declines as many degenerates. Of the several million oocytes that formed in the embryo, only a
million or so remain at birth, and perhaps 400,000 are present at puberty. The ovary releases fewer than 400 or
500 oocytes during a female’s reproductive life.

- Ovarian follicles:
These are in the cortex and consist of oocytes in various stages of development, plus the cells surrounding them.
When the surrounding cells form a single layer, they are called follicular cells; later in development, when they
form several layers, they are referred to as granulosa cells. The surrounding cells nourish the developing oocyte
and begin to secrete estrogens as the follicle grows larger.

- Graafian (matured) follicle:

This is a large, fluid-filled follicle that is ready to rupture and expel its secondary oocyte, a process known as
ovulation.
g) Follicle development:
During early fetal development, primordial (primitive) germ cells migrate from the yolk sac to the ovaries.
There, germ cells differentiate within the ovaries into oogonia. Oogonia are diploid (2n) stem cells that divide
mitotically to produce millions of germ cells. Even before birth, most of these germ cells degenerate in a
process known as atresia. A few, however, develop into larger cells called primary oocytes that enter prophase
of meiosis I during fetal development but do not complete that phase until after puberty. During this arrested
stage of development, each primary oocyte is surrounded by a single layer of flat follicular cells, and the entire
structure is called a primordial follicle.
The ovarian cortex surrounding the primordial follicles consists of collagen fibers and fibroblast-like stromal
cells. At birth, approximately 200,000 to 2,000,000 primary oocytes remain in each ovary. Of these, about
40,000 are still present at puberty, and around 400 will mature and ovulate during a woman’s reproductive
lifetime. The remainder of the primary oocytes undergoes atresia. Each month after puberty until menopause,
gonadotropins (FSH and LH) secreted by the anterior pituitary further stimulate the development of several
primordial follicles, although only one will typically reach the maturity needed for ovulation. A few primordial
follicles start to grow, developing into primary follicles. Each primary follicle consists of a primary oocyte that
is surrounded in a later stage of development by several layers of cuboidal and low-columnar cells called
granulosa cells. The outermost granulosa cells rest on a basement membrane. As the primary follicle grows, it
forms a clear glycoprotein layer called the zona pellucida between the primary oocyte and the granulosa cells.
In addition, stromal cells surrounding the basement membrane begin to form an organized layer called the theca
folliculi. With continuing maturation, a primary follicle develops into a secondary follicle. In a secondary
follicle, the theca differentiates into two layers:
(1) the theca interna, a highly vascularized internal layer of cuboidal secretory cells that secrete estrogens, and
(2) the theca externa, an outer layer of stromal cells and collagen fibers.
In addition, the granulosa cells begin to secrete follicular fluid, which builds up in a cavity called the antrum in
the center of the secondary follicle. The innermost layer of granulosa cells becomes firmly attached to the zona
pellucida and is now called the corona radiata. The secondary follicle eventually becomes larger, turning into a
mature (graafian) follicle. While in this follicle, and just before ovulation, the diploid primary oocyte
completes meiosis I, producing two haploid (n) cells of unequal size—each with 23 chromosomes. The smaller
cell produced by meiosis I, called the first polar body, is essentially a packet of discarded nuclear material. The
larger cell, known as the secondary oocyte, receives most of the cytoplasm. Once a secondary oocyte is formed,
it begins meiosis II but then stops in metaphase.
The mature (graafian) follicle soon ruptures and releases its secondary oocyte, a process known as Ovulation.
At ovulation, the secondary oocyte is expelled into the pelvic cavity together with the first polar body and
corona radiata. Normally these cells are swept into the uterine tube. If fertilization does not occur, the cells
degenerate. If sperm are present in the uterine tube and one penetrates the secondary oocyte, however, meiosis
II resumes. The secondary oocyte splits into two haploid cells, again of unequal size. The larger cell is the ovum
or mature egg; the smaller one is the second polar body. The nuclei of the sperm cell and the ovum then unite,
forming a diploid zygote. If the first polar body undergoes another division to produce two polar bodies, then
the primary oocyte ultimately gives rise to three haploid polar bodies, which all degenerate, and a single haploid
ovum. Thus, one primary oocyte gives rise to a single gamete (an ovum).

iv) Vagina:
a) Location:
The vagina extends upward and back into the pelvic cavity. It is posterior to the urinary bladder and urethra,
anterior to the rectum, and attached to these structures by connective tissues.

b) Structure:
The vagina is a tubular, 10-cm (4-in.) long fibromuscular canal lined with mucous membrane that extends from
the exterior of the body to the uterine cervix. Histologically, it consists of nonkeratinized stratified squamous
epithelium and areolar connective tissue that lies in a series of transverse folds called rugae. Dendritic cells in
the mucosa are antigen-presenting cells. Unfortunately, they also participate in the transmission of viruses—for
example, HIV (the virus that causes AIDS)—to a female during intercourse with an infected male.
The mucosa of the vagina contains large stores of glycogen, the decomposition of which produces organic
acids. The resulting acidic environment retards microbial growth, but it also is harmful to sperm. Alkaline
components of semen, mainly from the seminal vesicles, raise the pH of fluid in the vagina and increase
viability of the sperm.
The muscularis is composed of an outer circular layer and an inner longitudinal layer of smooth muscle that
can stretch considerably to accommodate the penis during sexual intercourse and a child during birth.
The adventitia, the superficial layer of the vagina, consists of areolar connective tissue. It anchors the vagina to
adjacent organs such as the urethra and urinary bladder anteriorly and the rectum and anal canal posteriorly. A
thin fold of vascularized mucous membrane, called the hymen, forms a border around and partially closes the
inferior end of the vaginal opening to the exterior, the vaginal orifice. After its rupture, usually following the
first sexual intercourse, only remnants of the hymen remain.
The vaginal wall has three layers:
- The inner mucosal layer is stratified squamous epithelium. This layer lacks mucous glands; the mucus in the
lumen of the vagina comes from uterine glands and from vestibular glands at the mouth of the vagina.
- The middle muscular layer consists mainly of smooth muscle fibers. A thin band of striated muscle at the
lower end of the vagina helps closes the vaginal opening. Another voluntary muscle (bulbospongiosus) is
primarily responsible for closing this orifice.
- The outer fibrous layer consists of dense connective tissue interlaced with elastic fibers. It attaches the vagina
to surrounding organs.

c) Function:
The vagina conveys uterine secretions, receives the erect penis during sexual intercourse, it serves as the outlet
for menstrual flow, and provides an open channel for the offspring during birth.

v) Vulva:
Vulva or Pudendum
The vulva refers to the external genitals of the female.
• Anterior to the vaginal and urethral openings is the mons pubis, an elevation of adipose tissue covered by skin
and coarse pubic hair that cushions the pubis symphysis.
• From the mons pubis, two longitudinal folds of skin, the labia majora, extend inferiorly and posteriorly. The
labia majora are covered by pubic hair and contain an abundance of adipose tissue, sebaceous (oil) gland and
apocrine sudoriferous (sweat) glands. They are homologous to the scrotum.
• Medial to the labia majora are two smaller folds of skin called the labia minora. Unlike the labia majora, the
labia minora are devoid of pubic hair and fat and have few sudoriferous glands but they do contain many
sebaceous glands. The labia minora are homologous to the spongy urethra.
• The clitoris is a small cylindrical mass of erectile tissue and nerves located at the anterior junction of the labia
minora. A layer of skin called the prepuce of the clitoris is formed at the point where the labia minora unite and
covers the body of the clitoris. The exposed portion of the clitoris is the glans. The clitoris is homologous to the
glans penis in male. It is capable of enlargement upon tactile stimulation and has a role in sexual excitement in
female.
• The region between the labia minora is the vestibule. Within the vestibule are the hymen, the vaginal orifice,
the external urethra orifice and the openings of the ducts of several glands. The vestibule is homologous to the
membranous urethra of males. The vaginal orifice, the opening of the vagina to the exterior. Anterior to the
vaginal orifice and posterior to the clitoris is the external urethral orifice, the opening of the urethral to the
exterior. On either side of the external urethral orifice are the opening of the ducts of the Paraurethral glands
which are embedded in the wall of the urethra which secrete mucus it is homologous with the prostate in males.
On either side of the vagina orifice itself are the greater vestibular (Bartholin) glands, which open by the ducts
into the groove between the hymen and labia minora. They produce a small quantity of mucus during sexual
arousal and intercourse that adds to cervical mucus and also provides lubrication. It is homologous with the
bulbourethral glands in male. Several lesser vestibular glands also open into the vestibule.
• The bulb of the vestibule consists of two elongated masses of erectile tissues just deep to the labia on
either side of the vaginal orifice. The bulb of the vestibule becomes engorged with blood during sexual arousal,
narrowing the vaginal orifice and placing pressure on the penis during intercourse. The bulb of the vestibule is
homologous to the corpus spongiosum and the bulb of the penis in male.

vi) Perineum:
The perineum is a diamond-shaped area medial to the thighs and buttocks of both males and females. In
contains the external genitals and anus. The perineum is bounded anteriorly by the pubic symphysis, laterally by
the ischial tuberosities, and posteriorly by the coccyx. A transverse line drawn between the ischial tuberosities
divided the perineum into an:
(1) Anterior urogenital triangle that contains the external genitalia. The perineal fascia of the urogenital triangle
includes superficial and deep layers. The superficial perineal fascia has a fatty layer and a deeper membranous
layer (Colles fascia). The fatty layer makes up the thickened areas of the labia majora and mons pubis. In males,
the fatty layer is much thinner and is absent in the penis and scrotum.
(2) Posterior anal triangle that contains the anus. They are made u of fat and loose connective tissue, which
helps support the anal canal but is pliable enough to allow for expansion during bowel movements

vii) Breasts (Mammary Glands):

a) Location:
The breasts overlie the pectoralis major muscles and serratus anterior muscles and extend from the second to the
sixth ribs and from the sternum to the axillae and are attached to them by a layer of deep fascia composed of
dense irregular connective tissue.

b) Parts:
Each breast is a hemispheric projection of variable size. Each breast has one pigmented projection, called the
nipple, that has a series of closely spaced openings of ducts called lactiferous ducts, where milk emerges.
The circular pigmented area of skin surrounding the nipple is called the areola, it appears rough because it
contains modified sebaceous (oil) glands. Strands of connective tissue called the suspensory ligaments of the
breast (Cooper’s ligaments) run between the skin and fascia and support the breast.
These ligaments become looser with age or with the excessive strain that can occur in long-term jogging or
high-impact aerobics. Wearing a supportive bra can slow this process and help maintain the strength of the
suspensory ligaments. Within each breast is a mammary gland, a modified sudoriferous (sweat) gland that
produces milk. A mammary gland consists of 15 to 20 lobes, or compartments, separated by a variable amount
of adipose tissue. In each lobe are several smaller compartments called lobules, composed of grapelike clusters
of milk-secreting glands termed alveoli embedded in connective tissue.

c) Functions:
The essential function of the mammary glands are the synthesis, secretion and ejection of milk; these functions,
called lactation, are associated with pregnancy and childbirth.

d) Myoepithelium:
Contraction of myoepithelial cells surrounding the alveoli helps propel milk toward the nipples. When milk is
being produced, it passes from the alveoli into a series of secondary tubules and then into the mammary ducts.
Near the nipple, the mammary ducts expand to form sinuses called lactiferous sinuses, where some milk may be
stored before draining into a lactiferous duct. Each lactiferous duct typically carries milk from one of the lobes
to the exterior.
e) Lactation/and milk ejection:
Milk production is stimulated largely by the hormone prolactin, form the anterior pituitary, with contribution
from progesterone and estrogens. The ejection of milk is stimulated by oxytocin, which is released from the
posterior pituitary in response to the sucking infant on the mother’s nipples (suckling).

The Menstrual Cycle:

Duration/Length:
The duration of the female reproductive cycle typically ranges from 24 to 36 days. The average number of days
is 28.

Phases:
The Female Reproductive Cycle is divided. into four phases:
- the menstrual phase,
- the preovulatory phase,
- ovulation, and
- the postovulatory phase

1. Menstrual Phase:
The menstrual phase, also called menstruation or menses, lasts for roughly the first 5 days of the cycle. (By
convention, the first day of menstruation is day 1 of a new cycle.)
EVENTS IN THE OVARIES
Under the influence of FSH, several primordial follicles develop into primary follicles and then into secondary
follicles. This developmental process may take several months to occur. Therefore, a follicle that begins to
develop at the beginning of a particular menstrual cycle may not reach maturity and ovulate until several
menstrual cycles later.
EVENTS IN THE UTERUS
Menstrual flow from the uterus consists of 50–150 mL of blood, tissue fluid, mucus, and epithelial cells shed
from the endometrium. This discharge occurs because the declining levels of progesterone and estrogens
stimulate release of prostaglandins that cause the uterine spiral arterioles to constrict. As a result, the cells they
supply become oxygen-deprived and start to die. Eventually, the entire stratum functionalis sloughs off. At this
time the endometrium is very thin, about 2–5 mm, because only the stratum basalis remains. The menstrual flow
passes from the uterine cavity through the cervix and vagina to the exterior.

2. Preovulatory Phase:
The preovulatory phase: is the time between the end of menstruation and ovulation. The preovulatory phase of
the cycle is more variable in length than the other phases and accounts for most of the differences in length of
the cycle. It lasts from days 6 to 13 in a 28-day cycle.
EVENTS IN THE OVARIES
Some of the secondary follicles in the ovaries begin to secrete estrogens and inhibin. By about day 6, a single
secondary follicle in one of the two ovaries has outgrown all the others to become the dominant follicle.
Estrogens and inhibin secreted by the dominant follicle decrease the secretion of FSH, which causes other, less
well-developed follicles to stop growing and undergo atresia. Fraternal (nonidentical) twins or triplets result
when two or three secondary follicles become codominant and later are ovulated and fertilized at about the
same time. Normally, the one dominant secondary follicle becomes the mature (graafian) follicle, which
continues to enlarge until it is more than 20 mm in diameter and ready for ovulation. This follicle forms a
blister-like bulge due to the swelling antrum on the surface of the ovary. During the final maturation process,
the mature follicle continues to increase its production of estrogens. With reference to the ovarian cycle, the
menstrual and preovulatory phases together are termed the follicular phase, because ovarian follicles are
growing and developing.
EVENTS IN THE UTERUS
Estrogens liberated into the blood by growing ovarian follicles stimulate the repair of the endometrium; cells of
the stratum basalis undergo mitosis and produce a new stratum functionalis. As the endometrium thickens, the
short, straight endometrial glands develop, and the arterioles coil and lengthen as they penetrate the stratum
functionalis. The thickness of the endometrium approximately doubles, to about 4–10 mm. With reference to
the uterine cycle, the preovulatory phase is also termed the proliferative phase because the endometrium is
proliferating.

3. Ovulation:
Ovulation, the rupture of the mature (graafian) follicle and the release of the secondary oocyte into the pelvic
cavity, usually occurs on day 14 in a 28-day cycle. During ovulation, the secondary oocyte remains surrounded
by its zona pellucida and corona radiata. The high levels of estrogens during the last part of the preovulatory
phase exert a positive feedback effect on the cells that secrete LH and gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)
and cause ovulation, as follows:

- A high concentration of estrogens stimulates more frequent release of GnRH from the hypothalamus. It also
directly stimulates gonadotrophs in the anterior pituitary to secrete LH.

- GnRH promotes the release of FSH and additional LH by the anterior pituitary.

- LH causes rupture of the mature (graafian) follicle and expulsion of a secondary oocyte about 9 hours after
the peak of the LH surge. The ovulated oocyte and its corona radiata cells are usually swept into the uterine
tube. From time to time, an oocyte is lost into the pelvic cavity, where it later disintegrates. The small
amount of blood that sometimes leaks into the pelvic cavity from the ruptured follicle can cause pain,
known as mittelschmerz, at the time of ovulation. An over-the-counter home test that detects a rising level
of LH can be used to predict ovulation a day in advance.

4. Postovulatory Phase:
The postovulatory phase of the female reproductive cycle is the time between ovulation and onset of the next
menses. In duration, it is the most constant part of the female reproductive cycle. It lasts for 14 days in a 28-day
cycle, from day 15 to day 28.

EVENTS IN ONE OVARY

After ovulation, the mature follicle collapses, and the basement membrane between the granulosa cells and
theca interna breaks down. Once a blood clot forms from minor bleeding of the ruptured follicle, the follicle
becomes the corpus hemorrhagicum Theca interna cells mix with the granulosa cells as they all become
transformed into corpus luteum cells under the influence of LH. Stimulated by LH, the corpus luteum secretes
progesterone, estrogen, relaxin, and inhibin. The luteal cells also absorb the blood clot. With reference to the
ovarian cycle, this phase is also called the luteal phase. Later events in an ovary that has ovulated an oocyte
depend on whether the oocyte is fertilized. If the oocyte is not fertilized, the corpus luteum has a lifespan of
only 2 weeks. Then, its secretory activity declines, and it degenerates into a corpus albicans. As the levels of
progesterone, estrogens, and inhibin decrease, release of GnRH, FSH, and LH rises due to loss of negative
feedback suppression by the ovarian hormones. Follicular growth resumes and a new ovarian cycle begins. If
the secondary oocyte is fertilized and begins to divide, the corpus luteum persists past its normal 2-week
lifespan. It is “rescued” from degeneration by human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG). This hormone is produced
by the chorion of the embryo beginning about 8 days after fertilization. Like LH, hCG stimulates the secretory
activity of the corpus luteum. The presence of hCG in maternal blood or urine is an indicator of pregnancy and
is the hormone detected by home pregnancy tests.
EVENTS IN THE UTERUS
Progesterone and estrogens produced by the corpus luteum promote growth and coiling of the endometrial
glands, vascularization of the superficial endometrium, and thickening of the endometrium to 12–18 mm (0.48–
0.72 in.). Because of the secretory activity of the endometrial glands, which begin to secrete glycogen, this
period is called the secretory phase of the uterine cycle. These preparatory changes peak about 1 week after
ovulation, at the time a fertilized ovum might arrive in the uterus. If fertilization does not occur, the levels of
progesterone and estrogens decline due to degeneration of the corpus luteum. Withdrawal of progesterone and
estrogens causes menstruation.

Endometrial Changes
The endometrium goes through three stages during the menstrual cycle:

- Menstrual phase
- Proliferative phase
- Secretory phase

1. Menstrual phase:
This phase begins with the first day of menstruation. Contraction of the muscle layer occurs expelling the blood
and endometrial cells through the vagina. Occurs when estrogen and progesterone are at their lowest levels.
2. Proliferative phase:
There is estrogen mediated renewal of the endometrial tissue due to the migration of stem cells from the inner
layer. There are new blood vessels and glands that form during this phase.
3. Secretory phase:
Increased secretory activity by the endometrial glands is stimulated by progesterone. The endometrial glands in
this phase become more developed. The increased secretory activity in this phase of menstruation creates an
ideal environment in the uterus for development of an embryo.

Uterine Diseases:
Briefly describe:
a) Fibroids:
Noncancerous tumors in the myometrium of the uterus composed of muscular and fibrous tissue. Their growth
appears to be related to high levels of estrogens. They do not occur before puberty and usually stop growing
after menopause. Symptoms include abnormal menstrual bleeding and pain or pressure in the pelvic area.

b) Endometriosis:
Endometriosis is characterized by the growth of endometrial tissue outside the uterus. The tissue enters the
pelvic cavity via the open uterine tubes and may be found in any of several sites—on the ovaries, the
rectouterine pouch, the outer surface of the uterus, the sigmoid colon, pelvic and abdominal lymph nodes, the
cervix, the abdominal wall, the kidneys, and the urinary bladder. Endometrial tissue responds to hormonal
fluctuations, whether it is inside or outside the uterus. With each reproductive cycle, the tissue proliferates and
then breaks down and bleeds. When this occurs outside the uterus, it can cause inflammation, pain, scarring, and
infertility. Symptoms include premenstrual pain or unusually severe menstrual pain.

c) Cervical cancer:
Cervical cancer is a carcinoma of the cervix of the uterus that affects about 12,000 females a year in the United
States with a mortality rate of about 4,000 annually. It begins as a precancerous condition called cervical
dysplasia, a change in the number, shape, and growth of cervical cells, usually the squamous cells. Sometimes
the abnormal cells revert to normal; other times they progress to cancer, which usually develops slowly. In most
cases, cervical cancer can be detected in its earliest stages by a Pap test. Almost all cervical cancers are caused
by several types of human papillomavirus (HPV); other types of HPV cause genital warts. It is estimated that
about 20 million Americans are currently affected with HPV. In most cases, the body fights off HPV through its
immune responses, but sometimes it causes cancer, which can take years to develop. HPV is transmitted via
vaginal, anal, and oral sex; the infected partner may not have any signs or symptoms. The signs and symptoms
of cervical cancer include abnormal vaginal bleeding (bleeding between periods, after intercourse, or after
menopause, heavier and longer than normal periods, or a continuous vaginal discharge that may be pale or
tinged with blood). There are several ways to decrease the risk of HPV infection. These include avoiding risky
sexual practices (unprotected sex, sex at an early age, multiple sex partners, or partners who engage in high-risk
sexual activities), a weakened immune system, and not getting the HPV vaccine. Two vaccines are available to
protect males and females against the types of HPV that cause most types of cervical cancer (Gardasil® and
Ceravix®). Treatment options for cervical cancer include loop electrosurgical excision procedure (LEEP);
cryotherapy, freezing abnormal cells; laser therapy, the use of light to burn abnormal tissue; hysterectomy,
radical hysterectomy; pelvic exteneration, the removal of all pelvic organs; radiation; and chemotherapy.

d) Ovarian Cysts:
The most common form of ovarian tumor, in which a fluid-filled follicle or corpus luteum persists and
continues growing. It is a sac that develops in the ovary proper. It consists of one or more chambers containing
fluid. These loculi, or chambers, may contain an enormous amount of fluid. Although non-malignant, the cyst
may have to be removed surgically because of twisting of the pedicle, which causes gangrene, or because of
pressure.
e) Pelvic Inflammatory disease:
A collective term for any extensive bacterial infection of the pelvic organs, especially the uterus, uterine tubes,
or ovaries, which is characterized by pelvic soreness, lower back pain, abdominal pain, and urethritis. Often the
early symptoms of PID occur just after menstruation. As infection spreads, fever may develop, along with
painful abscesses of the reproductive organs.
Embryologic considerations:
a) Bicornuate uterus:
A bicornuate uterus is a uterus that has two horns and a heart shape. The uterus has a wall inside and a partial
split outside. A bicornuate uterus is the most common congenital uterine anomaly and can impact a woman's
reproductive capabilities. Several studies show that women with a bicornuate uterus have about a 60% success
rate in delivering a living child but have a higher risk of cervical incompetence. The condition is associated with
an increased rate of spontaneous abortion, though the miscarriage rate is lower with a bicornuate uterus than
with a septate uterus.

b) Septate uterus:
A septate uterus is a congenital condition in which a thin membrane called a septum divides the uterus, either
partially or completely. While the condition does not affect a woman's ability to conceive, it can impact a
pregnancy's outcome

c) Imperforate hymen:
A hymen without an opening. Menstruation occurs, but the blood cannot escape from the vagina because of
obstruction of the hymen. The treatment is surgical incision of the hymen.

d) Cribriform hymen:
A cribriform hymen is a rare condition in which a girl’s hymen, the thin membrane across the opening of her
vagina, has many small holes in it. This type of hymen typically lets menstrual and other fluids out but may
cause problems with tampon use, pelvic examination and, later in life, sexual activity.

e) Supernumerary breast:
Supernumerary breasts also known as Accessory breasts or polymastia is the condition of having an additional
breast. Extra breasts may appear with or without nipples or areolae. It is a condition and a form of atavism
which is most prevalent in male humans, and often goes untreated as it is mostly harmless. In recent years,
many affected women have had a plastic surgery operation to remove the additional breasts.

Disorders Associated with Pregnancy

Describe disorders associated with pregnancy:
a) Hasher man’s Syndrome:
Asher man Syndrome also known as Intrauterine Adhesions, is a condition where the cavity of the uterus
develops scar tissue (adhesions). This problem most often develops after uterine surgery. The adhesions may
cause amenorrhea (lack of menstrual periods), repeated miscarriages, and infertility. However, such symptoms
could be related to several conditions. They are more likely to indicate Asher man syndrome if they occur
suddenly after a D&C or other uterine surgery. Asher man syndrome is a rare condition. A severe pelvic
infection unrelated to surgery may also lead to Asher man syndrome.
b) Sheehan’s Syndrome:
The rare disease Sheehan’s Syndrome is a disease that affects the function of the pituitary gland and is caused
by severe blood loss during or after childbirth. The loss of blood to the pituitary gland may destroy hormone
producing tissue. When necrosis of the pituitary gland occurs, the pituitary may lose some or all of its function.
The damage to the pituitary gland can affect the gland’s ability to signal other gland to increase or decrease
production of hormones that control stress, muscle mass, urinary output, metabolism, fertility, wound healing
and many other vital processes. A lack of any of these hormones can cause health problems throughout your
body. The signs and symptoms of pituitary deficiency may develop so gradually over time and the onset of
Sheehan’s Syndrome escapes being noticed.

Development of a New Human

a) List and illustrate the steps/stages:
Summary of representative developmental events of the embryonic and fetal periods.
Time Approximate size and Weight Representative Changes
Embryonic Period
1-4 weeks 0.6 cm (3/16 in.) Primary germ layers and notochord develop.
Neurulation occurs. Primary brain vesicles,
somites, and intraembryonic coelom develop.
Blood vessel formation begins and blood forms
in yolk sac, allantois, and chorion. Heart forms
and begins to beat. Chorionic villi develop and
placental formation begins. The embryo folds.
 The primitive gut, pharyngeal arches, and limb
buds develop. Eyes and ears begin to develop,
tail forms, and body systems begin to form.
5–8 weeks 3 cm (1.25 in.) Limbs become distinct and digits appear. Heart
1 g (1/30 oz) becomes four-chambered. Eyes are far apart and
eyelids are fused. Nose develops and is flat. Face
is more humanlike. Bone formation begins.
Blood cells start to form in liver. External
genitals begin to differentiate. Tail disappears.
Major blood vessels form. Many internal organs
continue to develop.
Fetal Period
9–12 weeks 7.5 cm (3 in.) Head constitutes about half the length of fetal
30 g (1 oz) body, and fetal length nearly doubles. Brain
continues to enlarge. Face is broad, with eyes
fully developed, closed, and widely separated.
Nose develops a bridge. External ears develop
and are low set. Bone formation continues.
Upper limbs almost reach final relative length but
lower limbs are not quite as well developed.
Heartbeat can be detected. Gender is
distinguishable from external genitals. Urine
secreted by fetus is added to amniotic fluid. Red
bone marrow, thymus, and spleen participate in
blood cell formation. Fetus begins to move, but
its movements cannot be felt yet by the mother.
Body systems continue to develop.
13–16 weeks 18 cm (6.5–7 in.) Head is relatively smaller than rest of body. Eyes
100 g (4 oz) move medially to final positions, and ears move
to final positions on sides of head. Lower limbs
lengthen. Fetus appears even more humanlike.
Rapid development of body systems occurs.
17–20 weeks 25–30 cm (10–12 in.) Head is more proportionate to rest of body.
200–450 g (0.5–1 lb.) Eyebrows and head hair are visible. Growth
slows but lower limbs continue to lengthen.
Vernix caseosa (fatty secretions of oil glands and
dead epithelial cells) and lanugo (delicate fetal
hair) cover fetus. Brown fat forms and is the site
of heat production. Fetal movements are
commonly felt by mother (quickening).
21–25 weeks 27–35 cm (11–14 in.) Head becomes even more proportionate to rest of
550–800 g (1.25–1.5 lb.) body. Weight gain is substantial, and skin is pink
and wrinkled. Fetuses 24 weeks and older
usually survive if born prematurely.
26–29 weeks 32–42 cm (13–17 in.) Head and body are more proportionate and eyes
1100–1350 g (2.5–3 lb.) are open. Toenails are visible. Body fat is 3.5%
of total body mass and additional subcutaneous
fat smooths out some wrinkles. Testes begin to
descend toward scrotum at 28 to 32 weeks. Red
bone marrow is major site of blood cell
production. Many fetuses born prematurely
 during this period survive if given intensive care
because lungs can provide adequate ventilation
and central nervous system is developed enough
to control breathing and body temperature.
30–34 weeks 41–45 cm (16.5–18 in.) Skin is pink and smooth. Fetus assumes upside-
2000–2300 g (4.5–5 lb.) down position. Body fat is 8% of total body
mass.
35–38 weeks 50 cm (20 in.) By 38 weeks, circumference of fetal abdomen is
3200–3400 g (7–7.5 lb.) greater than that of head. Skin is usually bluish-
pink, and growth slows as birth approaches.
Body fat is 16% of total body mass. Testes are
usually in scrotum in full-term male infants.
Even after birth, an infant is not completely
developed; an additional year is required,
especially for complete development of nervous
system.

Illustrations:
The embryos and fetuses are not shown at their actual sizes.
NB: Development during the fetal period is mostly concerned with the growth and differentiation of tissues and
organs formed during the embryonic period.
a) 20-day embryo: b) 24-day
embryo:
c) 32-day embryo: d) 44-day embryo:

e) 52-day embryo: f) 10-week fetus:

g) 13-week fetus: h) 26-week fetus:

CONCLUSION
In conclusion, Reproduction by definition refers to the process by which new individuals of
a species are produced and the genetic material is passed from generation to generation.
 The organs of reproduction are grouped as gonads (produce gametes), ducts (transport and
store gametes), accessory sex glands (produce materials that support gametes), and supporting
structures (have various roles in reproduction).
Organs of the male reproductive system produce and maintain male sex cells, or sperm cells;
transport these cells and supporting fluids to the outside; and secrete male sex hormones. A
male’s primary sex organs (gonads) are the two testes in which sperm cells and male sex
hormones form. The accessory sex organs of the male reproductive system are the internal and
external reproductive organs.
The organs of the female reproductive system produce and maintain the female sex cells, the
egg cells (or oocytes); transport these cells to the site of fertilization; provide a favorable
environment for a developing offspring; move the offspring to the outside; and produce female
sex hormones. A female’s primary sex organs (gonads) are the two ovaries, which produce the
female sex cells and sex hormones. The accessory sex organs of the female reproductive system
are the internal and external reproductive organs.
The intended aim was achieved and a full comprehensive body of knowledge about the
reproductive system was acquired. However, there were generally a few challenges I stumbled
across when completing this assignment but nevertheless I was assisted and I managed to
successfully complete the assignment.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Books:
- Donald C. Rizzo, Ph.D.; DELMAR’S FUNDAMENTALS OF ANATOMY AND
PHYSIOLOGY: Thomson Learning; 2001.

- David Shier, Jackie Butler, and Ricki Lewis: HOLE’S ESSENTIALS OF HUMAN
ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY: Tenth edition, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc; 2009.

- Gerard J. Tortora, and Bryan Derrickson: PRINCIPLES OF ANATOMY AND

PHYSIOLOGY, 14th Edition, Wiley; 2014.