Validating the Diagnosis of Sensory Processing Disorders

Using EEG Technology

Patricia L. Davies, William J. Gavin

KEY WORDS OBJECTIVE. This study tested the assumption of sensory integration theory that states that a relationship
• behavior exists between brain function and the behavioral manifestations of sensory integrative dysfunction.
• brain METHOD. Electroencephalographic measures were used to examine brain processing in 28 children with
• electroencephalography (EEG) sensory processing disorders (SPD) and 25 children who were typically developing, ages 5–12 years.
• event-related potential (ERP) RESULTS. Children with SPD demonstrated less sensory gating than children who were typically develop-
• pediatric ing. A significant relationship between sensory gating and age was found in children who were typically devel-
oping but not in children with SPD. Brain activity correctly distinguished children with SPD from children who
• sensory gating
were typically developing with 86% accuracy.
• sensory integration
CONCLUSION. These results present empirical evidence that children with SPD display unique brain pro-
• sensory processing cessing mechanisms compared to children who are typically developing and provide external validity for the
• sensory processing disorder (SPD) diagnosis of SPD.

Davies, P. L., & Gavin, W. J. (2007). Validating the diagnosis of sensory processing disorders using EEG technology. Amer-
ican Journal of Occupational Therapy, 61, 176–189.

Patricia L. Davies, PhD, OTR, is Associate Professor, Jean Ayres’s theory of sensory integration has generated more research and
Department of Occupational Therapy, 219 Occupational
Therapy, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO
A. controversy than any other theory developed by an occupational therapist
(Bundy & Murray, 2002). These fervent controversies have emphasized how par-
80523; [email protected].
ticularly important it is to find more precise methods to study the phenomenon of
William J. Gavin, PhD, is Research Scientist/Scholar, sensory integration and the treatment of children with sensory processing disorders
Department of Occupational Therapy, Colorado State
University, Fort Collins.
(SPD). One approach yet to be pursued in the study of sensory integration is to
directly test the assumptions of the theory itself. Bundy and Murray (2002) artic-
ulated five assumptions of the sensory integration theory related to the neural and
behavioral bases of sensory integration (pp. 10–12). The assumptions that are most
germane to validating the theory of sensory integration relate to the relationship
between brain maturation or function and behavioral manifestations of sensory
integrative dysfunction, which was eloquently stated by Short-Degraff:
Sensory integration theory assumes that the brain is immature at birth and also is
immature [or dysfunctional] in some individuals with learning problems. The goal
of sensory integration therapy is to provide stimulation that will address certain brain
levels (primarily subcortical), enabling them to mature [or function more normally],
and thereby assisting the brain to work as an integrated whole. (Short-Degraff, 1988,
p. 200) [Bracketed material added by Bundy & Murray, 2002, p. 11]
Of these assumptions, two can be postulated as hypotheses that can be
directly tested using a brain imaging technique commonly used by neuroscien-
tists. First, Ayres’s (1972, 1989) theory proposes that behavioral expressions of
sensory integration dysfunction are related to immaturity or malfunction in brain
processing. This assumption leads to the hypothesis that, when presented with
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 discrete sensory stimuli, the brain activity of children whose the adaptiveness of the brain’s response” (pp. 25–26). She
behaviors are indicative of a sensory processing disorder will further defined the integrative process as filtering, organiz-
differ from the brain activity of children who are typically ing, and integrating sensory information and did not specif-
developing. More important, Ayres’s theory also proposes ically limit it to the combination of two or more senses.
that sensory integrative therapy will change neural mecha- Thus, her definitions of the term sensory integration seem to
nisms. This assumption leads to the hypothesis that the give a much broader representation of processing than just
brain activity of children with SPD observed after thera- the integration of several senses, the definition often used by
peutic intervention will differ from brain activity observed neuroscientists. When conducting neuroscience research on
before intervention. However, before this assumption can children who have difficulties in processing sensory infor-
be tested, evidence for the validity of the first assumption mation, classifying them as having SPD better captures all
should be demonstrated. Interestingly, despite the fact that aspects of the problems observed in these children, espe-
Ayres began writing articles about sensory integration in the cially filtering, organization, and integration as described
1960s (e.g., Ayres, 1964, 1965, 1969), these two hypothe- very early on by Ayres (1972). The electroencephalographic
ses have yet to be directly tested. For example, brain imag- brain imaging techniques described in this article are com-
ing studies that examine the neural processing mechanisms monly used by neuroscientists (Handy, 2005; Luck, 2005)
in children with SPD and children without disorders have and are ideal for measuring the filtering and organization
yet to be conducted to determine whether group differences aspects of sensory processing.
do indeed exist. Mulligan (2002) stated that, if we are to
establish professional consensus regarding the validity of the
sensory integration theory, support for the basic assump-
Electroencephalography and
tions of the theory are needed. Event-Related Potentials
To examine the association among brain structure, func-
tion, and behavior related to sensory processing abilities,
Sensory Integration and SPD real-time measures of brain activation during the processing
Sensory integration is a therapeutic approach that has been of sensory stimuli provide the most convincing data. Elec-
used for many years by occupational therapists and has a troencephalography (EEG) and event-related potentials
strong potential to enhance occupational performance in (ERPs)—functional neuroimaging methods—are ideal
children. Ayres described sensory integration as an techniques that may offer occupational therapists new
approach used to enhance the brain’s ability to organize sen- strategies for studying SPD. To obtain EEG data, one or
sory input for use in functional behaviors (1972, 1979). more metallic sensors are placed on the scalp to detect very
According to Ayres (1972), the essential principle in sensory small (10–50 microvolts) and continuous voltage changes,
integrative therapy is to provide the child with experiences which are then amplified and digitized.
rich in sensory input, in a guided manner, to produce an Because EEG measures electrical activity of the cortical
adaptive response (i.e., functional behavior) deemed more regions of the brain, it can provide a more accurate assess-
effective than previously observed behaviors. Therefore, the ment of the processing of sensory stimuli by the brain than
central features of Ayres’s sensory integrative theory and can peripheral measures. Although peripheral measures
intervention focus on the fact that the brain organizes sen- such as electrodermal activity and heart rate do have the
sory input in order for the individual to participate in advantage of measuring an individual’s interaction with the
meaningful occupations (Parham, 2002). environment (Stern, Ray, & Quigley, 2001), investigators
Occasionally the terms that professionals use to can only infer from such measures what processes may be
describe the children who receive therapy guided by sensory invoked in the central nervous system to produce the
integration theory can be ambiguous. For example, the changes observed at the periphery. Electroencephalographic
term sensory processing is often used interchangeably with methodologies provide the advantage of directly measuring
sensory integration, and controversy exists over interchanging brain activity.
these terms (Mulligan, 2002). In the neurosciences, sensory ERPs are graphical displays of the brain’s electrical
integration is used to specifically describe the combining of activity typically associated with a specific, defined event.
signals from two or more senses in the central nervous sys- ERPs are obtained by time-locking the EEG to the occur-
tem (Calvert, Spence, & Stein, 2004; Hicks, Molotch- rence of each event (e.g., the onset of a sensory stimulus),
nikoff, & Ono, 1993). In contrast, Ayres (1972) defined creating segments around the event, and then averaging
integration as “the interaction and coordination of two or together the segments of the multiple presentations of the
more functions or processes in a manner which enhances event (Segalowitz & Davies, 2004). Thus, an ERP waveform
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 provides information about the temporal aspects of infor- occurring about 50 ms after the stimulus presentation. The
mation processing of stimulus events. Two aspects of the N100 denotes the negative deflection in the proximity of
ERP waveform can be measured: amplitude and latency. 100 ms after the stimulus presentation or event.
Amplitude is measured in microvolts (µV) and can be pos-
Studying Sensory Processing Disorders Using EEG/ERP
itive or negative based on a relative baseline of zero. Latency
Methodology
is usually measured in milliseconds (ms) post stimulus
onset. The ERP components are defined as deflections from Sensory processing has been studied using EEG/ERPs for
baseline and labeled with a P for positive deflections and many years in the general adult population and also in sev-
with an N for negative deflections (see Figure 1a for an eral disorders such as schizophrenia (e.g., Boutros, Belger,
example of an ERP and component labels for an auditory Campbell, D’Souza, & Krystal, 1999; Freedman, Adler, &
stimulus). The number in the label for a component indi- Waldo, 1987), attention deficit hyperactivity disorder
cates the latency in milliseconds from the time of the stim- (ADHD) (Olincy et al., 2000), and autism (Kemner,
ulus presentation to the peak of the deflection. As illus- Oranje, Verbaten, & van Engeland, 2002). Most of the
trated in Figure 1a, P50 represents the positive deflection studies involving clinical populations have used auditory

1a. This brain response of a child from the control group displays a large difference in the P50 peak amplitude of the first click (solid line) when compared to
the amplitude of the second click (dashed line).

1b. This brain response of a child from the group with SPD shows minimal difference in the P50 peak amplitude of the first click (solid line) when compared to
the amplitude of the second click (dashed line).

Figure 1. ERP waveforms for two children representing their brain response to the sensory gating paradigm. The averaged brain response to
the presentations for the first click sound, the Conditioning click, is shown as a solid line. The second click sound, the Test click, is shown
with a dashed line.

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 stimulation, although a few have used visual (e.g., Dawson & Fox, 2004; Myles-Worsley et al., 1996) and one involved
et al., 2002; Karrer, Karrer, Bloom, Chaney, & Davis, infants (Kisley, Polk, Ross, Levisohn, & Freedman, 2003).
1998) or somatosensory (e.g., Arnfred & Chen, 2004) Controversy remains concerning the developmental trajec-
stimulation. Furthermore, of the few studies that investi- tory of sensory gating (Freedman et al., 1987; Kisley et al.,
gated the developmental changes in sensory processing in 2003; Marshall et al., 2004; Myles-Worsley et al., 1996).
children, the majority have used auditory stimuli (e.g., Kisley et al. (2003) demonstrated that gating is present at
Čeponinené, Rinne, & Näätänen, 2002; Kraus et al., 1993; some level in some infants during sleep. Two studies indi-
Moore & Guan, 2001). Given the rich history of ERP stud- cated that sensory gating becomes stronger with age (Freed-
ies of sensory processing of auditory stimuli, it would be man et al., 1987; Marshall et al., 2004). In contrast, another
prudent in the planning of initial studies of children with study indicated that children age 10 years have adult-like
SPD to borrow from these specific EEG/ERP methodolo- levels of sensory gating (Myles-Worsley et al., 1996).
gies (i.e., paradigms). The second ERP paradigm of interest in the present
After carefully critiquing the literature, we concluded study, the sensory registration paradigm, was designed
that two auditory paradigms seemed most likely to reveal based on two studies conducted in children with autism
information regarding the underlying brain mechanisms (Bruneau, Garreau, Roux, & Lelord, 1987; Lincoln,
reflecting the type of behaviors observed in children with Courchesne, Harms, & Allen, 1995). In this paradigm,
SPD. Specifically, the sensory gating paradigm evaluates the auditory tones are presented at different frequencies and
brain mechanisms for suppressing repeated or irrelevant intensities. The term registration describes the fact that,
stimuli. The second paradigm is the sensory registration when several auditory stimuli are presented to control indi-
paradigm, which evaluates the consistency of brain responses viduals, distinct brain responses are elicited for each of the
to a variety of auditory stimuli. Use of these two ERP different auditory stimuli. Accordingly, each tone is
paradigms may allow for the direct evaluation of the brain uniquely “registered” in the brain and can be displayed by
processing mechanisms of children with and without SPD an identifiable and dependable brain response or waveform,
based on Ayres’s (1972) theory. The sensory gating paradigm hence the name sensory registration. Use of this paradigm
addresses the function of the brain’s ability to filter sensory allows for examining whether children with SPD have more
information, whereas the sensory registration paradigm difficulty in processing auditory stimuli in a consistent and
addresses the brain’s ability to organize sensory information. ordered manner when compared to a control group.
These are two of the three brain functions that Ayres (1972) In the sensory registration paradigm, two ERP compo-
described as being needed for a person to perform. nents, N100 (the negative deflection occurring about 100
The sensory gating paradigm has been used for more ms post stimulus) and P200 (the positive deflection occur-
than 30 years to study auditory processing dysfunction, pri- ring about 200 ms post stimulus), are sensitive to changes
marily in patients with schizophrenia (e.g., Boutros et al., of stimuli intensity and frequency. Participants with autism,
1999; Freedman et al., 1987). However, sensory gating has compared to children without disabilities, did not show the
more recently been used to study processing in people with normal increase in amplitude to increased intensity
ADHD (Olincy et al., 2000), traumatic brain injury (Bruneau et al., 1987; Lincoln et al., 1995). Given the
(Arciniegas et al., 1999), and autism (Kemner et al., 2002). results of these two studies, this paradigm has the potential
In the auditory sensory gating paradigm, the participant lis- to measure the organization of brain processing of auditory
tens to repeated presentations of a pair of auditory click stimuli at different frequencies and intensities in children.
sounds. The clicks are separated from each other by 500 ms.
The component of interest in this paradigm is the positive
deflection around 50 ms post stimulus, called the P50. In Rationale and Purpose of Study
adults and some children without SPD, the brain has a Behavioral data have provided occupational therapists
smaller positive response about 50 ms after the second click much information about children with SPD, beginning
stimulus, or Test click, when compared to the brain’s with the work of Ayres (1965). This knowledge includes
response to the first click stimulus, or Conditioning click how to recognize these children, what types of intervention
(see Figure 1a). The reduction of the amplitude of the P50 to use, how long to provide treatment, and how to measure
component to the second click compared to the first click treatment effectiveness. However, if occupational thera-
presumably represents enhanced suppression or gating. pists can demonstrate empirically that children with SPD
Most studies on sensory gating have examined adults; exhibit brain processing mechanisms—unlike the brain
only four published studies have examined children (Freed- processing observed in children without disorders—this
man et al., 1987; Kemner et al., 2002; Marshall, Bar-Haim, neurophysiological evidence may then be viewed by others
The American Journal of Occupational Therapy 179
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 as additional evidence to support the diagnostic category children (13 boys, 12 girls), were recruited from an existing
of SPD. database of children who were typically developing, with no
This research study is the initial step to test the known neurological or behavioral disorders.
assumptions of sensory integration theory by demonstrat- The mean age of the groups did not significantly differ.
ing that behavioral expressions of dysfunction in children The two groups did demonstrate significant differences on 5
with SPD are related to dysfunction or malfunction in of the 7 subsections and on the total score of the Short Sen-
brain processing. Using EEG techniques, we examined the sory Profile (McIntosh, Miller, & Shyu, 1999). See Table 1
underlying brain mechanisms in children with SPD to fur- for means, standard deviations, and the results of the t tests
ther validate the diagnostic category. The specific research evaluating the differences between the groups on these mea-
question was, “Is there evidence of differences in brain pro- sures. For the children who were typically developing, the
cessing of auditory stimuli, as measured by electroen- mean scores for each subsection were found to be within the
cephalography, in children with SPD compared to children range of “Typical Performance.” For the children with SPD,
who are typically developing?” Also addressed was the sec- the mean scores for 3 subsections (underresponsive/seeks
ond research question, “Can EEG techniques be useful in sensation, auditory filtering, low energy/weak) and total
the diagnosis of SPD?” score were found to be within the range of “Definite Differ-
ence,” and 2 subsections (tactile sensitivity, visual/auditory
sensitivity) were within the range of “Probable Difference.”
Methods
Procedures
Participants
Upon volunteering, the parent of each participant was con-
Fifty-three children, ages 5–12 years, participated in the tacted to schedule a visit to the Human Development Lab
study. Twenty-eight of these children (22 boys, 6 girls) were at the Colorado State University. The parent was mailed an
classified as having SPD and were referred to the project by information packet and was asked to fill out the consent
several occupational therapists in the community. In most forms and the Sensory Profile before visiting the laboratory.
of these cases, the occupational therapy evaluations At the beginning of the visit, parental consent was con-
included the Sensory Profile (Dunn, 1999) and clinical firmed, and testing procedures were reviewed verbally with
observations; however, other assessments, such as motor the child participant. After the child signed a form indicat-
skill assessments, may have been used. Based on the assess- ing his or her interest in participating, the child was
ment results, all of the children were classified as having a prepped for EEG recording and given a brief training on
modulation dysfunction (Hanft, Miller, & Lane, 2000; strategies he or she could use to help minimize movement
McIntosh, Miller, Shyu, & Hagerman, 1999). Five of these and eye-blink artifacts in the recordings. The hearing
children were reported by parents as having a speech delay; threshold of the participant was then assessed using a brief
3 had ADHD; 1 had a learning problem; and 6 children click stimulus (3 ms) and a stepping procedure (Levitt,
were reported to have a combination of ADHD, learning 1971). After threshold screening, two continuous EEG
problems, and reading disability in addition to the SPD. recordings were obtained while the participant completed
These 28 children had no additional reported conditions the sensory gating paradigm and the sensory registration
except as listed previously. The control group, 25 of the paradigm (see following paragraphs for a description of

Table 1. Results of t Test Comparisons of the Two Groups of Children on the Short Sensory Profile
Children Who Were Children With Sensory
Typically Developing Processing Disorders Results of t Tests

Variable M (SD) M (SD) t value df p value

Age 8.34 (1.88) 7.71 (1.80) 1.25* 51 .216
Short Sensory Profile Subscale
Tactile Sensitivity 32.76 (2.38) 26.89 (5.72) 4.97 37.0 < .0001
Taste/Smell Sensitivity 16.60 (4.00) 14.64 (5.17) 1.51* 51.0 .133
Movement Sensitivity 13.64 (1.25) 13.04 (2.27) 1.22 43.0 .230
Underresponsive/Seeks Sensation 27.80 (3.19) 21.57 (5.51) 5.10 44.1 < .0001
Auditory Filtering 24.08 (2.90) 17.21 (4.72) 6.45 45.5 < .0001
Low Energy/Weak 28.40 (2.08) 21.07 (7.42) 5.01 31.7 < .0001
Visual/Auditory Sensitivity 20.96 (2.26) 17.21 (3.78) 4.42 44.9 < .0001
Short Sensory Profile—Total 164.24 (11.48) 131.64 (20.95) 7.12 42.8 < .0001
Note. Short Sensory Profile (McIntosh, Miller, & Shyu, 1999).
*Equality of variances confirmed rather than unequal variance assumed.

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 each). Each paradigm lasted about 20 min. Breaks of 2- to P50 amplitude and latency measurements were
3-min duration were taken between the paradigms. The obtained from each averaged ERP waveform using com-
presentation order of two paradigms was counterbalanced puter software known as ERPScore (Segalowitz, 1999). The
except when the child showed signs of short attention span P50 component of the averaged waveform for each click in
or restlessness during the preparation for EEG (30% of the the pair was identified and scored as the most positive peak
children with SPD); then the sensory registration paradigm between 40 and 85 ms after the stimulus onset. The P30
was administered first to ensure that these data would be component, the most positive peak between 25 and 40 ms
collected. The entire visit lasted about 1.5 hours. after the stimulus, also was scored, as was the maximum
negativity between the P30 and P50 peaks.
EEG/ERP Recording Parameters The T/C ratio was then calculated. In the sensory gat-
EEG recordings were collected with a 32-channel BioSemi ing paradigm, often the first click is called the Condition-
ActiveTwo EEG/ERP Acquisition System (BioSemi, WG- ing (C) click because it conditions the brain to be prepared
Plein 129, 1054 SC Amsterdam, Netherlands). Only data for additional incoming stimuli. The second click is called
from the Cz electrode site, which is at the top of the head the Test (T) click because it tests whether the brain prepared
in the central position of the midline, were analyzed. Two for further incoming stimuli. Traditionally, the brain’s gat-
bipolar electro-oculograms (EOGs) were recorded from ing response is reported using the T/C ratio, which is com-
electrodes placed on the left and right outer canthus for puted by dividing the peak-to-peak amplitude of the P50
horizontal movements and on the left supraorbital and component of the Test click (second click) by the peak-to-
infraorbital region for vertical movements. All recordings peak amplitude of the P50 component of the Conditioning
were made with an A-D sampling rate of 1024 Hz, a gain click (first click). The peak-to-peak amplitudes are mea-
setting of 1000, and bandwidth of 268 Hz (high passed at sured as the amplitude of the P50 peak relative to the pre-
0 Hz and low passed at 268 Hz). The left earlobe was used ceding negativity. Thus, a small value for the T/C ratio rep-
as the reference for the sensory gating paradigm, and aver- resents better sensory gating ability, whereas a larger T/C
aged earlobes were used as the reference for the sensory reg- ratio represents less sensory gating ability.
istration paradigm. Statistical analyses of the sensory gating P50 component
and T/C ratio. Differences in mean peak-to-peak amplitude
Sensory Gating ERP Paradigm and Analyses measures for the P50 component were evaluated using a
Sensory gating (P50) paradigm. The study used a modi- 2 × 2 mixed analysis of variance (ANOVA) design. The
fied sensory gating paradigm, which consisted of presenting between factor, Groups, consisted of the two levels, children
a total of 120 pairings of the click sounds while the partic- with SPD and children who were typically developing. The
ipants watched a silent movie meant to visually entertain. within factor, Clicks, also consisted of two levels, Condi-
The click sounds, 3 ms in duration, were presented at tioning click and Test click. Post hoc Tukey t tests were then
approximately 85 dB SPL (decibels sound pressure level). used to compare differences between the two groups at each
The paired clicks had an interstimulus interval (ISI) of 500 click. Differences in the T/C ratios between the groups were
ms and a 10-second duration between pairs. evaluated using an independent t test.
Measures of sensory gating—P50 component and T/C
ratio. Measures of P50 component (see Figure 1) amplitude Sensory Registration ERP Paradigm and Analyses
and latency at the Cz site were obtained by processing the Sensory registration (N100–P200) paradigm. In this
EEG signals using BrainVision Analyzer software (Brain paradigm, continuous EEG signals were recorded while the
Products GmbH, Zeppelinstrasse 7, 82207 Gilching, Ger- participant stared at a fixed symbol on a computer screen
many, 2002). and listened to four different auditory stimuli. The auditory
EEG processing consisted of (a) digitally filtering using stimuli consisted of pure tones (sinusoidal waves), 2 with
a 10–200 Hz band pass, (b) segmenting the continuous sig- frequencies at 1000 Hz and 2 at 3000 Hz, and each fre-
nal into epochs with durations of 100 ms before the click quency was presented at either one of two intensity levels,
stimulus onset through 200 ms post stimulus, (c) perform- 50 dB SPL or 70 dB SPL. The stimuli were presented in
ing artifact rejection where epochs with deviations greater blocks of 100 trials, 25 trials of each of the stimuli, in ran-
than ±100 µV on any of the EEG channels or the bipolar dom order with a 2-second ISI. Four blocks of trials were
EOG channels were eliminated, and (d) applying a baseline presented with each block, taking about 3.5 min. At the
correction using the 100 ms prestimulus period. Averaged conclusion of each block, the participant was given a 30-
ERP waveforms for the first click (Conditioning) and the second break to rest his or her eyes, blink, or move about in
second click (Test) were obtained. the chair.
The American Journal of Occupational Therapy 181
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 Measures of sensory registration—N100 and P200 com- 100 ms before the click stimulus onset through 800 ms post
ponents. The measures obtained from the sensory registra- stimulus. Averaged ERP waveforms for each of the 4 audi-
tion paradigm included the N100 and the P200 (see Figure tory stimuli were then obtained. Two children who were
2a). Data were processed similarly to the P50 component typically developing and 1 child with SPD had average
with the following exceptions: (a) EEG signals were digitally waveforms based on less than 20 epochs and therefore were
filtered using a .23–30 Hz band pass, and (b) EEG signals excluded from subsequent analysis as will be outlined below.
were segmented into epochs with durations consisting of N100 and P200 amplitude and latency measurements were

2a. This brain response of a child from the control group displays similar peak latencies of the early components (i.e., N100 and P200) of the waveforms for
each tone. Note that the amplitudes of the loud tones (70 dB) are larger than the amplitudes of the soft tones (50 dB).

2b. This brain response of a child from the group with SPD shows considerable variability in the peak latencies and peak amplitudes of the early components of
the waveforms for each tone. These waveforms appear to be more disorganized than those shown in 2a for the child from the control group.

Figure 2. ERP waveforms for two children representing their brain response to the sensory registration paradigm. The averaged brain
responses to the presentations of each of the 4 tones are shown as separate lines.

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 obtained using ERPScore (Segalowitz, 1999). The N100 Sensory Registration Paradigm
component was scored as the most negative peak between
80 and 120 ms after the stimulus onset. The P200 compo- Results from the sensory registration ERP paradigm
nent was scored as the most positive peak between 180 and demonstrated that the brain responses of children who were
240 ms after the stimulus. typically developing to changes in the intensity and fre-
Statistical analyses of the sensory registration N100 and quency of the 4 stimuli presented in the ERP paradigm
P200. Differences in mean N100 and P200 amplitude and were more organized when compared to the responses of
latency measurements were evaluated using 4 ANOVAs the children with SPD. See Figure 2a for a representative
each using a 2 × 2 × 2 mixed ANOVA. The between factor, sensory registration waveform for children in the control
Groups, consisted of the 2 levels, children with SPD and group and Figure 2b for a representative waveform from the
children who were typically developing. The first within group of children with SPD.
factor, Frequency, consisted of 2 levels, the 1000 Hz and Inspection of the N100 component showed that the
3000 Hz tones. The second within factor, Intensity, con- mean amplitude of the children who were typically devel-
sisted of 2 intensity levels, the soft and loud. Post hoc Tukey oping was greater for the 1000 Hz stimuli at both intensi-
t tests were used to compare differences between the two ties, whereas the children with SPD had a greater mean
groups at each of the 4 auditory stimuli. amplitude for the 3000 Hz stimuli at both intensities (see
Table 2). The ANOVA revealed a significant main effect for
Intensity, F (1, 48) = 17.97, p < .0005, partial η2 = .27. The
Results main effect for Groups was not significant, F (1, 48) = 1.76, p
The results of the 5 ANOVA procedures, 1 t test, and 1 < .68, partial η2 = .004, and post hoc Tukey t tests showed
multiple regression analysis are reported below. To guard that the two groups of children did not significantly differ
against Type I errors, the significance of the outcomes were in N100 amplitudes when each of the auditory stimuli were
evaluated against a test-wise alpha level of .007, determined examined separately. Inspection of the mean N100 latencies
by dividing the family-wise alpha level of .05 by the num- showed that the children with SPD had shorter latencies
ber of statistical procedures performed (.05/7). compared to the children who were typically developing.
However, the ANOVA procedure revealed that none of the
Sensory Gating Paradigm main effects were significant.
As shown in Figure 1a, a representative child from the con- Inspection of the amplitudes of the P200 component
trol group displayed a large difference between the P50 peak showed that the mean amplitude of the children who were
amplitude of the first click (solid line) and the second click typically developing was greater for 3 of the 4 auditory
(dashed line). However, as seen in Figure 1b, which shows stimuli, whereas the children with SPD had a greater mean
the waveform from a child from the group with SPD, the amplitude for the 3000 Hz tone at the soft intensity. The
difference between the amplitudes of the first click (solid ANOVA procedure revealed a significant main effect for
line) and the second click (dashed line) is negligible. The 2 Intensity, F (1, 48) = 26.65, p < .0005, partial η2 = .36. The
× 2 mixed ANOVA revealed only a significant main effect main effect for Groups was not significant, F(1, 48) = .12, p =
for Clicks, F (1, 51) = 59.58, p < .0005, partial η2 = .54. Post .73, partial η2 = .003, and post hoc Tukey t tests showed
hoc Tukey t tests showed that within each group the differ- that the two groups of children did not significantly differ
ences between the Conditioning and the Test clicks were in their P200 amplitudes when each of the auditory stimuli
statistically significant, although the effect was stronger for were examined separately. Inspection of the mean P200
children who were typically developing, t (1, 51) = 8.71, p < latencies showed that the children with SPD had longer
.005, than for children with SPD, t (1, 51) = 6.61, p < .005. latencies compared to the children who were typically
Thus, both groups showed inhibition or gating of the sec- developing for all but the 3000 Hz tone at the loud inten-
ond click. However, analysis of the P50 T/C ratios using an sity. However, the ANOVA procedure revealed that none of
independent t test (one-tailed) revealed that, as expected, the main effects were significant, and post hoc comparisons
children with SPD demonstrated a mean of .77 (SD = .42), showed that no significant differences between groups
which was higher than the mean T/C ratio of .58 (SD = existed for any of the stimuli.
.31) for children who were typically developing, t (1, 51) =
1.79, p = .04, η2 = .06. Although children with SPD as a Exploring Individual Differences in Sensory Gating
group showed less gating than children who were typically To address possible factors accounting for the variability
developing, this difference was not statistically significant observed in the ERP P50 gating T/C ratios within and
when evaluated against an adjusted alpha level of .007. between groups, we proposed a model for sensory gating
The American Journal of Occupational Therapy 183
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 Table 2. Mean Amplitude and Latencies of the N100 and P200 ERP Components in the Sensory Registration Paradigm
Auditory Stimuli
1000 Hz @ 50 dB 1000 Hz @ 70 dB 3000 Hz @ 50 dB 3000 Hz @ 70 dB
N100 Amplitudes (µV)
Children Who Were Typically Developing 7.46 (3.72) 9.39 (4.19) 7.60 (4.38) 8.64 (4.75)
Children With SPD 5.80 (3.70) 8.38 (3.76) 7.63 (4.21) 9.59 (4.77)
P200 Amplitudes (µV)
Children Who Were Typically Developing 7.04 (4.60) 10.77 (8.75) 6.37 (4.58) 11.05 (8.04)
Children With SPD 6.19 (3.49) 10.37 (8.10) 7.18 (4.38) 10.35 (6.92)
N100 Latencies (ms)
Children Who Were Typically Developing 119.13 (30.92) 119.79 (25.37) 131.94 (35.94) 111.17 (19.80)
Children With SPD 128.85 (32.63) 133.27 (38.64) 130.22 (33.11) 128.09 (29.86)
P200 Latencies (ms)
Children Who Were Typically Developing 178.43 (35.80) 180.79 (33.15) 182.55 (37.25) 168.13 (21.68)
Children With SPD 178.61 (40.94) 184.92 (40.20) 187.28 (40.92) 181.03 (27.50)
Note. ERP = event-related potentials; dB = decibels; µV = microvolts; ms = milliseconds; SPD = sensory processing disorders.

that consisted of two principal components, maturation analysis revealed that the proposed model—consisting of
and organization of brain responses to auditory stimuli. The measures of maturation and brain processing of simple
maturation component was simply defined as the partici- auditory stimuli presented in the sensory registration
pant’s chronological age. Based on previously reported paradigm—could account for a very large percent (84%) of
research (Marshall et al., 2004), the expected relationship the variability in the P50 T/C ratios observed in sensory gat-
was that older children would show smaller sensory gating ing paradigm. When the regression analysis was performed
T/C ratios than younger children. Organization of brain using data just from the children with SPD, no relationship
response to auditory stimuli was defined as the participant’s between the dependent and the independent variables was
interrelationship of the peak-to-peak amplitudes and laten- found, R 2 = .35 (Adj. R 2 = .002), F (9, 17) = 1.0, p = .47. Inter-
cies of the N100 and P200 components of the average estingly, in contrast to the children who were typically
waveforms for the two loud intensity auditory stimuli of the developing, age accounted for only 1.4% of the variance in
sensory registration paradigm. The operational assumption the children with SPD, F Change(1, 25) = .35, p = .56.
here was that the less variable these components were This discrepancy between the maturation effects
within an individual, the smaller the individual’s sensory observed in children who were typically developing and the
gating T/C ratio would be. This model was tested using a failure to find maturation effects in children with SPD
3-step multiple regression procedure. The predicted depen- might be better understood by examining the zero order
dent variable was the P50 T/C ratio from the sensory correlations between age and T/C ratios of the P50 compo-
gating paradigm. The predictors—the independent nent for each group separately. For the children who were
variables—were age entered in the first step; the N100 typically developing, a statistically significant relationship
amplitudes and latencies of the two loud intensity auditory was found between age and the T/C ratios of the P50, r =
stimuli of the sensory registration paradigm were entered in –.60, p = .001. Thus, the evidence suggests that for the chil-
the second step; and the P200 amplitudes and latencies of dren who were typically developing, sensory gating
the two loud intensity auditory stimuli were entered last. improves (i.e., T/C ratios become smaller) as a function of
When this analysis was performed with data from both being older in age. However, children with SPD did not
child groups, a nonsignificant relationship was found, R 2 = provide evidence of a relationship between age and the T/C
.32 (Adj. R 2 = .17), F (9, 40) = 2.11, p = .051. ratios of the P50 as r = –.08, p = .67. Thus, children with
However, when the regression analysis was per- SPD do not demonstrate improved sensory gating as a
formed using data just from the children who were typi- function of being older.
cally developing, a statistically significant relationship
between the variables was found, R 2 = .84 (Adj. R 2 = .72), Diagnosing Children With SPD
F (9, 13) = 7.41, p = .001. Age accounted for 32% of the vari- To understand how brain processing in children with SPD
ance (F Change(1, 21) = 9.97, p = .005), N100 amplitudes and differs from the brain processing in children who are typ-
latencies accounted for 49% (F Change(4, 17) = 10.82, p = ically developing, we further examined the relationship
.0002), and P200 amplitudes and latencies accounted for between sensory gating and sensory registration measures.
3% (F Change(4, 13) = .56, p = .70). Thus, only for the chil- First, we derived a prediction equation for P50 T/C ratios,
dren who were typically developing, the 3-step regression using the unstandardized coefficients obtained for each of
184 March/April 2007, Volume 61, Number 2
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 the variables in the regression analysis performed on chil- Discussion
dren who were typically developing, as reported previ-
ously. Using this equation, predicted P50 T/C ratios were To our knowledge, this study is the first to examine brain
calculated for each child in both groups. The predicted processing in children identified by occupational therapists
ratios were then subtracted from their actual P50 T/C as having SPD and to compare the results to brain process-
ratios obtained in the sensory gating paradigm to produce ing observed in children without disorders. We explored
a difference score for each child. These difference scores two research questions. The first addressed whether the
were then plotted as a function of their corresponding groups differed in EEG measures of brain processing of
obtained T/C ratios. As seen in Figure 3, difference scores auditory stimuli. The second explored whether electro-
of the children with SPD are distributed on either side of encephalographic techniques would be useful in diagnosing
the children who were typically developing. Thus, this SPD. Our results revealed that, as a group, children with
procedure demonstrates that when P50 T/C difference SPD demonstrated less auditory sensory gating than an age-
scores are derived from the prediction equation based on matched peer group of children without disorders (p = .04),
the regression analysis of the children who were typically although not significantly different when evaluated
developing, the children with SPD can be shown to be against the adjusted alpha level. Furthermore, children
hyperresponsive or hyporesponsive in their sensory gating with SPD did not show a significant relationship between
when compared to the gating of the children who were sensory gating and age, although such a relationship was
typically developing. found in children who were typically developing. Finally,

Figure 3. Illustration of the results of the statistical method used to separate the children with SPD from children in the control group
(children who were typically developing) based on brain responses to auditory stimuli. Obtained P50 T/C ratios of each child are plotted
as a function of the difference between the obtained ratios and the predicted ratios.

The American Journal of Occupational Therapy 185

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 we demonstrated that differences between actual sensory be expressed behaviorally either by “acting out” or by with-
gating measures and predicted sensory gating—based on an drawing when sensory stimulation in the environment
equation using age and measures of brain processing to sim- becomes too overwhelming.
ple auditory stimuli—can be used to diagnosis SPD. In the Differences between the two groups also were observed
following paragraphs we discuss how the results from this regarding evidence of maturation of sensory gating abilities.
study support the assumption of sensory integration theory Maturation was found to be one of the factors accounting
that behavioral expressions of dysfunction in sensory inte- for the variability in the T/C ratio measures in the children
gration are related to immaturity or malfunction in brain who were typically developing but not in the children with
processing. SPD. In our analyses for developmental trends, the age of
Occupational therapists referred children to this study the child was used as a variable representing the accumula-
on the basis of their clinical judgment that the children had tive time for maturation of brain processes. Our results
SPD. One of the purposes of this study was to externally therefore suggest that, as a group, the auditory gating abili-
validate that children who are seen by occupational thera- ties of children with SPD do not change as a function of
pists for SPD are indeed a distinct group of children, dif- either biologically driven maturity (e.g., physical growth) or
ferent from their age-matched peers in the general popula- the accumulation of experiences across time (e.g., learning).
tion. The degree to which these recruitment strategies The children in our typically developing group did show a
produced sample groups representative of their respective significant relationship between sensory gating and age;
populations was validated in this study by the scores on the thus, we infer that sensory gating improves as children
Short Sensory Profile (McIntosh, Miller, & Shyu, 1999) without disorders mature. This finding is consistent with
and also by EEG measures. several other studies that reported sensory gating in children
The results of the Short Sensory Profile data collected who were typically developing (Freedman et al., 1987; Mar-
in our laboratory for both groups of children confirm that shall et al., 2004). Further investigations on maturation of
parents of children with SPD reported observing aberrant sensory gating should be conducted to more fully deter-
behaviors, whereas parents of children who were typically mine the developmental trajectory.
developing did not. Although not novel, this independent Additional support for the validity of a diagnosis cate-
behavioral data collected in our laboratory provides validity gory of SPD was discovered when we explored the relation-
that the children often classified as having SPD by thera- ship of the children’s brain responses to basic auditory stim-
pists are significantly different from their age-matched peers ulation to their sensory gating abilities. Multiple regression
based on family observations alone. The unique contribu- analyses revealed that age and brain responses to simple
tion of this study is the fact that electroencephalographic auditory stimuli presented in the sensory registration
measures from the sensory gating paradigm also showed paradigm (i.e., the N100 and P200 ERP components)
differences between the two groups of children. could account for 84% of the variance in the P50 T/C
Specifically, the mean T/C ratio for the children with ratios of the sensory gating paradigm of the children with-
SPD was found to be larger than the mean T/C ratio of a out disorders. In contrast, the children with SPD were
peer group of children without disorders. Because larger found to be more variable in their responses to simple audi-
T/C ratios represent less sensory gating ability compared to tory stimuli and, as a result, predicting sensory gating from
smaller T/C ratios, this finding may be interpreted that their brain responses to simple auditory stimuli was consid-
children with SPD are deficient in their ability to suppress erably less reliable. This finding further contributes to the
(i.e., filter out) repeated or irrelevant sensory input and fail inference that the brain processing of simple auditory stim-
to selectively regulate the sensitivity of cortical responses to uli may be less organized in the children with SPD. On a
additional incoming sensory stimuli. The decreased ability behavioral note, if a child’s brain is not able to organize sim-
of children with SPD to gate out or suppress irrelevant ple sensory stimuli, it is unlikely that the child will be able
auditory stimuli, as shown in this study, may explain cer- to organize more complex incoming sensory input in a
tain behavioral manifestations such as distraction, impul- manner that results in functional adaptations or responses.
siveness, abnormal activity level, disorganization, anxiety, Results from this study support the validity of sensory
and emotional liability, often observed in children with processing disorders as a diagnosis by providing evidence of
SPD (Cohn, Miller, & Tickle-Degnen, 2000; Miller, differences in brain processing of auditory stimuli, as mea-
Reisman, McIntosh, & Simon, 2001). When a child is sured by EEG, in children with SPD compared to children
unable to automatically suppress incoming sensory infor- who were typically developing. When assessed from a devel-
mation, he or she may become inundated with the incom- opment perspective, ERP measures of brain processing
ing information. The child’s response to inundation may ability—such as the P50 T/C ratios from the sensory gating
186 March/April 2007, Volume 61, Number 2
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 paradigm, along with N100 and P200 from the sensory suggested that describing these behavioral responses along a
registration paradigm—may be used as a possible marker of continuum may be too simplistic. Further exploration of the
SPD. However, because this is the first study of its kind, factors that account for the variance in sensory gating in chil-
further studies of brain processing are needed to confirm dren with SPD is needed to clarify this issue.
the P50 gating deficits obtained in this study. Such studies The data depicted in Figure 3 highlight another impor-
also should explore the existence of other possible EEG/ tant aspect regarding the children who were classified as
ERP markers of sensory processing deficits that may be used having SPD; namely, that these children are qualitatively
in the future to cross-validate the diagnosis of SPD in indi- different from their peer group of children who were typi-
vidual children. cally developing. If children with SPD were merely quanti-
Demonstrating that differences in brain processing exist tatively different, their T/C ratios would appear only as
between groups of children with and without SPD should extreme points of the normal distribution positioned at the
be considered only the first step in establishing the validity extreme, in one or the other tails, of the normal distribu-
of new clinical markers of the disorder. A more powerful tion. This was not the case. Furthermore, if children with
demonstration of the validity of a new marker is to show the SPD were merely quantitatively different, the prediction
degree to which the marker may be used to successfully equation used for children who were typically developing
diagnose an individual as having or not having the disorder. also should have applied to the children with SPD. This was
This goal was the basis of our second research question, found not to be the case. Rather, our regression results sug-
“Can EEG techniques be useful in the diagnosis of SPD?” gest that the children referred for this study as having SPD
Our approach to answering this question was to demon- displayed brain processing mechanisms that were deviant
strate that, by using a prediction equation based on the brain from the brain processing mechanisms seen in the children
responses of the children who were typically developing, we who were typically developing. The linear pattern of the dif-
could determine with 86% accuracy the group membership ference scores observed in Figure 3 for the children with
of each child in both child groups. That is, we could deter- SPD suggests that one or more additional variables—not in
mine by just the ERP responses whether a given child had a the prediction equation for children who were typically
sensory processing disorder. Furthermore, the children with developing—may exist and may account for the unique
SPD also were shown to be either hyperresponsive or variability observed in the gating performance in children
hyporesponsive in their sensory gating relative to the gating with SPD. Because no such linear pattern is seen in the dif-
of the children who were typically developing. This result is ference scores for the children who were typically develop-
congruent with the clinical observations of therapists, who ing, the additional variable or variables that explain the
often describe children with SPD as being either hyposensi- unique pattern of variability in children with SPD repre-
tive or hypersensitive to their environment (Hanft et al., sents a qualitative difference between the two groups. Fur-
2000; McIntosh, Miller, Shyu, & Hagerman, 1999) and ther study is needed to determine the nature of the variable
further strengthens the validity of the clinical diagnosis. or variables that place children with SPD on both extremes
Our study found that ERP measures of the central ner- of children who are typically developing. These variables
vous system show that some children with SPD may be may be behavioral in nature (e.g., parent report of child’s
hyperresponsive and others may be hyporesponsive to audi- behavior on the Sensory Profile) or perhaps more biological
tory stimuli. These findings corroborate the results of (e.g., family history of psychiatric disorders).
McIntosh and colleagues (1999), who used a peripheral Pennington (2002) suggested that most disorders are
nervous system measure, electrodermal response (EDR) first defined behaviorally or based on a set of symptoms
(McIntosh, Miller, Shyu, & Hagerman, 1999). In the defining a phenotype of a disorder. Occupational therapists,
McIntosh et al. study, the group labeled as hyperresponsive beginning with Ayres, have engaged in research (for review,
children showed more EDR responses that had greater mag- see Mulligan, 2002) that helped define phenotypes of dys-
nitude and habituated more slowly than a control group. In function for sensory integration and SPD. Their studies of
contrast, children in another group labeled as nonresponders sensory integration and SPD have helped define the behav-
showed significantly smaller magnitude EDR responses than ioral phenotype. Pennington (1997) advised that, although
the control group. Our data show similar results to those of genetic and brain studies of disorders cannot progress with-
McIntosh et al. in that hyperresponsiveness and hypore- out carefully designed behavioral and neuropsychological
sponsiveness represent a continuum (see Figure 3). This phenotypes, brain and genetic studies can force revisions in
finding is consistent with some ideas expressed in earlier the definition of phenotypes, refining both the definition
reports (Fisher & Murray, 1991; Royeen & Lane, 1991; and the diagnostic process. With technologies currently
Williams & Shellenberger, 1994). However, Lane (2002) available and the behavioral phenotypes that have been
The American Journal of Occupational Therapy 187
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 described by therapists, the time seems appropriate to use of her EEG system; this study could not have been
examine brain and genetic factors that may help explain the completed without her generosity. We also thank Wen-Pin
behavioral phenotypes of SPD. If, through careful research, Chang, OTR, for his assistance in data collection and for
occupational therapists and their colleagues can demon- scoring ERP waveforms. We appreciate the assistance of
strate a refined definition of SPD that includes evidence of Lisa Fyffe, OTR, who was very helpful in recruiting chil-
brain and genetic factors along with traditional behavioral dren with SPD. We also appreciate her assistance, along
definitions, the diagnosis and need for therapeutic inter- with Wei-Yun Lai, in putting the sensory profile data into
ventions will be further substantiated. the database. Finally, we thank all of the children and their
The results of the present study illustrate how studies of families whose participation made this study possible.
brain processing may refine the definition of SPD. The mea-
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