How do organism reproduce?

Chapter- 8
Q.1 Why do organism reproduce ?

Ans - Every organism wants to keep its species alive. For the continuation of the life of their
species organisms reproduce.

Q.2. What is variation?. Do organisms reproduce exact copy of themselves?

Ans. 2 - The changes in the DNA during the copying some changes occur . These changes are
known as variation.

Organisms do not produce exact copy of themselves. Organisms are similar in body
design but they are not identical. Variation in the DNA is the reason of not being identical. DNA
changes occurred during the reproducing cell will remain in the new baby.

Q.3 - Are variations important ?

Ans. -3 Variations are very important for evolution and survival . We know that variations occur
in the animals due to which the animals can adapt themselves according to changes . For
example bacteria which are living in temperate water . If due to global warming the
temperature goes suddenly up then most of the bacteria will be wiped out. But some bacteria
which are Having heat resistant variation will remain alive and can grow further.

 Types of reproduction --
a. Asexual reproduction
b. Sexual reproduction

A. Asexual reproduction - The type of reproduction in which one parent is required for
reproduction.

*Types of Asexual reproduction

1. Binary Fission

2. Budding

3. fragmentation
4. Regeneration

5. vegetative propagation

6. Spore formation.

1. Binary fission - Amoeba is unicellular organism. In amoeba the parent body start diving its
nucleus and cytoplasm into two halves . By Further division parent amoeba id divided into two
daughter amoeba . Both daughter amoeba behave like individuals. This process is known as
Binary fission.

*Multiple fission - In multiple fission fission plasmodium (the parasite of malaria) is divided into
many daughters.

2. Budding - In yeast and hydra small bud like structure stars to develop on the parent body .
This bud starts to develop and after some time this bud develops and become mature. On
maturation, bud detaches itself from parent body.
3. Fragmentation - Fragmentation in multicellular organisms is a form of asexual reproduction in which
an organism is split into fragments. Each of these fragments develop into matured organism, full grown
individuals that are genetically and morphologically identical to their parents. Ex- Spirogyra

4. Regeneration -Planaria can be cut into pieces, and each piece can regenerate into a complete
organism. Cells at the location of the wound site will make new tissues and regenerate the missing parts
of the piece of the cut planaria.

5. Vegatative Propagation in plants - New plants can be obtained without using the
reproductive part of the plant It is known as vegetative propagation.

1. Cutting - A small part of plant which is removed by making a cut with a sharp knife is called
cutting . A cutting of the parent plant having some bud is taken and its lower part is buried into
the soil.Ex- grapes , sugarcane, banana etc.

2. Layering - A branch of plant is pulled towards the soil and covered with moist soil .After some
days roots starts developing in the buried part . Then we can cut it off from the parent plant.
Ex- Jasmine, Lemon, Guava, Strawberry etc.

3. Grafting- In this the cut stem of two different plants (one having stem and one having roots)
are joined together. After some time they grow as a single plant.
Ex-Apple , Apricot , peach etc.

 A plant called bryophyllum has bud on its leaves . New plants can be produced using
these leaf buds.

6. Spore formation - Rhizopus plant have some blob like structure known as sporangia .
Sporangia contain spores . These spores are always present in air . When find suitable
temperature and moisture these spores starts growing . For example when you moist and
bread keep it in normal temperature for some days you can see some thread like structure
these thread are called hyphae.
Tissue Culture: The technique of developing new plants from a cell or tissue in a nutrient
medium under aseptic conditions. The cell or tissue is placed in a nutrient medium where it
forms a mass of cells called callus. This callus is then transferred to another nutrient medium
where it differentiates and forms a new plant.

B. Sexual reproduction - The type of reproduction in which both male and female parents are
required.In this type of reproduction male and female gamete fusesto rise new organism
. Example human beings, Cow etc.

Question - 4 Why sexual mode of reproduction necessary ?

Ans - 4
1. To incorporate variation in organisms for survival.
2. New organism are not identical to parents so they can have their own identity and
uniqueness.

Question 5 - How in an organism division of chromosomes is done?

Ans- In a mother and father both have 23 pairs (46) chromosomes. If father and mother both
give 46 chromosomes then there will be difficult situation new baby will get 92 (46+46)
Chromosomes .then entire structure of the baby will be different .So to solve this problem
nature has allowed to combine 23 chromosomes of father and 23 chromosomes of mother now
a baby will have 46(23+23) chromosome as like their parents.

a. Sexual reproduction in flowering plant - A flower contains petals ,sepal, stamen, pistil etc. In
which pistil/carpel (stigma, style and ovary) is female reproductive part and stamen (anther and
filament).

*Unisexual flower - The flower which contain only one type of reproductive part either pistil or
stamen are called unisexual flower ex -Papaya, Watermelon etc.
*Bisexual Flower - The flower which contain both types of reproductive parts ex- Hibiscus and
mustard etc.

Stamen- Stamen is the male reproductive part of the flower which contain pollen grain ,are
yellowish in color.
Pistil/carpel - This is the female reproductive part and in the centre of the flower. Which
contain three parts . The bottom part is ovary and the tube is style and terminal part is stigma.

Fertilisation in Flower - The pollen grain reach to the stigma where they continue to
move to the ovules. In the ovary of the flower these pollen grain fuses with ovule and
make zygote. This process is known as fertilization.

Self pollination -The transfer of pollen grain to stigma is done in same flower it is known
as self pollination.

Cross pollination -If the transfer of pollen grain to stigma is done from one flower to
another then it is called cross pollination.

Formation of fruit - After the fertilization the the ovule starts to form a hard coating
around and the ovary starts to develop into a fruit. Now the fertilization is done so
other part of flower like sepals and petals shrivel and fall off.
 Germination- The seed contains the properties to be a future plant .When this seed be
put in soil and start to grow in baby plant this is known as germination.

Cotyledon - The hard covering of the flower is known as seed coat and part which store
food is cotyledon. Shoots are developed from plumule and roots are developed from
radical.

 Monocot seed: The seed having only one cotyledon is called monocot seed example - rice

 Dicot seed: The seed having two cotyledons is called dicot seed ex- Bengal gram

Reproduction in human beings -Human beings show sexual reproduction. Male parent
produces male gametes called sperms. Female parent produces female gametes called ova.
Sperms have tail and are therefore, motile. They are produced in large numbers in the testes.
Ovum is bigger, non-motile and only one ovary produces one ovum in one month.

egg cell or Ova

Puberty -Puberty is the period during adolescence when the rate of general body growth begins to slow
down and reproductive tissues begin to mature. Onset of puberty in human males is between 11 to 13 yrs of
age, while in human females is between 10 to 12 yrs. of age
Secondary sexual characters - Those character which differentiate betweena a male and
female physically with just observation.

In case of boys beard and mustache start appearing, voice begins to crack, reproductive
organs develop and start producing releasing sperms.

In case of girls, breast size begins to increase, skin of the nipples darkens, menstruation starts.

Male reproductive system

Testes - A pair of testes are located inside scrotum which is present outsisde of the abdominal cavity.

Scrotum has relatively lower temperature than human body to produce sperms.

Testes produce millions of sperms (male gamete)

Testes release male sex hormone called testosterone.

Regulate production of sperms.

Bring changes at puberty.

Vas deferens- It is a tube like structure which connect testes to urethra . Which carry sperms to urethra.

Urethra - It is a common passage for urine and sperms.Its outer covering is called penis.

Glands- Seminal vesicle and prostate gland add their secretion to sperms this fluid give nourishment make its
flow better. This as a whole is called semen.

Penis: It is the organ which is used to introduce semen into the female body. It is richly supplied with blood
vessels.

*Female reproductive system-

  1 pair of ovaries
 1 pair of fallopian tubes or oviducts
 A uterus/womb
 A vagina.

Each ovary is present inside the abdominal cavity. At the time of birth each girl child already contains
thousands of immature ova. These ova start maturing only from the time of puberty. Only one ovum is
produced by one ovary in one month and each ovary releases an ovum in alternate months. The release of an
ovum from the ovary into the abdominal cavity is known as ovulation. The two fallopian tubes unite to form an
elastic bag like structure called uterus.

Functions of ovary

 To produce and release ova

 To produce female reproductive hormones: estrogen and progesterone.
 Estrogen hormone is responsible for secondary sexual character in female and progesterone work
during gestation period.

Function of the fallopian tubes: It is the site of fertilization between the male and the female gametes and
formation of the zygote early embryo.
The inner lining of the uterus is richly supplied with blood vessels and is known as endometrium. The narrow
end of the uterus is called cervix.

Function of the uterus: The embryo formed in the fallopian tube comes down and gets attached to the
endometrium (implantation) and develops for the next nine months till the baby is delivered.

Vagina: The uterus opens into the vagina through the cervix. The vagina is a muscular tube through which the
baby is delivered at the end of nine months. It also serves as the canal for receiving the semen at the time of
copulation.

The semen is discharged into the vaginal tract during copulation. The sperms travel upwards and reach the
fallopian tube where one sperm fuses with the ovum to form the zygote. The zygote divides and redivides as it
descends into the uterus and the embryo gets implanted in the Uterus. The Uterus thickens so as to receive
the embryo.
The embryo gets nutrition from the mother’s blood with the help of a special tissue called placenta, which is a
disk-like structure embeded in the uterine wall. It contains finger-like villi on the embryo side, while on the
mother’s side blood spaces surround the villi. Villi provides a large surface area for glucose and oxygen to pass
from the mother to the developing embryo and the wastes to pass from the embryo to the mother through the
placenta. When the embryo starts resembling a human is formed, it is termed as a foetus. The foetus continues
to develop inside the uterus for almost nine months after which the baby is delivered as a result of rhythmic
contractions of the uterine muscles.

Menstruation: It is the loss of blood, mucous along with the unfertilized ovum and the ruptured cells and
tissues of wall of uterus through the vagina of the female. It is a 28-day cycle which occurs in every
reproductively active female (from puberty). The flow of blood continues for 2 to 8 days. If the ovum does not
get fertilized, then the endometrium (wall of uterus)starts sloughing off and there is loss of blood and mucous
etc. through the vagina.

In case the ovum gets fertilized, then the endometrium becomes thick and spongy for nourishing the embryo
and hence menstruation does not occur. A lady with a developing embryo in her womb is termed as pregnant.
The beginning of menstruation at puberty is known as menarche. The stopage of menstruation when the
woman is 45-55 yrs of age is called menopause.

Birth control measures: They can be mechanical, chemical and surgical.

Mechanical methods: These are used to prevent the passage of semen to the follopian tube :
(i) Use of condoms: Condoms are thin rubber tubes worn over the penis before sexual intercourse. The semen
gets collected in this and is not discharged into the vagina..

(ii) Intra Uterine Contraceptive Device (IUCD) or loop: It is inserted in the uterus and its insertion causes certain
secretion which prevents the implantation of the embryo in the uterine wallthis can cause side effects.

Chemical methods

 Use of spermicides: These are strong sperm-killing chemicals available in the form of creams, jellies
etc. which are injected into the vagina just before sex.

 Oral contraceptive pills: These are hormonal pills which prevent ovulation but do not stop
menstruation.

Surgical methods

 Vasectomy: It involves cutting and blocking the vas deferens in males.

 Tubectomy: It involves cutting and blocking Reproductive organs the fallopian tubes in females.

 Medical termination of pregnancy (MTP) or abortions is carried out to eliminate the developing embryo.
This practice can, however, be misused to carry out female foeticide which involves the killing of the
female foetus. It should be avoided at all cost as it disturbs the male-female ratio in a population.
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