be THE| PYRAMID PRINCIPLE LOGIC IN WRITING AND THINKING ‘There is nothing so useful as a good theory.” KURT LEWIN Barbara MintoEainbugh Cate Tete enes paid inte USA Mn ners in 1987 expan ka ot At tt cod ke igh ere 0 pa fi picon maybe ered eed ean pwning rg. tr eens cher eps eaten ee png pg {0Tocenham Coun Rand. Laaton WIFELE This okie ne (atten otc a ety ‘stead ou in rt Brin by Gof ng Ln ABOUT THE AUTHOR Barbara Minto grew up in Cleveland, Ohio. She began her career on the sa of Gyrus Eaton, the industaist who founded the famous Pugrash Conferences of nuclear scientist. Working as part of the testa that ‘organized and ran the conferences, she received sound traning in tackling ‘he problems of communicating clearly on technical subject Tm 10961 she left Mr. Eaton wo stend the Harvard Busines School, returning to Cleveland in, 1963 to join MeKinsey & Company, the international management consulting firm, as theit Fist female constant. Her ability to ete was need, ashe was transferee to London in 1956, to concentrate on Aeyeloping the wring hil of ther growing European sal All reports that ‘ime were weten in English, and iar though that eonsuleants noe writing in ‘heir fet anguage would experience special dice, However, ie became apparent to her very quickly that che writing iiculies in Diseldor nd Paris were the same 2 thote in New York and {leseland, The problem was not so much to get the language rights to get ‘he thinking clear. This insight led her to concentrate on decovering the structures of thinking that must underlie clear writing, and eventually to develop the ideas that make up this book ‘She sil ives in London, but hat since 1978 ran her own fm, Minto Tnermational, Inc. She specializes in teaching The Pyramid Principle © people whose major training it im business oF the professions, bat whose Jobs nevertheless requice them to produce complex reports, analyses, ‘memorandums, or presentations. ‘She has taught her course to mot of the major conmaking firms in the United States and Europe, 25 well a 10 many of the county's largest corporations She ha ao lectured a the Harvard, Sanford, Chicago, and London busines schools and atthe State Universi of New York.PREFACE | “This book proposes to tell you how to use The Pyramid Principle to write a clear business dacument. Writing anything clearly consists Of two steps first, decide the point you want to make, then put it into words. So long as you know the point, you rarely have a problem stating it 1 Please leave evo quarts today ‘© 1 mect you at 12:20 at Mario's © Call your wie. But you can run into trouble when you have to sort through a series of points to come to an overall conclusion: {John Goins telephoned to say chat he can't make the meeting at 1:00, Hal Johnson says he doean’t ind waking tater, oF even tomorror. but not before 10:30, and Don Clifford's secretary says that {Cfo won't return from Frankfurt until tomorrow, ate“The Conference Room is booked tomorrow, but free Thursday. ‘Thoraday at 1:00 looks to be a good time. Is that OR for you? ‘What the author has done here is what most people do when they ‘write. He has used the writing process as a device to formulate his thinking. Asa devieit works quite well infact but the results bit hhard on the reader, who is forced to plow through several irrelevant sentences before he finds the point. How much easier ifthe note had read: (Could we reschedule today's meeting to Thursday at 11-00°This would be more convenient for Colin and Johnson, and would also permit Gifor tobe present. Alas, to get from the first example tothe second means double work for both the author and his seeretary, and most people feel i not really worth the effort for such a short note. No doubt they're right But what happens when, instead of the document's being one paragraph long, its two or three pages? Usually the author feels it would take too long to revise it, and in any case he's often not sure Just how t0 go about doing the revision. Much easier, he decides, 0 leave it to the reader to sort through the points and pull out the message for himself Until recenty few readers actually complained about this atinade fon the part of their correspondents, Most took it for granted that ‘his was how business writing was supposed to look, since it resembled what they themselves had learned to produce by careful copying of their superiors. Indeed, I can recall once telling a consultant that his 2-hour presentation on a company's new ‘organization structure was boring. He replied ‘What deals that people come expecting it tb bring. Thee ed i? Perhaps. Bur the time wasted is enormous, and continual exposure 'o badly written, boring documents can only be soul destroying. AS ‘one commentator sympathetically noted, "The myth th tuninesmen don't reads nonsense. They ead alt But what they read iterate? or the average busines or profesional writer, producing more teat emortdrepos doc nt mena ving shore sentences ocean eer words Rater, tens formal epi he aking proces fom the wring process 20 that you can complete suring bey begin ie: Ald that's what his book i (a you how to, actly we you tat ithe order in which you present yous thinking dat makes your wring clear or cle and hat ou ‘eine confnon Inthe readers mind when you do not impose the vce order Imposing the proper order means creating 2 mpreherive structure tat Henuhes te major ideas and their fan organises he nor des 0 support hem "Pc Key al, den isto be able ovecogoze which ate your major and uhh yous minor idea, and fo work ove thei reaonships Sin the arucure, The demands of logic and the Iinitaons of rane sity to kein information date tat hin sete wil “Saabs pyramidal in shape hence The Fyamid Pringle rt One mil bo explain is principle a how ou howto wse itte buds beginning pram ar Te vl show you howto we vote knowledge ofthe pyramid rule 0 Took erally at this sue ads logleal fas, and ps your thinking erate 50 hatyon end p saying precy wht you mean : “The approsch is spplicable to any document in which you cove io get your inking aro leary. ApPVing,Howeve, feat nsiderable discipline, Nevertheless, by deliberately arian iter in the manner it foning yourself to think frst and write a eigen your shoult be ale quite drama (3 0 ext down the Trou ormaly need vo produce» ial dra (2) to increase is tad (vo decree eg[-| CONTENTS. Preface part | The Pyramid Principle: Logi in Writing Introduction ln Wit A PYRAMID STRUCTURE Sorting into Pyramids “The Magical Number Seven “The Need to Sate the Logie ‘Ordering from the Top Down “Thinking from the Bottom Up“THE SUBSTRUCTURES WITHIN THE PYRAMID ‘The Vertical Relationship ‘The Horizontal Relationship “The Introductory Flow HOW TO BULD A PYRAMID STRUCTURE ‘The TopDown Approach “The Bottom-Up Approach Caveats For Beginners FINE POINTS OF INTRODUCTIONS Inia Introductions ‘Why Stor? How Long Should it Be? ‘Where Do You Start the Situation? Whats a Complication? —— Wy That Order? What About the Key Line? Further Examples In Summary Some Common Patterns Request for Fonds How to’ Documents Letters of Proposal Progress Reviews ‘Transitions Between Groups Referencing Backward Sommariaing Concluding DEDUCTION AND INDUCTION: ‘THE DIFFERENCE Deductive Reasoning How is Worke When wo Use i Py sels 4 a 2 4 4 ” 8 50 52 56 37 59 6 51 5 8 70 70 Inductive Reasoning 6 How it Works 78 How titers Bp HOW TO HIGHLIGHT THE STRUCTURE st Headings 2 ‘Undertined Points 85 Decimal Numbering a7 Indented Display 90 art 2 The Pyramid Principle: Logie in Thinking, 93 Introduction 95 QUESTIONING THE ORDER OFA GROUPING __97 ‘Time Order 100 Incomplete Thinking 10 Confused Logic 101 Fake Grouping. 102 Stractural Order 102 Creating Structure 103, Deseribing a Stucture 105, Imposing a Steuemre 108 Ranking Order 109 Creating Proper Glas Groupings 109 ening improper Cass Groupings ns QUESTIONING THE PROBLEM-SOLVING PROCESS 121 “The Prablem Solving Process 12 ‘Whatis the Problem? 133, Where Doesit Lie ie Why Doesit Exist 135, ‘What Could We Do About i? 135, What Should We Do About i? 126SNILAA NI DID07 | FdIONIWd IWWwAd HL | {__ I avd at eut Ist Pay Seu 2ep 8aINTRODUCTION TO PART | One ofthe least pleasant aspects of a profesional person's job is the cel put thing in weting, Almost everyone finds i chore and ae eiyere beuer ati And many people are tld specifically That they nced to improve if they want f Progr. tthe Zensen most people don't improve is that they asume that vwitng more clearly means wring simpler, more direct sentence year g mc that the sentences in their documents are often ane ogg and unwieldy. Moreover, their language frequenty {00 orerreat or too abstract, and their paragraphs on occasion are awkwardly developed. reese are weaknesses of slg and its notoriously dificult for a poman who has competed ce formal pat of his education 1 2a his writing ser Not that it cannot be done; radher. ts Ws srarmiag to ype. It requires a good many repetitive exercises, FO" aera ve dethe job waiters in industry and government simply aoice nd the time. Ava reall, they continue 1 Be told they need towrite ‘more clearly” Heer there iva second cause of unclear writing, far more persis than te int and much easier to correct This relates 19 reef tne document ~ the order in which the sentences appear arom of whether they are well oF poorly writen. tf a perm s ‘Siig i unclear, itt most ikely because te ordering of the Seas sre wth the capability of the reader's mind to process them “This capabigyf the same for everyone, whether reader oF wit so thee Warning to accommodate it is a relatively easy task. And Tethably, the writer who forces himself o match the structe of ae tg that of his reader's min also finds dat he has cared Wis ree thinking sufficiently to write less awkward sentences FP aavrane wetion of the book explains why the structure in @ reader's mind will always be a pyramid, and what the logicalsupstructures are that make up th at pyramid Ital you how to we this knowledge to identify the ideas you mec to icles ina gare dctment, and wo soucre 2 Sea eon beeen em Final ills you how to highligh your seuctre 9 thar he ideas and thee relationship wll be eas} Se at's ance WHY | A PYRAMID STRUCTURE | “The person who seeks to learn what you think about particular subject by reading what you have to say about it faces a complex tak. Even if your document sa short one ~ say only about 2 single-spaced pages ~ it wll contain roughly 100 semtences. He must ke in each of these, digest them, relate them, and hold them together. He will, invariably find the job easier if they come to him as a pyramid, beginning atthe top and working downward. This conclusion reflects some fundamental findings about the way the mind works. Specifically: ‘¢ The mind automatically sorts information into distinctive pyramidal groupings in order to comprehend it ‘© Any grouping of ideas is easier co comprehend ifit arrives presorted into its pyramid 16 This suggests that every written document should be deliberately structured to form a pyramid of ideas. “The sections following explain what I mean bya pyramid of ideas.SORTING INTO PYRAMIDS Tha the mind automatically imposes order on cverthing around i as long been rcognined Ese. it tes to-sce any sequence of things that occur together a belonging together, and therefore seis about imposing & logical pattera on them, The Greets, for example, demonstrated the tendency by looking up at the sare snd seing ouines of guresinsicad of pois eight The mind wil group together any series of ems that i ses as having a ‘common fe ~ Because they share similar characteris orate nea the sme place. Take these i dots for example ‘When looking casually at them, everyone sees wo groups of three dots each, primarily because some of the distances between the dots are smaller than others The value of seeing things in logical units is, of course, immense To demonstrate, read the following pairs of nouns, which are ‘normally not related t each other, LAKE SUGAR BOOT # PLATE GIRL = KANGAROO PENGIL # GASOLINE PALACE = BICYCLE RAILROAD = ELEPHANT BOOK = TOOTHPASTE "Baten een Gt ca WR ih aig ow [Now try to ‘organize’ them by picuuring a situation in which each tue might be associated ~ such ay the sugar being dissolved in the tke or the boot sting on the plate. Then cover up the fist on the fighthand side and try to remember thems through reading the lit soe the lefttiand side. Most people find that they can recall them all without hesitation "The same organizing phenomenon takes place when you are cither listening to or reading ideas. You assume the ideas that Sppear together, one after the other, belong together, and attempt apr pose a logical pattern on them. The pattern wil always be that a pyramid because this i the only form that meets your mind's need 10 fStop at the magical number seven 4 State the logic ofthe relationship. “The Magical Number Seven ‘There is a limit to the number of ideas you can ‘comprehend at any one time. For example, think of deciding to feave your warm, comfortable living room to buy a package of Gigareties. ‘think Pll go out and get some cigarettes, you sy to Jour wife, “s there anything you want while 'm out” Gosh. I have such a taste for grapes after all those ads on television,’ she says as you walk toward the closet to get your coat, ‘and maybe you ought to get ome more mill.” You tke your coat from the closet a8 she walks into the kitchen. ‘Let me look in the cupboard to see if we have enough potatoes and, oh yes, 1 know we'te out of eggs. Let me see, yes, we do need potatoes You put on your coat and walk toward the door. ‘Carrots’ she calls out, ‘and maybe some oranges” You open the door Butter’ You walk dovn the stairs. “Apples.” You get into the ‘can’And sour cream,’ “Is that all? "Yes, dear, thank you" Now, without reading the passage over, can you remember any of the nine items your wife asked you to buy? Most men come back with the cigaretes and the grapes‘The major problem is that you've run into the magic number seven. This isa phrase coined by George A. Miler in his treatise, “The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Twa.”* What he points ‘outs thatthe mind cannot held more than about seven items in its shoreterm memory at any one time. Some minds can hold as many as nine items, while others can hold only five (I'm a ive myself). A convenient number is three, but of course the easiest number is one, ‘What this means is that when the mind sees the number of items, with which itis being presented begin to rise above four or five, it arts to group them into logical categories so that they can be retained. In this eas, it would probably put the items into categories that reflect the sections ofthe supermarket you would need to visit To demonstrate how this help, read the list below and categorize cach idea in this way a8 you come to it. You will very likey find that you remember thes GRAPES ORANGES MILK BUTTER POTATOES APPLES kocs SOUR CREAM CARROTS you uy to visualize this process, you wil see that you have created: set of pyramids of logically related items. = =] [=] [m=] Re ‘a Cream ur [ sscomsus Soe] [Foe] fave fa] [a= ‘le. George A. Te Pag of Counties Pa) 137 ‘The Need to State the Logic Now clearly, itis not enough simply to group the {ideas in a logical way without ako stating to yourself what the logic fof the relationship is. The point in grouping was not just to move from a set of nine items to separate sets of four, two, and three items. That sill comes to nine, What you want to do is move above the nine, co three “This means that instead of remembering each of the nine items, you remember only the three categories into which they fall. You are thinking one level of abstraction higher, but because the thought is fata higher level, it suggests the items below it. And, because the ‘elationship is not a contrived one as was the case in the exercise bout the lake and the sugar its much easier to keep in mind, ‘All mental processes (e.g., thinking, remembering, problem solving) apparently utilize this grouping and summarizing process, So thatthe information in a person's mind might be thought of as ‘being organized into one giant conglomeration of related pyramids you think about communicating to that mind, you can see thatthe problem is one of ensuring that what you say wil fi somewhere into the existing pyramids ‘Now we come to the real problem of communicating, You can ‘ee these groupings of items quite clearly. To communicate them means to ensure that the other person ‘sees’ them in the same way. Bat, as was the case with your wife, you can only present them one by one. Surely, the most efficient way to do this would be to present the category fistand then the items. That is, to order the ideas from the top down ORDERING FROM THE TOP DOWN, Controlling the sequence in which you present your {ideas is the single most important act necessary to clear writing. The clearest sequence is always to give the summarizing idea before you {Give the individual ideas being summarized. [cannot emphasize this point too much. ‘Remember that the reader (or listener) can only take the sentences in one ata time, You kaow he will assume that those ideasthat appear together logically belong ogether. yu do nt tel him imaduncevhat the eationship ba simply ge the deasone 22 time, ne wil automaticly tok for saris by which he can group the pes bing expressed o that he can explain to Ranself Tresigniicnce of he groupings “ath people bingo dvers in background and understanding a dey ae they rarely pat exactly the same interpreeiion on Your froupigs you do. indeed they not infrequently find that they Ser ac any fans tall between the seas inset. Even if they think exact at you do, you ave raking tei reading more tal sige they mt sappy what unsated. Let me demonstrate how confusing any order other than top don swith an example, Suppose Loi you wo have a beer in the pulrand apropos of noting parca, sy 1 was in Zurich at week ~you know what & conservasveciy Zurich i and we went ou ofunch tan outdoor restaurant. Do you know that wihin 15 minutes I mat have sen 18people with ether a beard ora moustache Now I hae given you a plce of information, and without ealzing i qou wil automaticaly make some asumpions about the reason formy gvng you that information In other word, you wl ee this seman mp or fa nt ced an eae your mind to receive the rex by mabing& probable purpose Behind the statement. This expectancy Feduces the strain of Analeng each succeeding ea for al sebutes you lok onl forthe onein common wth whats gone before “Ths, you might think such things a, ‘She's aking about how unconserative Zach geting, with othe ‘of “She's going to compare Zurich jes," or even, “She's hung up on beards and Imoustaches” Regardless of what reaction you have, the point is that your mind is waiting for further information on one of those same subjects, whatever it turns out to be. Seeing thar blank look on your face, [then go on tay ‘And you know, fyou walk around any New York ofice you can rarely find even one person who doesn't have sideburns ora moustache. Now what am I getting a2 I seem to be comparing not cites as such, but cities in which we have offices and instead of just beards find moustaches {seem to be including all manner of facial hair. ‘probably; you're thinking, ‘she disapproves of the new style. Or sraybe he's going to compare the sys in various offices. Or maybe [he's surprised at the amount (olerated in the consulting profesion.' In any case, you mutter something noncommital 18 Feply and thus encouraged I go on to sate [And of course facial hair as been apart of the London scene for at Teast 10 year. “Ah! you think, ‘at lst {see what she's getting at, She's trying to make the point that London is ahead of all she other cities,’ and you Tiitme so. Perfectly logial, but t's wrong; that’s not what T was geving at at all fact, what I was getting at was thi ‘You know it's incredible wo me the degree to which facial hair has become such an accepted part of busines hie Zari In New York ‘And of cousse in London See how much more easily you can comprehend the group of ideas jn the way | mean you to once the framework within which to judge the relationship between them has been given to you? In a manner poulside anyone's control, the reader is going to look for a structure Connecting the ideas as they come to im, To make sure he finds the ne you intended, you must tell him in advance what tis to make sine he knows what to look for, Otherwise he i ikely either to see dn unintended relationship, or worse, none at all, in which case you have both wasted your ime. “As an example of tis later situation, look at the main points of the opening paragraphs of an article on equal pay for women: Granted eqal pay, women could finish off worse than before ~ie there could be wider rater than narrower gup between average tearing of women and men than today«qual pay means equal pay forthe same jb or equal pay for equal value of work (to the employer) + Applying ether interpretation means either ‘Compelling employers wo actin ther own sefinterest or “Ending restrictive practices by male workers, Here you are given five ideas between which the connecting relationship is unclear, despite the fact thatthe author has started at the top,’ he sees it Can you not feel your mind scrabbling about trying to Bind a relationship, coming to the conclusion that there i ‘none, and giving up in disgust? The mental strain is simply too great. You must recognize that a reader, no matter how intelligent he is, has only a limited amount of mental energy available to him. Some of i will be used up just recognizing and interpreting the words, a further amount seeing the relationships between the ideas, and ‘whatever is left comprehending their significance. You can economize his need to spend time on the first two activites by presenting the ideas so that they an be comprehended with the least possible mental effort. To sequence them instead so ‘hat the mind has to go backward and forvard to make connections is simply bad manners, and most readers react by refusing to do so. ‘To summarize, a reader remembers from the top down 28 a mater ‘of course. He also comprehends more readily if dea are presented from the top down. All of this suggests that the clearest written documents will be those that consistendly present their information from the top down, in a pyramidal structure THINKING FROM THE BOTTOM UP. Ifyou are going to group and summarize all your information and present it in a topdown manner, it would seem your document would have to look something like the structure in Exhibit 1. The boxes stand for the individual ideas you want (0 present, with your thinking having begun at the lowest level by forming sentences that you grouped logically into paragraphs. You then grouped the paragraphs into sections, and the sections into the total memorandusn represented by a single thought atthe top If you think for a moment about what you actually do when you write, ou can see that you develop your major ideas by thinking in this bottom-up manner. At the very lowest level in the pyramid, you group together your sentences, each containing an individual idea, {nto paragraphs. Let us suppose you bring together six sentences into one paragraph. The reason you bring together those six sentences and no others will clearly be that you see a logical relationship between them. And that logical relationship wil always be that they are all needed to express the single idea of the paragraph, which is effectively a summary of chem. You would not, for example, bring together five sentences on finance and one on tennis, because their relevance to each other would be difficult to express in a single summary sentence. Stating this summary sentence moves you up one level of, abstraction and allows you to think of the paragraph as containing fone point rather than six. With this act of efficiency you now group, together, say, three paragraphs, each containing a single thought at a level of abstraction one step higher than that of the individual femences, The reason you form a section out of these three ragraphs and no others is that yo se 4 logical relationship Ezeweca them. And the relaonship i once again tha the are all Redd wo express the single ea ofthe section, which aga il be ‘Shmmary fe tne dean the parsgrapi belo them acy he sume thinking olde tue fn ringing he sections cogeher to form te document. You have three sctions grouped together (each of which hat been built up from groups of paragrapts, which in turm have been But up fom groups of Eirence) because hey are all needed to exes the single en of the memorandum, hich in erm ia summary of them ‘Since you wil continue grouping and summarizing unt you hate so more reladonshp to make iis lear thateery document ou re wl sve be srctred to sport ony one single though ~ theme tha summaries your fal sto groupings This should be the major pein you want to make, an all he ideas groupedExhibie | Idasin wring should always form a pyramid under single thought KEY UNE Croc ‘underneath ~ provided you have built the structure properly ~ will serve to explain or defend that point in ever greater detail Forcunately, you can define in advance whether or not you have built the structure properly by checking to see whether your ideas relate to each other in a way that would permit them to form pyramidal groups. Specifically, they must obey three rules 1 Teas at any level in the pyramid must always be summaries of the ideas grouped below them. 2 Ideas in each grouping must always be the same kind of idea. 3 Ideas in each grouping must always be logically ordered. Let me explain why these rules ‘must always’ apply: 1 east ay lei the fyramid must alwys be summaries of the ideas pouped blow them. The first rule reflects the fact that the major Scivty you carry out in thinking and writing is that of abstracting to create a new idea out of the ideas grouped below. As we saw above, the point ofa paragraph is a summary of is sentences, just fs the point of a section is a summary of the points of its paragraphs, ete. However, if you are going to be able to draw a point out of the grouped sentences or paragraphs, these froupings must have been properly formed in the first plac. ‘That's where rules 2 and 3 come in. 2 Haas in each grouping must alas be the same kind of idea. If what you want to do i raise your thinking only one level of abstraction ‘Above a grouping of ideas, then the ideas in the grouping must be Togically the same, For example, you can logically categorize apples and pears one level up as fruits: you can similarly think of ‘ables and chairs as furniture. But what if you wanted t0 group together apples and chairs? You cannot do so at the very next level fof abstraction, since that is already taken by fruit and furniure. ‘Thus, you would have to move to a much higher level and cal, them “things' or inanimate objects,” either of which is far too broad to indicate the logic of the grouping. In writing you want to state the idea directly implied by the logic of the grouping, so the ideas in the grouping must all fall into the same logical category. 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