XII PHYSICS CHAPTER 01

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CHAPTER 1 HEAT
HEAT:
Heat is a form of energy, which transfer from one body to another. Due to the difference in temperature.

Temperature:
The measure of the degree of hotness or coldness of a body is called Temperature.

THERMOMETRIC PROPERTIES:
The property of substance, which changes uniformly with the change of temperature, is called thermometric
property. For example, the volume of a gas at constant pressure changes with the change of temperature.

THERMAL EXPANSION:
“The increase in the size of a substance due to heat is called thermal expansion”.

LINEAR EXPANSION/ONE DIMENSIONAL EXPANSION:

“If the length of body is increased due to heating, then this type of expansion is called linear expansion/one
dimensional expansion.

Experiment shows that the change in length is directly proportional to its original length and also directly
proportional to change in temperature.

i.e.

𝛥 𝐿 𝛼 𝐿1 (i)

𝛥𝐿 𝛼𝛥𝑇 (ii)

Combining equation (i) and (ii)

𝛥 𝐿 𝛼 𝐿1 𝛥 𝑇
𝛥 𝐿 = ᾳ 𝐿1 𝑖 𝛥 𝑇
𝛥𝐿
= 𝛼
𝐿1 𝛥𝑇
𝛥<
= <𝑖 𝛥𝐼 ΔL
𝛼=
𝐿1 ΔT

Where ᾳ is called coefficient of linear expansion, and it is define as,

“Change in length per unit original length per Kelvin rise in temperature”.

UNIT:-

1/𝐶 = C−1 , 1/𝐾 = 𝐾 −1

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VOLUMETRIC EXPANSION/THREE DIMENS OPAL EXPANSION:-
“If the volume of the body is increased due to heating, then this type of expansion is called volumetric
expansion/three dimensional expansion.

Experiment show that the change in volume is directly proportional to its original length and also directly
proportional to change in temperature.

i.e.

Δ V α Vi (i)

Δ V α ΔT (ii)

Combining equation (i) and (ii)

AΔV α Vi ΔT

ΔV = β Vi ΔT
ΔV ΔV
=β β=
𝑉𝑖 ΔT 𝑉𝑖 ΔT
Where β is called coefficient of cubical expansion and it is define as,

“Change is volume per unit original volume per Kelvin rise in temperature”.

UNIT:-

1/C = C−1 , 1/K = K −1

Show that β = 3𝛂.

PROOF:

Let us consider a cube, whose length, width and

height is L1, L2 and L3 respectively, so its initial volume (𝑉𝑖) will be
equal to at initial temperature “T” is

Volume = Length x Width x height

Volume = L1 x L2 x L3

Suppose the cube is heated at (T + ΔT) temperature, then its final length, breath and height becomes L1,’ L2’ and L3’
respectively. So its final length, width and height will be equal to,

= 𝐿𝑓 = 𝐿𝑖 {1 + α ΔT}

= 𝐿1 ’ = 𝐿1 {1 + 𝛼 𝛥𝑇}
= 𝐿2 ’ = 𝐿2 {1 + 𝛼 𝛥𝑇}

= 𝐿3 ’ = 𝐿3 {1 + 𝛼 𝛥𝑇}

So the final volume will be equal to, 𝑉𝑓 = 𝐿1 × 𝐿2 × 𝐿3

𝑉𝑓 = L1 (1 + α ΔT) × L2 ( 1 + α Δ T) × L3 ( 1 + α ΔT)

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𝑉𝑓 = L1 L2 L3 (1 + α ΔT)3

(a + b)3 = a3 + 3a2 b + 3ab2 + b3

L1 L2 L3 = 𝑉𝑖

𝑉𝑓 = 𝑉𝑖 [(1)3 + 3(1)2 (𝛼 𝛥𝑇) + 3(1) (𝛼 𝛥𝑖)2 + (𝛼 𝛥𝑇)3 ]

𝑉𝑓 = 𝑉𝑖 [ 1 + 3 𝛼 𝛥𝑇 + 3𝛼 2 𝛥𝑇 2 + 𝛼 3 𝛥𝑇 3 ]

Therefore, the value of ᾳ is very very small, so we neglected is higher power.

𝑉𝑓 = 𝑉𝑖 [ 1 + 3𝛼 𝛥𝑇 ]

= 𝑉𝑓 = 𝑉𝑖 + 3𝑉𝑖 𝛼 𝛥𝑇
Vf−Vi
= = 3α
Vi ΔT
ΔV
= = 3α
Vi ΔT
We know that:
ΔV
β=
𝑉𝑖 ΔT

=β=3α Proved!

BOYLE’S LAW:-
INTRODUCTION:-

“In 1627, Robert Boyle was the scientist who investigated about the volume and pressure. He
established a relationship b/w them which is called Boyle’s law.

STATEMENT:-

“For a given mass of a gas, the volume of a given mass of a gas is inversely proportional to the applied
pressure when the temperature remains constant”.

Mathematically:-
1
Vα P

1
V = k
P

K = PV
For initial stage:-

K = P1 V1 (i)

For final stage:-

K = P2 V2 (ii)

Comparing equation (i) and (ii)

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P1 V1 = P2 V2

GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION:-

BOYLE’S LAW IN TERM’S OF MASS:-

Experiment shows that the product of pressure and volume is directly proportional to its mass.

PV α m
PV = Km
PV
= k
m
AT INITIAL STAGE:-
P1 V1
= K (i)
m1
AT FINAL STAGE:-
P2 V2
= K (ii)
m2
Comparing equation (i) and (ii)
P1 V1 P2 V2
=
m1 m2

CHARLE’S LAW:-
INTRODUCTION:-

Jacques Charles was the scientist who investigated about the volume and temperature of gas. He established
a relationship b/w them which is known as Charles law.

STATEMENT:-

“For a given mass of a gas, the volume of a given mass of a gas is directly proportional to the temperature,
when the pressure is kept constant”.
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Mathematically:-

VαT
V = KT
V
T
= K

For initial state:-

V1
= K (i)
T1

For final state:-

V2
= K (ii)
T2

Combining equation (i) and (ii)

V1 V2
=
T1 T2

GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION:

FIRST LAW OF
THERMODYNAMICS:-
INTRODUCTION:

“First law of thermodynamics is an extended form of law of conservation of energy.

STATEMENT:-

“The heat energy can easily be converted into mechanical energy or can be transform into another type of
energy, but during the transformation of energy the total energy of a system is always remain constant”.

It can also be defined as:-

“The amount of heat energy (ΔQ) supplied to the system is used to change the internal energy (Δu) of the
system and amount of work done by the system”.

Mathematically:-

ΔQ = Δu + ΔW

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EXPLANATION:-

“According to first law of thermodynamics the amount of heat energy supplied to the system is used for two
purposes:

1. Increase in internal energy.

2. Amount of work done by the system.

Consider a system consisting of an ideal or perfect gas, which is fitted with a frictionless piston. Let
ΔQ amount of heat energy be supplied to the system and some quantity of which converts into the work,
ΔW, then the remaining energy (ΔQ – ΔW) is retained by the system, due to which the internal energy of
the system changes from U1 to U2. It is found experimentally that during the repetition of this process, the
change in internal energy (U2 - U1 = ΔU) does not depend upon the path adopted by the system, but it inly
depends upon the internal and final states of the system. Thus, we can write as:
ΔQ − ΔW = 𝑈2 − 𝑈1
ΔQ − ΔW = ΔU
ΔQ = ΔW + ΔU

SIGN CONVENTIONS:
1. ΔQ is taken as positive when heat enters the system and negative when heat leaves the system.
2. ΔW is taken positive when work is done by the system and negative when work is done on the system.
3. ΔU is taken positive when internal energy of the system increases and negative when it decreases.

THERMODYNAMIC PROCESS:-
There are four types of thermodynamic process:-

1. Isobaric pressure same

2. Isochoric Volume same
3. Isothermal Temp same
4. Adiabatic process No heat energy enter or leave from the system.

1. ISOBARIC:-
“The thermodynamic process in which pressure of the system remains constant, so that Charle’s Law
is applicable”.

Explanation:

Let us consider a gas molecule enclosed in a cylinder

provided with a moveable piston. Suppose the base of the
cylinder is made up of good conducting material. When
the heat energy is supplied to the system, then the system
absorbs some energy. So the internal energy of the system
increases. Due to this act, the gas molecules extracts
forces on the piston and rises up by “Δy”. During this
process, the pressure on the gas remains constant.
According to first law of thermodynamics.

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ΔQ = Δu + Δw (i)

P = F/A
PA = F
F = PA

ΔW = Force x Displacement
ΔW = F × S
= PA × S
= P (A × Δy)
ΔW = PΔV

Putting the value of ΔW in equation (i)

ΔQ = Δu + PΔV

2. ISOCHORIC:-
“The thermodynamic process in which the
volume of the system remains constant, so that the pressure
law is applicable”.

EXPLANATION:

Let us consider some gas molecules enclosed in a cylinder

provided with a piston, which is fixed when heat energy is
supplied to the system, then the gas molecules absorb heat energy and the internal energy of a system rises but
there is no work done by the system, because the piston is fixed.

i.e:- ΔW = 0

A/c to first law of the thermodynamics,

ΔQ = Δu + ΔW
ΔQ = Δu + 0 [ΔW = 0]

ΔQ = Δu
The above equation shows that the amount of heat energy supplied to the system at constant volume is used to
change only the internal energy of system.

3. ISOTHERMAL:-
“The thermodynamics process in which the temperature of the system remains constant, so that
Boyle’s law is applicable”.

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EXPLANATION:

Let us consider some gas molecule enclosed in a cylinder

provided with the moveable piston. Suppose the base of the
cylinder is made up of good conducting material. When the
pressure on the piston is release and the gas molecules is
allowed to expend. So the temperature of the gas decrease
with the increase in volume. In the mean time the system is
shifted to the heat reservoir, where the gas molecules
absorbs some heat from the base of the cylinder, so the
temperature of the system remains constant and boyle’s law
is applicable.

According to first law of thermodynamics:-

ΔQ = Δu + ΔW
∴ Δu = 0
ΔQ = 0 + ΔW

ΔQ = ΔW

4. ADIABATIC-PROCESS
“A thermodynamic process in which no heat energy enters or releases from the system is called
adiabatic process”.

EXPLANATION:

Consider some gas molecules enclosed in a cylinder provided

with a moveable piston. When the pressure on the piston is
release and the gas is allowed to expend then the temperature
of the gas decrease with the increase in volume. Therefore, no
heat is given to the system so the temperature does not
remains constant. Hence, Boyle’s law is not applicable.

By applying first law of thermodynamics:-

ΔQ = Δu + ΔW
∴ ΔQ = 0

0 = Δu + ΔW

Δu = −ΔW

SPECIFIC HEAT:
“The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of unit mass of a substance through
one Kelvin (1K) or one degree is called specific heat.

Experiment show that the amount of heat (ΔQ) is directly proportional to the mass and also directly proportional to
the change in temperature (ΔT)

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Mathematically:-

ΔQ α m (i)

ΔQ α ΔT (ii)

Comparing equation (i) and (ii)

ΔQ α m ΔT
ΔQ = Cm ΔT

ΔQ
C =
m ΔT

Where “C” is called specific heat.

UNIT:-

S.I unit of specific heat capacity is J Kg-1 K-1.

MOLAR SPECIFIC HEAT:-

“The amount of heat energy required to raise the temperature of 1 mole of a gas through one
degree Co or one Kelvin. Experiment show that the amount of heat energy supplied to the gas molecules is directly
proportional to the number of moles and also directly Proportional to change in temperature.

Mathematically:-

ΔQ α n
ΔQ α ΔT
Combining both the equation

ΔQ α n ΔT
ΔQ = Cn ΔT

ΔQ
C =
n ΔT

Where “C” is called molar specific heat

UNIT:-

S.I unit of molar specific heat is J.m-1 K-1.

There are two types of molar specific heat.

1. Molar specific heat at constant pressure.

2. Molar specific heat at constant volume.

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1. MOLAR SPECIFIC HEAT AT CONSTANT PRESSURE:
When the gas heated at constant pressure then the amount of heat energy required to raise
the temperature of 1 mole of a gas through one degree Co or one Kelvin is called molar specific heat at constant
pressure.

Mathematically:-

ΔQp α n

ΔQp α ΔT

Combining equation (i) and (ii)

ΔQp α n ΔT

ΔQp = Cp n ΔT

ΔQp
Cp =
𝑛 ΔT

Where “Cp ” is called a molar specific heat at constant pressure.

2. MOLAR SPECIFIC HEAT AT CONSTANT VOLUME:-

“When the gas is heat at constant volume then amount of heat energy required to raise the
temperature of 1 mole of a gas through one degree Co or one Kelvin is called molar specific heat at constant volume.

Mathematically:-

ΔQv α n
ΔQv α ΔT
Combining equation (i) and (ii)

ΔQv α n ΔT
ΔQv = Cv n ΔT
ΔQv
Cv =
n ΔT

Where “Cv ” is called molar specific heat at constant volume.

Derivation of 𝐂𝐩 – 𝐂𝐯 = 𝐑:
Proof:
Explanation:-

Consider some gas molecules enclosed in a cylinder provided with a moveable piston.

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 WHEN GAS IS HEATED AT CONSTANT VOLUME:-

When the gas is heated at constant volume, the amount

of heat energy supplied to the system is only use to change
the internal energy of gas molecules and no work is done by
the system, the piston is fixed.

According to first law of thermodynamics:-

ΔQ = Δu + ΔW
ΔQ = Δu + 0 [ ΔW = 0]

ΔQv = Δu − (i)

 WHEN GAS IS HEATED AT CONSTANT PRESSURE:-

When the gas is heated at constant pressure, the amount of heat

energy supplied to the system is used to change the internal
energy of the system and some amount of work is done by the
system.

According to first law of thermodynamics:-

=ΔQ = ΔU + ΔW [∴ ΔU = ΔQv ]

=ΔQ = ΔQ + PΔV
p v
(ii) [ ∴ ΔW = PΔV]

By using general gas equation:-

=PV = nRT

At initial state:-

=PV1 = nRT1 (a)

At final state:-

=PV2 = nRT2 (b)

Subtract equation (a) from (b)

=PV2 − PV1 = nRT2 − nRT1

=P(V2 − V1 ) = nR (T2 − T1 )

PΔV = nRΔT
From equation (ii)

=ΔQp = ΔQv + PΔV

=ΔQp = ΔQv + nR ΔT

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ΔQ =nC ΔT
(∴ ΔQp=nCp ΔT)
v v

= nCp ΔT = nCv ΔT + nRΔT

= nCp ΔT = n ΔT (Cv + R)

= Cp = Cv + R

= Cp − Cv = R

SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS:-

There are two statement regarding second law of thermodynamics.

Kelvin Statement:
STATEMENT:

“It is impossible to construct any device, which takes heat from the source, and completely change into
amount of work done without transferring some amount of heat energy into sink (cold body).

REPRESENTATION:

Clausius Statement:
STATEMENT:-

“It is impossible to cause heat to flow from a cold body to a hot body without the expenditure (wastage)
of energy or without doing any work”.

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Equivalence of Kelvin and Clausius Statemen
If we suppose that kelvin statement is false then we would have an
heat engine which takes heat from a source and converts it into
work done. At the same time if we connect this heat engine to an
ordinary refrigerator, which takes heat from the cold body, and
convert it into work done. This work can be used to be operate the
refrigerator which transfer heat from cold body to hot body. The net
result is the transfer of heat from a cold body to hot body without
the expenditure of energy, which is contrary to clausius statement.
Hence, if either of these statements is supposed to be false then
other must also be false. Hence proved that both statements are
same.

CARNOT HEAT ENGINE:-

INTRODUCTION:-

In 1824, Sadi Carnot was the scientist who designed the heat engine whose deficiency was nearly
equal to 100%. The main part of heat engine were as follows:

1. Cylinder whose base is made up of good conducting material.

2. Moveable friction less piston.
3. Gas, which is used as a working system.

CARNOT CYCLE PROCESS:-

There are four Carnot cycle process.

1. Isothermal reversible expansion.

2. Adiabatic reversible expansion.
3. Isothermal reversible compression.
4. Adiabatic reversible compression.

 ISOTHERMAL REVERSIBLE EXPANSION:-

Consider some gas molecules enclosed in a cylinder provided with a moveable piston. Suppose the
base of the cylinder is made up of good conducting material. In the first step, when the pressure on the piston
decrease and the gas is allowed to expend, so the temperature of the gas molecules decreases with the increase in
volume. At the same time, the cylinder is shifted to a heat reservoir from which the gas molecules absorb some heat.
In this way, there will be no change in temperature but the volume of the gas increases. Hence, this process is called
isothermal reversible expansion.

 ADIABATIC REVERSIBLE EXPANSION:-

In the second step, the remaining pressure on the piston is also removed and the gas is allowed to
expend. So the temperature of the gas decrease with the increase in volume. At the same time, the cylinder is
shifted to an insulator. Where no heat can enter or leave from the system but the gas is expended. Hence, this
process is called adiabatic reversible expansion.

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 ISOTHERMAL REVERSIBLE COMPRESSION:-
In the third step, when the gas is compressed by applying more pressure on the piston, so the
volume decreases and due to the decrease in volume the temperature of the gas molecules increases. At the same
time, the cylinder is shifted on cold reservoir from which some heat energy is transferred from the base and the
temperature of the gas remains some. Hence, the gas is compressed so this process is called isothermal reversible
compression.

 ADIA-BATIC REVERSIBLE COMPRESSION:-

In the last step, the pressure on the piston is further increase so the volume decreases and due to
the decrease in volume. The temperature of the gas is increased. At the same time, the cylinder is shifted on an
insulator, since no heat can enter or leave from the system so the temperature does not remains constant. But
because of this process the temperature of the gas becomes initial state, and also the volume of the gas become
equal to its initial state. The process is called adiabatic reversible compression.

GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION.

EFFICIENCY OF CARNOTE HEAT ENGINE:-

output
Efficiency = n = x 100
input
ΔW
= x 100
Q1
Q1 − Q2
= x 100
Q1
Q1 Q2
=( - ) x 100
Q1 Q1

Q2
n = (1 − ) × 100
Q1

In terms of temperature:-

T2
n = (1 − ) × 100
T1
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KINETIC MOLECULAR THEORY OF GASES:

The main postulates of K.M.T of gasses are as follows:

1. All gasses are composed of molecules, which possess similar physical behavior. A finite volume of a gas
contains a large number of molecules. (About 3x1025 molecules of air 1 m3 at S.P.T).
2. Sizes of molecules are considered negligible as compare to the distances between them.
3. Molecules of a gas always remain in random motion, which follows the laws of mechanics.
4. There is no interaction between the molecules of a gas except when they collide with each other, the
collisions perfectly elastic.
5. The collisions of molecules with the wall of container are regarded as a pressure of the gas.
6. The average translatory kinetic energy of the molecules in directly proportional to the absolute temperature
of the gas.

INTERPRETATION OF PRESSURE OF A GAS ON THE BASIS OF KINETIC

MOLECULAR THEORY OF GASES:
OR
𝟏
Q. Prove that 𝐏 = 𝛒𝐕 𝟐
𝟑
Let us consider “n” moles of perfect gas, contained in a cubical vessel of equal dimensions each of length L. As gas
molecules move randomly, therefore, for the sake of simplicity, we first consider only one molecule of mass “m”
moving along x-direction only. The molecule from the left face of the cube moves with velocity V x and collides with
the right face of the cube and rebounds back with the velocity V x.

Initial momentum of molecule = Pi = m Vx

Final momentum of molecules = Pf = m (−Vx ) = −mvx

Force= Rate of change of momentum

Pf − Pi
Fx =
t
−mVx −mVx
Fx =
t
−2mVx
Fx =
t
1
OR Fx = −2mVx × -- - -- -- -- -- (ii)
t

The distance travelled by molecule during one collision or complete trip is:
S = 2L
From S = vt
We have 2L = Vx × t

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1 Vx
OR =
t 2L
𝐕𝐱
Equation. (2) => Fx = −2mVx × 𝟐𝐋

−mV2
x
Fx =
L
According to third law of motion the force of the molecule on
the wall will be:

2mV2
x
Fx =
L
The above equation is for the force applied by a single
molecule on the face of the cube, the force applied by “N” molecules is

F = F1x + F2x + F3x + … … … + FNx

mV21x mV22x mV23x mV2Nx
F= + + + ………+
L L L L
m 2 2 2 2
F= (V1x + V2x + V3x + … … … + VNx )
L
F
Using definition of pressure P= (Where A = L2 )
A
m
(V21x 2 +
+ V2x V23x + ………..+ V2Nx)
L
OR p= L2
m2 2 2 2
OR P = L3 (V1x + V2x + V3x ± ……… + VNx ) -------- (iii)

If nv is the number of molecule per volume, then

N N
nv = OR L3 =
L3 nv

m 2 2 2 2
Equation. (3) => (V1x + V2x + V3x + … … … VNx )
N/n˯

2
(V1x + V22x + V23x + ……… V2Nx)
OR P = nmv
N

Where

V21x + V22x + V23x + ……… V2Nx

= ⃗VX2
N

And nv m = ρ , the density of the gas

P = ρ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
VX2 …………… (iv)

The total velocity of molecules could be expressed as

V 2 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗ VX2 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗
VY2 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗
VZ2

But where
⃗⃗⃗⃗
VY2 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗
VZ2 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗
VX2

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Therefore

⃗⃗⃗⃗
V2 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗
VX2 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗
VX2 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗
VX2

OR ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗2
V 2 = 3V X

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
V2
⃗⃗⃗⃗
VX2 = …………….. (V)
3

Now, equation (4) becomes =>

1 ⃗⃗⃗⃗2
𝑃 = 𝜌𝑉 Proved
3

Derivation:
=𝐊. 𝐄 𝛂 𝐓
Proof:-
1 ⃗⃗⃗⃗2
According to K.M.T of gasses, the pressure of the gas is equal to P = 3
ρV

Prove:-
1 ⃗⃗⃗⃗2
=P= 3
ρV
1
= (nv m)⃗⃗⃗⃗
V2 [ρ = nv m]
3

1 Nm, N
P =3 ( ) ⃗⃗⃗⃗
V2 [nv = ]
V V

1 ⃗⃗⃗⃗2
PV = NmV
3 ----- --- --- --- (i)

Multiply and divide by “2”

2N 1 ⃗⃗⃗⃗2
PV = (2 mV ) ……………….. (ii)
3

By using general gas equation:-

𝑃𝑉 = nRT
N N
PV = 𝑅𝑇 ∴n=
NA NA

R
PV = NKT ∴K= NA

Where “K” is called Boltzman constant and its value is 1.38 × 10−23

Putting “PV” in equation

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2 1 ⃗⃗⃗⃗2
= NKT = 3 N (2 mV )

3 1 ⃗⃗⃗⃗2
= 2
KT = 2
mV

3 3
= KT = K. E [ K = constant]
2 2

3
= K. E = [2 K] T

= K. E ∝ T

Q.2 DERIVATION
Boyle’s law in terms of K.M.T

PV = Constant

Proof:

A/c to K.M.T of gases, the pressure of gas is equal to,

1 ⃗⃗⃗⃗2
=> P = 3 ρV
1
=> P = 3 (nv m)⃗⃗⃗⃗
V2 [ρ = nv m]

1 N
=> PV = 3 (Nm)⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
V2 [nv = ]
V

× and ÷ by 2
2N 1 ⃗⃗⃗⃗2 )
= PV = (2 mV
3

2 1 ⃗⃗⃗⃗2
=PV = 3 N (K. E) [K. E mV ]
2
3
But K. E = KT
2

2 3
= PV = 3 N (2 KT)

= PV = NKT
=Put N = 1
= PV = (1) KT
= PV = KT
“As we know that the temperature of the gas in Boyle’s law is kept constant and “K” is also a constant”

i.e.

𝑃𝑉 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 Proved!
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑉= 𝑃
1
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V ∝
P
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Q. DERIVATION
Charle’s law in terms of K.M.T :- 𝑽 ∝ 𝑻

Proof:

According to K.M.T of gas, the pressure of gas is equal to,

1
=> P = 3 (nv m)⃗⃗⃗⃗
V2 [ρ = nv m]

1 Nm N
=> P = 3 ( ) ⃗⃗⃗⃗
V2 [nv = ]
V
V

1
= PV = (Nm)⃗⃗⃗⃗
V2
3

× and ÷ by 2
2N 1 ⃗⃗⃗⃗2 )
=PV = (2 mV
3

2 1
= PV = N (K. E) ( mV 2 = K. T)
3 2
3
but K. E = 2 KT
2 3
= PV = 3 N (2 K. T)

= PV = NKT
= put N = 1
1
= PV = (1)KT [V ∝ ]
T

= PV = KT [Pressure = constant]
V K
=T=P

As we know that the pressure of the gas in Charle’s law is kept constant and “K” is also a
constant.

i.e.
𝑉 𝐾
= 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 [ = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡]
𝑇 𝑃

OR
𝑉 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑇
[= constant = ∝]
𝑉 ∝𝑇

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Q. DERIVATION [𝑅 = 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡]
𝟑
Prove that 𝑪𝒗 = 𝟐 𝑹 [𝐶𝑣 = 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒]

Proof:

A/C to K.M.T of gases.

3
=> 𝐾. 𝐸 = 2 𝐾𝑇
3 𝑅 𝑅
=> 𝐾. 𝐸 = 2 (𝑁 ) 𝑇 [𝐾 = ]
𝐴 𝑁 𝐴

3 𝑅 𝑁
=> 𝐾. 𝐸 = 2 (𝑁/𝑛 ) 𝑇 [ 𝑁𝐴 = ]
𝑛

3 𝑛𝑅𝑇
=> 𝐾. 𝐸 = 2 𝑁

=𝑃𝑢𝑡 𝑁 = 1
3
=> 𝐾. 𝐸 = 2 𝑛𝑅𝑇

AT INITIAL STATE:-
3
=> 𝐾. 𝐸𝑖 = 2 𝑛𝑅𝑇𝑖 … … … … … (𝑖)

AT FINAL STATE:-
3
=> 𝐾. 𝐸𝑓 = 2 𝑛𝑅𝑇𝑓 … … … … … (𝑖𝑖 )

Subtract equation (i) from (ii)

3 3
=> 𝐾. 𝐸𝑓 − 𝐾. 𝐸𝑖 = 2 𝑛𝑅𝑇𝑓 − 2 𝑛𝑅𝑇𝑖

3 ∴ 𝑇𝑓 − 𝑇𝑖 = ∆𝑇
=> ∆𝐾. 𝐸 = 2 𝑛𝑅 (𝑇𝑓 − 𝑇𝑖 ) [ ]
∴ 𝐾. 𝐸𝑓 − 𝐾. 𝐸𝑖 = ∆𝐾. 𝐸
3
=> ∆𝐾. 𝐸 = 2 𝑛𝑅 ∆𝑇

∆𝐾.𝐸 3
=> = 𝑅
𝑛∆𝑇 2

“As we know that, the amount of heat required to raise the temperature (K.E) of ‘n’ moles of gas through
one degree oC or 1K at constant volume is called molar specific heat constant volume.”
i.e.
3 Proved.
𝐶𝑣 = 𝑅
2

OR
5
𝐶𝑝 = 2 𝑅

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𝐶𝑝 − 𝐶𝑣 = 𝑅
𝐶𝑝 = 𝑅 + 𝐶𝑣
3
𝐶𝑝 = 𝑅 + 𝑅
2

2𝑅+3𝑅
=
2
5
=> 𝐶𝑝 = 𝑅
2

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