Soil Mechanics

1. Properties of soil
a. Types of soil
Alluvial Running water, Transported soil, River Marl It is fine graded calcium carbonate soil
banks of marine origin. (decomposition of
animal bones and aquatic plants)
Lacustrine Still water, Transported, Near lakes Bentonite Chemically weathered volcanic ash,
lubricating drilling operations.
(Montmorillonite)
Marine Sea water, Transported, Near sea Tuff Slightly cemented volcanic ash,
transported by wind and water.
Aeoline Sand dunes, transported by wind Muck Mixture of inorganic soil and black OM
Loess Uniformly graded wind-blown silt. Black It is a residual soil formed from Basalt,
Slightly cemented due to calcium cotton containing high percentage of clay
compounds, when wet loses its soil minerals (Montmorillonite). Dark in
cementing property and becomes soft colour, high swelling, low shear
and collapsible strength
Colluvial (Talus), gravity, transported, mountain Peat Highly organic soil, (vegetative matters
valley in different stages of decomposition)
(Peat +Muck = cumulose)
Glacial (Till) ice, glacier, transported, near Laterite Leaching out of siliceous compounds
glaciers soil and accumulation of iron oxide and
aluminium oxide.
Loam Mixture of sand silt and clay
b. Formula
𝑊𝑤 𝑊
𝑇 𝑉
Water content 𝑤= ; 𝑊𝑠 = 1+𝑤 Air content 𝑎𝑐 = 𝑉𝑎 ; 𝑠 + 𝑎𝑐 = 1
𝑊𝑠 𝑣

𝑉 𝑉 𝑛 Percentage air 𝑉
Void ratio 𝑒 = 𝑉𝑣; 𝑉𝑠 = 1+𝑒
𝑇
; 𝑒 = 1−𝑛 𝜂𝑎 = 𝑉𝑎 ; 𝜂𝑎 = 𝑛 ∙ 𝑎𝑐
𝑠 voids 𝑇

𝑉𝑣 𝑒 Bulk unit ሺ𝐺+𝑠𝑒ሻ𝛾𝑤

Porosity 𝑛= ; 𝑛 = 1+𝑒 𝛾𝑏 =
𝑉𝑡 weight 1+𝑒

Degree of 𝑉𝑤 𝐺𝛾 𝛾 ሺ1−𝜂𝑎 ሻ𝐺𝛾𝑤

𝑆= ; 𝑆𝑒 = 𝑤𝐺 Dry unit weight 𝛾𝑑 = 1+𝑒𝑤 = 1+𝑤
𝑏
=
saturation 𝑉𝑣 1+𝑤𝐺

c. Consistency of soil
• Consistency represents relative ease with which, the soil can be deformed. It also denotes the
degree of firmness of soil (soft, stiff, hard). These terms are only used for fine grained soil and is
related with water content.
• Atterberg analysed consistency of soil in four stages as Liquid, Plastic, Semisolid and solid stage.
The water content at which soil passes from one stage to another is known as consistency limits.

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 Liquid Limit ➢ All soil at LL has negligible shear strength of 2.7 kN/m2
𝑤𝑙 ➢ Soil with higher value of LL possess high compressibility. (Volume change in
these soils are more)
➢ Casagrande’s apparatus is used to measure the liquid limit, by plotting a flow
curve between water content and log of number of blows (N), water content
corresponding to 25 number of blows is interpolated and is called liquid limit.
➢ The slope of curve is termed as flow index which, represents rate of loss of
shear strength with increase in water content.
𝑤1 − 𝑤2
𝐼𝑓 =
𝑁
log ( 𝑁2 )
1
➢ Higher the value of flow index, lower will be its shear strength at same water
content. If rubber base is replaced by metal base then flow index will increase.

Plastic Limit 𝑤𝑝 ➢ Water content at which 3mm dia thread can be formed without any crack.

Shrinkage Limit 𝑤𝑠 ➢ Water content at which soil is just completely saturated.

d. Other Indices and ratios
Shrinkage ➢ it is defined as the ratio of decrease in volume of soil expressed as percentage of its dry
ratio volume to the corresponding change in water content above shrinkage limit.
𝑉1−𝑉2 100
➢ 𝑅= × 𝑤 %−𝑤 %
𝑉𝑑 1 2
1 1
𝑤𝑠 = −
𝑅 𝐺
𝛾𝑑
𝑅= 𝛾𝑤

Volumetric 𝑉1 −𝑉𝑑
➢ × 100
𝑉𝑑
shrinkage

Shrinkage 𝐼𝑠 = 𝑤𝑝 − 𝑤𝑠 Plasticity 𝐼𝑝 = 𝑤𝑙 − 𝑤𝑝
Index Range in which soil behaves like Index Range in which soil behaves like
semisolid. plastic material

Consistency 𝑤𝐿 − 𝑤𝑛 Liquidity 𝑤𝑛 − 𝑤𝑝
𝐼𝑐 = 𝐼𝐿 =
Index 𝐼𝑝 Index 𝐼𝑝
Degree of firmness or in situ
behavior

1 < 𝐼𝑐 0 < 𝐼𝑐 < 1 𝐼𝑐 < 0

Semi solid Plastic Liquid stage
𝐼𝐿 < 0 0 < 𝐼𝐿 < 1 1 < 𝐼𝐿

Toughness ➢ It represents shear strength of soil at its plastic limit. It is defined as the ratio of
Index plasticity index to flow index. It generally varies between 0 to 3.
𝐼
➢ 𝐼𝑡 = 𝐼𝑝
𝑓

Density ➢ It is used to represent relative compactness of coarse-grained soils only, because of

Index large uncertainty involved in the computation of 𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑥 for cohesive soil in its loosest
condition in laboratory. It is a better indicator of denseness of soil than void ratio and
dry density.
𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑥−𝑒 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥−𝑉 1/𝛾𝑚𝑖𝑛−1/𝛾
➢ Id = 𝑒 =𝑉 = 1/𝛾
𝑚𝑎𝑥 −𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑥 −𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑖𝑛−1/ 𝛾𝑚𝑎𝑥
➢ For uniformly graded spherical particles 𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 0.91 𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 0.35

2
 Sensitivity Sensitivity is a measure of loss of strength of undisturbed sample of clay upon remoulding
at same water content.
undisturbed shear strength ሺUCSሻ
𝑆𝑡 =
remoulded shear strength ሺUCSሻ
➢ Over a period of time soil regains a part of its lost shear strength, this property of soil
by virtue of which it regains a part of its lost shear strength at constant water content is
termed as Thixotropy.

Activity The plasticity of a soil depends upon type of minerals and amount of absorbed water in it.
Skempton defined a parameter Activity, which represents the swelling and shrinkage
characteristic of soil.
➢ It is the ratio of plasticity index of the soil to the percentage of clay size particles
present in it.
𝐼𝑝
𝐴𝑡 =
%𝑐
𝐴𝑡 < 0.75 Inactive soil
0.75 < 𝐴𝑡 < 1.25 Normal soil
𝐴𝑡 > 1.25 Active soil.
2. Classification
a. Introduction
• A number of systems of classification of soils have been evolved for engineering purposes.
Certain of these have been developed specifically in connection with ascertaining the suitability
of soil for use in particular soil engineering projects.
b. Particle size distribution coefficients
• Coefficient of uniformity 𝐶𝑢
𝐷60
𝐶𝑢 =
𝐷10
 For uniformly graded soil 𝐶𝑢 = 1 or less than 2
 For well graded Sand 𝐶𝑢 > 6
 For well graded Gravel 𝐶𝑢 > 4
• Coefficient of curvature
2
𝐷30
𝐶𝑐 =
𝐷60 ∙ 𝐷10
 For well graded soil 1 < 𝐶𝑐 < 3
 If 𝐶𝑐 < 1 or 3 < 𝐶𝑐 soil is gap graded
c. Particle size classification
Clay Silt Sand Gravel Cobble Boulders

d < 2m < 75m < 4.75mm < 80mm < 300mm > 300mm

d. Group index classification

• Highway research board classification, generally used for pavement construction

3
 𝐺𝐼 = 0.2𝑎 + 0.01𝑏𝑑 + 0.005𝑎𝑐
 𝑎 = 𝑝 − 35 < 40
 𝑏 = 𝑝 − 15 < 40
 𝑐 = 𝐿𝐿 − 40 < 20
 𝑑 = 𝐼𝑝 − 10 < 20
 𝑝 is % finner passing 75-micron IS sieve
 GI value ranges from Zero to 20, as GI value increases soil become poorer for pavement.
e. Unified soil classification system (USCS)
• According to this system, coarse grained soils are classified on the basis of their grain size
distribution while the fine-grained soil whose behavior are controlled by plasticity are classified
on their plasticity.
• Each soil component is assigned a symbol as follows:
Gravels: G Clay: C
Silt: M Organic: O
Sand: S Peat: Pt
• Coarse-grained soils are further subdivided into well-graded (W) and poorly graded (P)
varieties, depending upon the Uniformity coefficient, (Cu) and coefficient of Curvature (Cc):
f. Classification chart of Coarse-Grained soil
%fines Other criteria Symbol

𝐶𝑢 > 4, 𝐶𝑐 =1 to 3 GW (well graded gravel)

< 5%
More than Not meeting above criteria GP (poorly graded gravel)
50%
5–12% Use of dual symbol **
retained on
4.75mm Above A-line or 𝐼𝑝 above 7 GC (clayey gravel)
sieve
Gravel >12% Below A-line or 𝐼𝑝 below 4 GM (silty gravel)
More than
Above A-line and 4 < 𝐼𝑝 < 7 GM-GC
50%
retained on 𝐶𝑢 > 6 , 𝐶𝑐 =1 to 3 SW (well graded sand)
75µ sieve < 5%
Less than Not meeting GW criteria SP (poorly graded sand)
50%
5-12% Use of dual symbol **
retained on
4.75mm Above A-line or 𝐼𝑝 above 7 SC (clayey sand)
sieve
Sand >12% Below A-line or 𝐼𝑝 below 4 SM (silty sand)

Above A-line and 4 < 𝐼𝑝 < 7 SM-SC

• ** Boundary classification: soils possessing

characteristics of two groups are designated by
combinations of group symbols, for example,
GW-GC, Well-graded, gravel-sand mixture
with clay binder.
• Fine grained soils: A soil is termed as fine
grained if more than 50% of soil sample passes
75µ sieve. They are classified as Silt (M) and
Clay (C) based on their liquid limit and
plasticity index.
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  A-line 𝐼𝑝 = 0.73ሺ𝑤𝑙 − 20ሻ
 U-line 𝐼𝑝 = 0.9ሺ𝑤𝑙 − 8ሻ
• Organic soils (O) are also included in this group. Fine grained soils are further divided into
groups on the basis of arbitrarily selected values of liquid limit which is a good index of
compressibility.
 Silt and clay of low compressibility: having LL < 35, represented by symbol L
 Silt and clay of medium compressibility: having LL between 35 and 50, represented by
symbol I
 Silt and clay of high compressibility: having LL more than 50, represented by symbol H
3. Clay minerology
a. Fundamental blocks
• Silica tetrahedral: in which four oxygen or hydroxyls having configuration of a tetrahedron
enclose a silicon atom. The tetrahedra are combined in a sheet structure so the oxygens of the
bases of all the tetrahedra are in a common plane, and each oxygen belongs to two tetrahedra.
The silicon sheet can be represented by ⏢
• Octahedral unit: in which an Aluminium, iron or magnesium atom is enclosed in six hydroxyls
having the configuration of an octahedron. The unit is symbolized by ▭ and is known as
gibbsite.
b. Common clay minerals
Kaolinite Montmorillonite Illite

Its structural unit is made from Gibbsite sheet is sandwiched Structure is similar to
one unit of gibbsite sheets between two silica sheets. montmorillonite with
joined to silica sheets through Gibbsite layer may include atom substantial replacement of
the unbalanced oxygen atoms at of Al, Fe, or Mg. in addition silica silicon by Aluminium in the
the apex of silica may interchange with Al causing tetrahedral layer.
a net negative charge on clay.

symbol: 7Å thick 10Å thick

++++ K+ K+

Successive 7Å layers are held Cations which are in soil water Potassium are between the
together by hydrogen bonds. are attracted to the negatively layers serving to balance the
And a crystal may be made of charged clay plates and exist in a charge resulting from
100 or more stackings. continuous state of interchange. replacement and to tie the
Kaolinite particles in occur in 10Å to 50Å sheets together.
clay as Platelets of 10Å to 50Å to 500Å thick
1000Å thickness.

Since hydrogen bond is fairly There is very week bonding The cation bond of Illite is
strong, it is extremely difficult between successive sheets and weaker than the hydrogen
to separate the layers, and as a water may enter between sheets bond of Kaolinite, but is
result kaolinite is relatively causing the mineral to swell. stronger than water bond of
stable, and water is unable to Montmorillonite
penetrate between layers.
4. Soil Moisture– Permeability and capillarity
a. Soil moisture and modes of occurrence
5
 • Gravitational water is the water in excess of the moisture that can be retained by the soil. It
translocates as a liquid and can be drained by the gravitational force. It is capable of transmitting
hydraulic pressure.
 Free water: It has the usual properties of liquid water. It moves at all times under the
influence of gravity, or because of a difference in hydrostatic pressure head.
 Capillary water: Water which is in a suspended condition, held by the forces of surface
tension within the interstices and pores of capillary size in the soil, is called ‘capillary
water’.
• Held water: is that water which is held in soil pores or void spaces because of certain forces of
attraction.
 Structural water: Water that is chemically combined as a part of the crystal structure of the
mineral of the soil grains is called ‘Structural water’. Under the loading encountered in
geotechnical engineering, this water cannot be separated by any means. Even drying at 105°
– 110°C does not affect it. Hence structural water is considered as part and parcel of the soil
grains.
 Adsorbed water:
o Hygroscopic moisture: Soils which appear quite dry contain, nevertheless, very thin
films of moisture around the mineral grains, called ‘hygroscopic moisture’, which is
also termed ‘contact moisture’ or ‘surface bound moisture’. This form of moisture is
in a dense state, and surrounds the surfaces of the individual soil grains as a very thin
film. The soil particles derive their hygroscopic moisture not only from water but
also from the atmospheric air by the physical force of attraction of unsatisfied ionic
bonds on their surfaces. The weight of an oven-dried sample, when exposed to
atmosphere, will increase up to a limit, depending upon its maximum hygroscopicity,
which, in turn, depends upon the temperature and relative humidity of air, and the
characteristics of the soil grains. Hygroscopic moisture is affected neither by gravity
nor by capillary forces and would not move in the liquid form. It cannot be
evaporated ordinarily. However, hygroscopic moisture can be removed by oven-
drying at 105° – 110°C
o Film moisture forms on the soil grains because of the condensation of aqueous
vapour; this is attached to the surface of the soil particle as a film upon the layer of
the hygroscopic moisture film.
b. Permeability
• It is the property of soil by virtue of which it allows the flow of the fluid through it. It is also
termed as hydraulic conductivity.
• Darcy’s law
 By measuring the value of the rate of flow or discharge, q for various values of the length
of the sample, L, and pressure of water at top and bottom the sample, ℎ1 and ℎ2 , Darcy
found that q was proportional to ሺℎ1 − ℎ2 ሻ/𝐿 or the hydraulic gradient, i
𝑞 = 𝑘𝑖𝐴
 This equation is known as Darcy’s law and is valid for laminar flow. Darcy’s law becomes
invalid only for liquid flow at high velocity or gas flow at very low or at very high velocity.
o Assuming uniform particle size, laminar flow may be considered to occur up to an
equivalent particle diameter of 0.5 mm.
• Seepage velocity
 𝑣𝑠 is a fictitious velocity obtained by assuming that the drop of water moves in a straight
line at a constant velocity through the soil.
𝑣
𝑣𝑠 =
𝑛
c. Factors affecting permeability

6
 Effective size and shape of particles 𝑘 ∝ 𝑑2
1
𝑘 ∝ 𝑆2
𝑠

𝛾
Effect of properties of pore fluid 𝑘∝𝜇

Effect of void ratio 𝑒3

𝑘 ∝ 1+𝑒

Effect of structural arrangement of particles Average value as in series or parallel

and stratification. arrangement

Effect of degree of saturation and other Permeability decreases due to foreign

foreign matter materials.
d. Determination of permeability (Lab methods)
• Constant head permeability test
 The principle in this set-up is that the hydraulic head causing flow is maintained constant;
the quantity of water flowing through a soil specimen of known cross-sectional area and
length in a given time is measured.
 In highly impervious soils the quantity of water that can be collected will be small and,
accurate measurements are difficult to make. Therefore, the constant head permeameter is
mainly application cable to relatively pervious soils, although, theoretically speaking, it can
be used for any type of soil.
𝑉
𝑘𝑖𝐴 =
𝑡
• Falling head test
𝑎 𝐿 ℎ1
𝑘= ln
𝐴 𝑡 ℎ2
 ℎ2 = √ℎ1 ∙ ℎ3
• Capillarity permeability test
 Also known as horizontal capillarity test is used to determine the coefficient of permeability
k as well as the capillary height hc of soil sample.
𝑥22 − 𝑥12 2𝑘𝑢
= ሺℎ + ℎ𝑐 ሻ
𝑡2 − 𝑡1 𝑆∙𝑛 𝑜
o S- degree of saturation, 𝑘𝑢 - permeability for partial saturated sample, ℎ𝑜 - head under
which water is flowing
 𝑘𝑢 ℎ𝑐 are two unknows so two observations need to be available and equations solved
simultaneously.
e. Determination of Permeability (Field method)
• Terms
 ‘Aquifer’ is a permeable formation which allows a significant quantity of water to move
through it under field conditions. Aquifers may be ‘Unconfined aquifers’ or ‘Confined
aquifers.
 Unconfined aquifer is one in which the ground water table is the upper surface of the zone
of saturation and it lies within the test stratum. It is also called ‘free’, ‘phreatic’ or ‘non-
artesian’ aquifer.
 Confined aquifer is one in which ground water remains entrapped under pressure greater
than atmospheric, by overlying relatively impermeable strata. It is also called ‘artesian
aquifer’.
 ‘Coefficient of Transmissibility’ is defined as the rate of flow of water through a vertical
strip of aquifer of unit width and extending the full height of saturation under unit hydraulic

7
 gradient. This coefficient is obtained by multiplying the field coefficient of permeability by
the thickness of the aquifer.
 Specific yield ሺ𝑆𝑌 ሻ : It is defined as the ratio of volume of water drained by gravity to the
total volume of water present. It represents water yielding capacity of unconfined aquifer.
 Specific retention ሺ𝑆𝑅 ሻ: It is the volume of water which cannot be drained by gravity to
volume of water present.
𝑛 = 𝑆𝑌 + 𝑆𝑅
 Storage coefficient:
o water yielding capacity of a confined aquifer can be expressed in terms of storage
coefficient. It is defined as volume of water that an aquifer releases per unit surface
area of aquifer per unit change in component of head normal to surface. Storage
coefficient of unconfined aquifer corresponds to its specific yield.
 Coefficient of transmissibility ሺ𝑇ሻ:
o it is defined as the rate of flow of water in (m3/day) through a vertical strip of aquifer
of unit width (1m) and extending the full saturation height under unit hydraulic
gradient.
o 𝑇 =𝑏∙𝑘
• Unconfined aquifer (Dupit’s theory)
𝑘𝜋ሺ𝐻2 − ℎ2 ሻ
𝑞=
𝑅
ln 𝑟
• Confined aquifer (Thiem’s theory)
2𝜋𝑘𝑏ሺ𝐻 − ℎሻ
𝑞=
𝑅
ln 𝑟
 Well interference
2𝜋𝑘𝑏ሺ𝐻−ℎሻ
o 𝑞= 𝑅2
ln𝑟𝐵
2𝜋𝑘𝑏ሺ𝐻−ℎሻ
o 𝑞= 𝑅3
ln
𝑟𝐵2

• Flow towards open well: Recuperation test

 Water level is depressed to any level below the normal level and pumping is stopped. Time
taken for water to recuperate to normal level is noted.
 Specific yield
𝐾 1 ℎ1
= ln
𝐴 𝑇 ℎ2
f. Empirical formula for determination of permeability
 Kozney-carman equation
1 𝛾 𝑒3
o 𝑘 = 𝑘 (𝜇 ) 𝑑2
𝑘 fluid 1+𝑒
1 𝛾 𝑒3 1
o 𝑘= ( )
𝑘𝑘′ 𝜇 fluid 1+𝑒 𝑆𝑠2
o 𝑘𝑘 , 𝑘𝑘′ are constant, 𝑆𝑠 - specific surface area.
• Allen Hazen equation
2
𝑘 = 100𝐷10
 𝐷10 in cm, 𝑘 in cm/s
• Consolidation equation
o 𝑘 = 𝐶𝑣 𝑚𝑣 𝛾𝑤
g. Intrinsic permeability/ Absolute permeability (unit m2)

8
 • It is difficult to compare permeability of two soil samples as it depends on both the properties of
soil mass and permeate. So absolute permeability is introduced which doesn’t depend on the
properties of permeate (water)
𝜇
𝑘𝑜 = 𝑘
𝛾
h. Permeability of layered soil
• Parallel to bed
𝑘𝑎𝑣 𝐻 = 𝑘1 ℎ1 + 𝑘2 ℎ2 + ⋯
• Perpendicular to bed
𝐻 ℎ1 ℎ2
= + +⋯
𝑘𝑎𝑣 𝑘1 𝑘2
i. Capillary rise
• The phenomenon in which water rises above the ground water table against the pull of grav- ity,
but is in contact with the water table as its source, is referred to as ‘Capillary rise’ with reference
to soils.
4𝑇 cos 𝛼
 ℎ𝑐 = 𝛾𝑤 𝑑
𝐶
 ℎ𝑐 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑒𝐷
10
o h in cm, C is constant = 0.1 to 0.5 cm2 𝐷10 in cm
• Bulking of sand
 Loosely dumped soil, with water content of 4-5%, due to apparent cohesion, shows
increased volume.
5. Seepage Analysis
a. Introduction
• ‘Seepage’ is defined as the flow of a fluid, usually water, through a soil under a hydraulic
gradient. A hydraulic gradient is supposed to exist between two points if there exists a difference
in the ‘hydraulic head’ at the two points. By hydraulic head is meant the sum of the position or
datum head and pressure head of water.
b. Seepage pressure:
• When water flows through saturated soil mass it exerts pressure over soil skeleton by virtue of
friction drag this pressure exerted by water is termed as seepage pressure. This drag results in
seepage force in soil mass which acts in direction of flow. Component of this seepage force
acting vertically upwards reduces the effective stress and if it has a downward component, it will
increase the effective stress.
𝑝𝑠 = 𝑖𝑧𝛾𝑤 = ℎ𝛾𝑤
 h is head available at that point.
• Specific seepage force: In uniform flow seepage force is distributed uniformly throughout the
volume of soil, and hence the seepage force j per unit volume is
𝑝𝑠𝑠 = 𝑗 = 𝑖𝛾𝑤
c. Two-dimensional flow / Flow net
𝜕2𝐻 𝜕 2𝐻
• Laplace equation for isotropic soil 𝜕𝑥 2 + 𝜕𝑦2 = 0
𝜕2𝐻 𝜕 2𝐻
 Anisotropic soil 𝑘𝑥 𝜕𝑥 2 + 𝑘𝑦 𝜕𝑦2 = 0
• Discharge
𝑁𝑓
𝑞 = 𝑘𝐻
𝑁𝑑
• Equivalent permeability
𝑘 ′ = √𝑘𝑥 𝑘𝑦

9
 Δh
• Exit gradient = 𝑙
• For non-isotropic medium
𝑘𝑥
𝑥 = 𝑥𝑡 √
𝑘𝑦
d. Methods of obtaining flow nets
• Graphical solution by sketching
 A flow net for a given cross-section is obtained by first transforming the cross-section
(anisotropic), and then sketching by trial and error, taking note of the boundary conditions.
• Mathematical or analytical methods
 In a few relatively simple cases, the boundary conditions may be expressed by equations
and solutions of Laplace’s equation may be obtained by mathematical procedure. This
approach is largely of academic interest.
• Numerical analysis
 Laplace’s equation for two-dimensional flow can be solved by numerical techniques in case
the mathematical solution is difficult.
• Models
 A flow problem may be studied by constructing a scaled model and analysing the flow in
the model.
• Analogy methods
 Lapalce’s equation for fluid flow also holds for electrical and heat flows. In an electrical
model, voltage corresponds to total head, current to velocity and conductivity to
permeability. Ohm’s Law is analogous to Darcy’s Law. Measuring voltage, one can locate
the equipotential lines. The flow pattern can be sketched later.
e. Phreatic line of Earth dam
• The phreatic line or seepage line is defined as the line within a dam section below which there is
positive hydrostatic pressure in the dam.
• Casagrande method
 Starting point of base of the filter is assumed focus
 AB is the upstream face. Its horizontal projection is L. On the water surface measure BC =
0.3L. Point C is the starting point of base parabola.
 To locate the directrix, we utilize the property of parabola that each point is equidistant
from focus and directrix. Hence point C as center and CF as radius, draw an arc to cut the
horizontal line at D, CD = CF
 Point G is midway between F and H

• Discharge through drainage filter

 𝑞 =𝑘∙𝑠
 s is focal distance
o 𝑠 = √𝐷2 + 𝐻2 − 𝐷
10
 f. Quick sand
• Analysis
 Total upward water force on soil mass at bottom surface = ሺℎ + 𝐿ሻ𝛾𝑤 𝐴
 Total downward force at bottom surface = Weight of soil in saturated condition
𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 𝐿𝐴ሺ𝐺 + 𝑒ሻ
 Equating both we get,
ሺ𝐺 + 𝑒ሻ
ሺℎ + 𝐿ሻ𝛾𝑤 𝐴 = 𝛾 𝐿𝐴
1+𝑒 𝑤
ℎ 𝐺 −1
𝑖= =
𝐿 1+𝑒
𝐺−1
 This means that an upward hydraulic gradient of magnitude 1+𝑒 will be just sufficient to
start the phenomenon of boiling in sand. This gradient is commonly referred to as the
Critical hydraulic gradient, 𝑖𝑐 . Its value is approximately equal to unity.
 A saturated sand becomes Quick or Alive at this gradient; this is only a condition and not a
type of sand.
• When the exit gradient for a hydraulic structure like a dam assumes the critical value, boiling
occurs. This may lead to the phenomenon of progressive backward erosion in the form of a pipe
or closed channel underneath the structure and ultimately failure of the structure. This is called,
“piping”. The ratio of the critical gradient to the actual exit gradient is called the factor of safety
against piping.
 Piping can be avoided by providing sufficient length of vertical cut-off /sheet pile wall
which help in increasing length of flow, hence, helps in reducing exit gradient and in
increasing FOS.
 Piping can also be avoided by providing protective filter, graded filter or inverted filter
which help in both avoiding the erosion of soil particles and reducing the uplift pressure at
base of filter.
 Terzaghi’s design guidelines for protective filter
𝐷15 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑟
o No evasion of protected soil particles through filter 𝐷 <5
85 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙
𝐷15 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑟
o No excess built up of pressure 4 < 𝐷 < 20
15 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙
𝐷50 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑟
o < 25
𝐷50 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙
6. Stress distribution
a. Boussinesq’s theory
• Soil is assumed to be elastic, homogeneous, isotropic and semi-infinite.
• Stress due to point load
5/2

3 𝑄 1
𝜎𝑧 = [ ]
2𝜋 𝑧 2 𝑟 2
1 + (𝑧 )
𝑟
 𝜏𝑧 = 𝜎𝑧 𝑧
𝑄
 When 𝑟 = 0, 𝜎𝑧 = 0.4775 𝑧 2
• Stress due to circular load
𝜎𝑧 = ሺ1 − cos3 𝛼ሻ𝑞
3
2
1
 Or, 𝜎𝑧 = [1 − { 𝑎 2
} ]𝑞
1+( 𝑧 )

• Stress due to line load

11
 2
2𝑞′ 1
 𝜎𝑧 = [ ]
𝜋𝑧 1+(𝑥)2
𝑧

• Vertical stress under corner of a rectangular area of side

1/2 1/2
𝑞 2𝑚𝑛(𝑚 2+𝑛 2+1) 𝑚 2+𝑛 2+2 2𝑚𝑛(𝑚 2+𝑛 2+1)
 𝜎𝑧 = [ + tan−1 ]
4𝜋 𝑚 2 +𝑛 2+𝑚 2𝑛 2 +1 𝑚 2+𝑛 2+1 𝑚 2 +𝑛 2−𝑚 2 𝑛 2+1
𝑎 𝑏
o 𝑚 = 𝑧,𝑛 = 𝑧
𝑞 2𝑚𝑛ሺ𝐴ሻ1/2 𝐴+1 2𝑚𝑛ሺ𝐴ሻ1/2
 𝜎𝑧 = 4𝜋 [ + tan−1 ]
𝑚 2 𝑛 2+𝐴 𝐴 𝐴−𝑚 2𝑛 2
2 2
o 𝐴 = 𝑚 +𝑛 +1
• Equivalent point load method
 This is an approximate method of calculating the vertical stress at any point due to any
loaded area. The entire area is divided into number of small area units, and distributed load
is converted to point load at centroid of that area.
 Using Boussinesq’s theory stress is then calculated.
• Newmark’s influence chart
 Each area unit causes equal vertical stress at the centre of the diagram.
b. Westergaard’s Analysis
• Assuming soil to be an elastic medium of semi-infinite extent but containing numerous, closely
spaced horizontal sheets of negligible thickness of an infinite rigid material which permits only
downward deformation on the mass as a whole without allowing it to undergo any lateral strain.
• Stress due to point load
3/2

1𝑄 1
𝜎𝑧 = [ ]
𝑟 2 𝜋 𝑧2
1 + 2 (𝑧 )
c. Comparison between Westergaard and Boussinesq’s theory
𝑟
• < 1.52 ↔ 𝐾𝑤 < 𝐾𝐵
𝑧
𝑟
• < 1.52 ↔ 𝐾𝑤 > 𝐾𝐵
𝑧
d. Contact pressure
• For Flexible footing distribution of contact pressure is uniform irrespective of the type of
underlaying soil.
• For Rigid footing infinite at edges and q/2 at center in clay, and in sand zero at edges and
parabolic with maximum at center.
7. Compressibility and Consolidation
a. Terms:
• The property of soil mass pertaining to its susceptibility to decreases in volume under pressure is
known as compressibility.
• A compression resulting from a long-term static load and the consequent escape of pore water is
termed as consolidation.
• The delay caused in consolidation by the slow drainage of water out of a saturated soil mass is
called hydrodynamic lag.
b. Primary consolidation
• Settlement vs time
 The rate of consolidation in sand is more due to its high permeability, but total settlement of
clay is much greater than sand at same loading rate. Therefore, compressibility of sand is
neglected in comparison to clay.
• Void ratio vs effective stress

12
  Normally consolidated soils are those which are subjected to first time in the history to the
present applied stress.
 Magnitude of the slope of this curve is termed as coefficient of compressibility.
• Void ratio vs Log effective stress
 This graph is a straight line. Magnitude of slope of the curve is termed as coefficient of
compression or compression index. 𝐶𝑐
 Empirical relation of 𝐶𝑐 for undisturbed clay with medium sensitivity. (Skempton)
𝐶𝑐 = 0.009ሺ𝐿𝐿 − 10ሻ
• Over consolidated soil
 If presently applied stress is less than past applied stress then soil is said to be in Over
consolidated stage. Such soils show less volume change and behave like dense sand.
 Coefficient of recompression is defined for such soils 𝐶𝑟 .
 Over consolidation ratio
max applied σ ̅ past
𝑂𝐶𝑅 =
max applied σ ̅ present
o OCR > 1 over consolidation stage
o OCR = 1 normally consolidated
o OCR < 1 under consolidation stage
 Pre-consolidation pressure
o It is the maximum pressure up to which a soil has
ever been exposed to in the past.
o Determination using Casagrande method
▪ In e vs log 𝜎̅ curve is plotted for the given soil,
point of maximum curvature (A) is located.
▪ A horizontal lime AB and a tangent AC is
drawn to the curve.
▪ Angle bisector AD of ∠ABC is drawn.
▪ The straight portion of curve extended back to meet the bisector AD at point E,
which corresponds to the required pre-consolidation pressure
• Field consolidation curve
 The compression characteristics of in-situ soils are different from those obtained from the
tests conducted on the soil samples. Even undisturbed samples are slightly disturbed when
taken out.
• The disturbance causes a slight decrease in the slope of the compression curve obtained in the
laboratory. (i.e. compression index is more in field)
Coefficient of Symbols Formula Unit

Compressibility
Δ𝑒
For a given difference in pressure, the 𝑎𝑣 m2/kN
Δ𝜎̅
value of 𝑎𝑣 decreases as pressure increases.

Δ𝑒
Compression;
𝐶𝑐 𝜎̅ ---
Compression index log10 ̅̅̅
𝜎 𝑜

Δ𝑒
Recompression 𝐶𝑐 𝜎̅ ---
log10 ̅̅̅
𝜎 𝑜

13
 Δ𝑒
Volume compressibility 𝑚𝑣 =
ሺ1 + 𝑒𝑜 ሻΔσ
̅
It is defined as the change in volume of soil 𝑎
𝑚𝑣 𝑚𝑣 = 1+𝑒𝑣 m2/kN
per unit of initial volume due to a given 𝑜
Δ𝐻 1
unit increase in pressure 𝑚𝑣 = ̅
𝐻𝑜 Δ𝜎

Consolidation
Indicates the combined effect of 𝑘 m2/s
𝐶𝑣
permeability and compressibility of soil on 𝑚𝑣 𝛾𝑤 cm2/s
the rate of volume change

c. Terzaghi’s theory of one-dimensional Consolidation

• Assumptions
 Soil is homogeneous and fully saturated.
 Soil particles and water are incompressible.
 The deformation of soil is entirely due to change in volume.
 Darcy’s law is valid.
 Coefficient of permeability is constant during consolidation.
 Load is applied in one direction only and deformation occurs in the direction of load.
 Excess pore water drains out in vertical direction.
 The boundary is a free surface offering no resistance to the flow of water.
 Change in thickness of the layer is insignificant.
 Time lag is due entirely to permeability of soil, thus secondary consolidation is
disregarded.
• Basic equation of consolidation relates the rate of change of excess hydrostatic pressure to
rate of expulsion of excess pore water from a unit volume of soil during the same time
interval.
𝜕𝑢 𝜕 2𝑢
 = 𝐶𝑣 𝜕𝑧 2
𝜕𝑡
• Time factor
 It is a parameter which relates to the degree of consolidation and time required for that
consolidation and is given as:
𝐶𝑣 𝑡
𝑇𝑣 = 2
𝑑
o d – length of drainage path
 Degree of consolidation is the fraction of ultimate consolidation which is completed at
any stage of time during consolidation.
𝑠
%𝑈 = × 100
𝑠𝑓
𝜋 𝑈% 2
 %U ≤ 60% 𝑇𝑣 = 4 (100)
 %U ≥ 60% 𝑇𝑣 = 1.781 − 0.933 log10 ሺ100 − 𝑈%ሻ
d. Laboratory consolidation test
• Also known as Oedometer test
• In fixed ring only top porous stone moves, and direct measurement of permeability is
possible.
• In floating ring cell, both top and bottom rings can move and has advantage of having smaller
effect of friction between specimen ring and soil specimen.
e. Determination of coefficient of consolidation
• 𝐶𝑣 depends upon type of soil and changes in effective stress, generally it has been observed
that if LL increases 𝐶𝑣 decreases.
14
  𝐿𝐿 ↑ 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 ↑ 𝑎𝑣 ↑ 𝑚𝑣 ↑ 𝐶𝑣 ↓
• Taylor’s Square root of time fitting method
 Curve is plotted between U% and √𝑡
 Theoretical curve is straight up to U=60% when extended its abscissa a, and abscissa of
90% is b = 1.15a
 √𝑡90 value is found by fitting the laboratory curve, using the above criteria.
ሺ𝑇𝑣 ሻ90 𝑑 2
𝑐𝑣 =
𝑡90
 This is better for soil having high compressibility.
• Logarithm of time fitting method
 Dial reading vs log of time is plotted
 Zero and 100% point are located and then 50% point is found out.
ሺ𝑇𝑣 ሻ50 𝑑2
𝑐𝑣 =
𝑡50
f. Secondary consolidation
• Experimentally, it has been found that compression of soil layer does not cease when excess
pore water pressure is fully dissipated and the primary consolidation is complete. This
additional reduction in volume is called secondary consolidation.
• It occurs due to gradual plastic readjustment of soil particles into a more stable configuration
following the structural disturbance caused by the decrease in void ratio.
Δ𝑒
• Secondary compression index 𝐶𝑡 = log 𝑡
2 /𝑡1
𝐶
• Coefficient of secondary consolidation 𝐶𝛼 = 1+𝑒𝑡
𝑝

 𝑒𝑝 – void ratio after primary consolidation

• It is important only for highly plastic clays and organic soils
g. Settlement analysis
• Elastic settlement
𝑞𝐵ሺ1 − 𝜇2 ሻ
𝑆𝑖 = 𝐼𝑓
𝐸𝑠
• Primary consolidation settlement
 Normally consolidated soil
𝐻𝐶𝑐 𝜎̅
Δ𝐻 = log 10
1 + 𝑒𝑜 𝜎̅𝑜
 Pre-consolidated soil
𝐻𝐶𝑟 𝜎̅𝑝 𝐻𝐶𝑐 𝜎̅
Δ𝐻 = log10 + log10
1 + 𝑒𝑜 𝜎̅𝑜 1 + 𝑒𝑜 𝜎̅𝑝
8. Compaction
a. Compaction is an artificial process by which the soil particles are artificially rearranged and packed
together into a closer state of contact by mechanical means in order to decrease its porosity and thus
increase its dry density.
b. Laboratory Test
Standard proctor test (IS 2720 Part VII) Modified proctor (IS 2720 Part VIII)

15
 ➢ Mould of 100 mm diameter and 127.3 mm ➢ Higher compaction is needed for heavier
height and 1000 ml capacity. transport and military aircraft. And modified
➢ Rammer of 2.6 kg mass with a free drop of proctor was developed to give a higher
310 mm and a face diameter of 50mm. standard of compaction.
➢ The mold is filled in three layers with 25 ➢ The mould used is same as standard proctor,
blows on each layer. however rammer of 4.9 kg and a free drop of
➢ the compactive effort is 4.5 times that of 450 mm is used.
standard proctor. (Modified proctor 2700 ➢ Soil is compacted in 5 equal layers, with 25
kJ/m3, Standard proctor 592 kJ/m3) blows each
c. Parameters
𝑀
• Bulk density 𝛾𝑏 = 𝑉
𝛾𝑏
• Dry density 𝛾𝑑 = 1+𝑤
d. Zero air void line
• A line showing water content dry density relation for compacted soil, containing a constant
percentage air voids is known as air void line.
ሺ1−𝜂𝑎 ሻ𝐺𝛾𝑤
• 𝛾𝑑 = 1+𝑤𝐺
𝐺𝛾
• 𝑤
For no air voids zero air void or saturation line is defined 𝛾𝑑 = 1+𝑤𝐺
e. Relative compaction
• The dry density achieved in the field is compared with maximum dry density obtained in the
laboratory compaction test with the help of relative compaction.
𝛾𝑑 field
= × 100
𝛾𝑑 𝑚𝑎𝑥
1 + 𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑛
= × 100
1 + 𝑒field
f. Factors affecting Optimum Moisture curve
• Water content: 𝛾𝑑 first increases then decreases.
• With increase in compactive effort, dry density increases and OMC decreases.
• Type of equipment
• Type of soil:
 dry density is more and OMC is less for well graded coarse-grained soil with fines.
 With increase in fines 𝛾𝑑 decreases,
 Fine grained soils have low 𝛾𝑑 and with increase in plasticity dry density further decreases.
g. Effect of compaction on properties of soil
Dry of optimum Wet of optimum

Soil structure Flocculated (random) Dispersed (oriented)

Permeability More permeable Less permeable (minimum permeability

slightly above OMC)

Swelling Has high deficiency of water and Less swelling

more random orientation of particles,
so more swelling

Pore pressure Has low water content so less pore more

pressure

16
 Shrinkage Less shrinkage Shrinkage is more because the soil
particles are is dispersed and have nearly
parallel orientation of particles and can
pack more efficiency.

Compressibility At low pressure range when the More

structure is unbroken, due to stronger
inter particle bond, compressibility is
low.
But at Higher pressure due to
breaking of structure compressibility less
is more.

Stress strain Has a steeper stress strain curve and Progressive failure
characteristic brittle failure

Shear strength At low strain: higher

At high strain: almost equal

Homogeneous dam is compacted Clay core of earthen dam is compacted

Dry side of Optimum. on wet side, to reduce permeability and
prevents cracking.
Subgrade of pavement (less
compressibility at high stress and less
swelling)
h. Methods of compaction in field
• Smooth wheeled rollers: are most suited to crushed rocks, hard core, mechanically stable gravel
and sand. They can also be used satisfactorily on moderately cohesive soils.
• In cohesionless sand and gravel, vibrating type equipment, crawler tractors, and rubber-tyred
rollers are effective. They produce excellent densification as particles shift their position and
nestle more closely with adjacent particles.
• Sheep-foot-rollers are recommended for compacting cohesive soils, kneading action results in
better bond between compacted layers.
• Pneumatic-tyred rollers is a combination of pressure and kneading, and they are suitable both on
cohesionless sand and gravels and on cohesive soils.
• Rammers are used for compacting soil in confined places.
i. Compaction control
• Dry density
 Core cutter method
 Sand replacement method
• Water content measurement
 Sand bath
 Alcohol method
 Calcium carbide method
 Proctor needle: penetration resistance and water content curve are calibrated in laboratory
and then used to field to find water content.
9. Shear strength
a. Introduction
• ‘Shear strength’, may be defined as the resistance to shearing stresses and a consequent tendency
for shear deformation. A soil derives its shearing strength from the following:
 Resistance due to the interlocking of particles.
17
  Frictional resistance between the individual soil grains.
 Adhesion between soil particles or ‘cohesion’.
b. Strength theories for soil
• Mohr’s strength theory (for sand)
 The primary assumptions in this theory is that the intermediate principal stress has no
influence on the strength and that the strength is dependent only upon the normal stress on
the plane of maximum obliquity. (internal angle of friction or angle of repose)
𝑆 = 𝜎 tan 𝜙
• Mohr coulomb failure theory
 According to this theory shear strength depends upon, cohesion, angle of internal friction
and normal stress on the critical plane.
𝑆 = 𝑐 + 𝜎 tan 𝜙
• Modified Mohr’s coulombs theory
 According to Terzaghi, it is the effective stress on the failure plane that governs the
shearing strength and not the total stress.
𝑆 = 𝑐 ′ + 𝜎̅ tan 𝜙 ′
 For over consolidated or dense sand envelop is slightly curved
 Angle of failure plane
𝜙
𝛼 = 45˚ +
2
𝜙 𝜙
𝜎1 = 𝜎3 tan2 (45˚ + ) + 2𝑐 tan (45˚ + )
2 2
c. Types of shear tests based on drainage
• c and ϕ are not the fundamental properties of soil, these depend on the type of test, water
content and drainage condition under which the testing is done. They are called total stress
parameters. c' and ϕ’ are called the effective cohesion and effective angle of internal friction,
they are called effective stress parameters.
• Unconsolidated Undrained test UU
 It is a quick test, usually 5 to 10 min is adequate for the whole test.
 Drainage is not permitted at any stage of the test.
• Consolidated Undrained test CU
 It is consolidated quick test. Drainage is allowed only in 1st stage.
 Usually, after the soil is consolidated under the applied normal stress to the desired degree,
5 to 10 minutes may be adequate for the test.
• Consolidated Drained test CD
 It is called slow test, as it takes 4 to 6 weeks to complete a single test.
 Drainage is permitted at both the stages.
 This test is seldom conducted on cohesive soils except for purposes of research.
• For problems of short-term stability of foundations, excavations and earth dams UU-tests are
appropriate.
• For problems of long-term stability, either CU-test or CD- tests are appropriate, depending upon
the drainage conditions in the field.
d. Measurement of shear strength
• Direct shear test
 Limitations
o Stress distribution is non-uniform and results in progressive failure ie. Entire
strength of the soil is not mobilized.
o As the test progresses area under shear gradually decreases, corrected area should be
used.

18
 o As compared to triaxial test, there is little control on drainage.
o Plane of shear failure is predetermined, which is not the weakest.
o There is lateral restraint by side walls of the shear box.
 Behavior in loose and dense sands

o At large shear displacement, the void ratios of loose and dense sands become
practically the same, and this is termed the critical void ratio.
• Triaxial test
 The calculation of deviator stress must be done on the basis of changed area of cross-
section at failure
o Corrected area
𝑉 ± ∆𝑉
𝐴2 =
𝐿 − ∆𝐿
1 ± 𝜖𝑣
= 𝐴𝑜
1 − 𝜖𝑙
𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
o Deviator stress 𝜎𝑑 = 𝐴2
o Confining stress 𝜎3
o 𝜎1 = 𝜎𝑑 + 𝜎3
 Advantages
o The shear test under all drainage condition can be performed with complete control.
o Precise measurement of pore pressure and volume change during the test are
possible.
o The stress distribution on failure plane is uniform.
o The state of stress in the specimen at any point is completely determinate.
Test Normally consolidated clay/ loose sand Over consolidated clay/ Dense sand

Change in volume due to confining stress 1st stage, as drainage is allowed

CD

deviator stress caused progressive failure

there is a peak for OC soil

19
 volume decreases in 2nd stage volume first decreases then increases.

in normally consolidated clays no cohesion in over consolidated clays cohesion is seen in CD

is seen in CD test, behaves like sand. test, behaves like silt.

CU Pore water pressure increases Pore water pressure increases then becomes
Other
negative due to volume expansion.
graphs are
same as
above

UU
test is
generally
done for
saturated
clays
Only cohesion is observed and no friction is observed, as there is no volume change.
• Unconfined compression test
 It is a special test where confining pressure is zero
𝐴𝑜
o 𝐴 = 1−𝜖
 𝑞𝑢 – unconfined compressive strength
𝑞
 𝑐𝑢 = 2𝑢

20
  As, 𝜎3 = 0 and 𝜎1 at failure is same for each sample of same soil, hence a unique Mohr’s
circle is obtained which passes from origin.
e. Vane shear test
• For both top and bottom face below the ground
𝐻 𝑑
𝑇 = 𝜋𝑑 2 𝜏𝑓 [ + ]
2 6
• Only bottom is below ground
𝐻 𝑑
 𝑇 = 𝜋𝑑 2 𝜏𝑓 { 2 + 12}
• Merits
 Quick and simple, ideally suited for non-fissured fully saturated clay.
 The test can conveniently be used to determine sensitivity of clay.
f. Skempton’s pore pressure parameters
• A knowledge of pore pressure is important for determination of effective stresses from total
stresses. Pore pressure parameters are dimensionless numbers that indicates the fraction of total
stress increment that show up as excess pore pressure for the condition of no drainage.
• The ratio of the pore water pressure developed to the applied confining pressure is called the B-
parameter.
∆𝑢
 𝐵 = ∆𝜎𝑐
3
∆𝑢𝑑
 𝐴̅ = =𝐴∙𝐵
∆𝜎1 −∆𝜎3
∆𝑢 = 𝐵[∆𝜎3 + 𝐴ሺ∆𝜎1 − ∆𝜎3 ሻ]
• For saturated sample B = 1, A is positive (2 to 3) if sample contracts on loading, and negative (–
0.5) if expands.
• Pore pressure parameters are very useful in field problems
involving the prediction of pore pressures induced
consequent to known changes of total stress.
g. Modified failure envelope
̅1 +𝜎
𝜎 ̅3
• 𝑝= 𝑥 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠
2
̅1 −𝜎
𝜎 ̅3
• 𝑝= 𝑦 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠
2
h. Stress path
• A stress path is a line that connects a series of points, each of which represents a successive
stress state experienced by a soil specimen during the progress of a test. There are several ways
in which a stress path can be drawn.
• Lambe’s stress path is the line joining the maximum shear stresses on the specimen as the load
changes.
i. Liquefaction
• If a stand deposit is shaken due to an earth quake or any oscillatory load, extra pore water
pressure develops, and effective stress becomes zero, due to which sand loses its shear strength.
• The soil most susceptible to liquefaction are saturated fine and medium sand of uniform particle
size.
• If the soil is compacted to a void ratio smaller than critical void ratio, chances of liquefaction
gets reduced.
10. Earth pressure
a. Types of earth retaining structures
• Earth-retaining structures may be broadly classified as retaining walls and sheetpile walls.
Retaining walls may be further classified as:
 Gravity retaining walls
o Usually of masonry or mass concrete.

21
 o Depend on their weight for stability
o Walls up to 2 m height are invariably of this type.
 Cantilever walls
o RCC cantilever walls stem is monolithic with base slab.
o These are suitable up to height of 7.5m.
 Counterfort walls
 Buttress walls
• Sheet pile walls may be further classified as cantilever sheet pile walls and anchored sheet pile
walls, also called ‘bulkheads’.

b. Introduction
• There are two distinct kinds of lateral earth pressure.
 The soil exerts a push against the wall by virtue of its tendency to slip laterally and seek its
natural slope or angle of repose, thus making the wall to move slightly away from the
backfilled soil mass. This kind of pressure is known as the active earth pressure of the soil.
The soil, being the actuating element, is considered to be active and hence the name active
earth pressure.
 In some manner the retaining wall is caused to move toward the soil. In such a case the
retaining wall is the actuating element and the soil provides the resistance which soil
develops in response to movement of the structure toward it is called the passive earth
pressure, or more appropriately ‘passive earth resistance’.
• The surface over which the sheared-off soil wedge tends to slide is referred to as the surface of
‘sliding’ or ‘rupture’.
• When the retaining structure is perfectly stationary and does not move in either direction. The
pressure which develops in this condition is called earth pressure at rest.
• Very little movement (about 0.5% horizontal strain) is required to mobilise the active pressure;
however, relatively much larger movement (about 2% of horizontal strain for dense sands and as
high as 15% for loose sands) may be required to mobilise full passive resistance. About 50% of
the passive resistance may be mobilised at a movement comparable to that required for the
active case.
c. At rest
• By making Lateral strain zero

22
 𝜎ℎ 𝜎ℎ 𝜎𝑣
𝜖ℎ = −µ( + ) = 0
𝐸 𝐸 𝐸
𝜎ℎ µ
= 𝐾𝑜 =
𝜎𝑣 1−µ
•For pure sand (Jackey)
 𝐾𝑜 = 1 − sin 𝜙′
d. Rankine’s theory
• Assumptions
 Soil mass is semi-infinite, homogeneous, dry and cohesionless.
 Ground surface is a plane, which may be horizontal or inclined.
 Back of wall is vertical and smooth. There is no shearing resistance between wall and soil
and stress relationship for any element adjacent to the wall is same as for any other element.
 Wall yields about the base, thus satisfies the deformation conditions for plastic equilibrium.
Pressure at z
Coefficients Thrust (dry) Uniform surcharge
Submerged

1 − sin 𝜙 1
Active state 𝐾𝑎 = 𝑃𝑎 = 𝐾𝑎 𝛾𝐻2 𝜎ℎ = 𝐾𝑎 𝛾 ′ 𝑧 + 𝛾𝑤 𝑧 𝜎ℎ = 𝐾𝑎 𝛾𝑧 + 𝐾𝑎 𝑞
1 + sin 𝜙 2

1 + sin 𝜙 1
Passive state 𝐾𝑝 = 𝑃𝑝 = 𝐾𝑝 𝛾𝐻2 𝜎ℎ = 𝐾𝑝 𝛾 ′ 𝑧 + 𝛾𝑤 𝑧 𝜎ℎ = 𝐾𝑝 𝛾𝑧 + 𝐾𝑝 𝑞
1 − sin 𝜙 2
e. Inclined backfill
• Surcharge angle 𝛽
• Acts at H/3 from base at an angle 𝛽 from horizontal.
• Active stage
cos 𝛽−√cos2 𝛽−cos2 𝜙
 𝐾𝑎 = cos 𝛽 [ ]
cos 𝛽+√cos2 𝛽−cos2 𝜙
• Passive stage
cos 𝛽+√cos2 𝛽−cos2 𝜙
 𝐾𝑎 = cos 𝛽 [ ]
cos 𝛽−√cos2 𝛽−cos2 𝜙
f. Cohesive soil
• Active stage
 A cohesive soil is partially self-supporting and it will,
therefore, exert a smaller pressure on a retaining wall
than a cohesionless soil with the same angle of friction and density.
 𝑝𝑎 = 𝐾𝑎 𝜎𝑣 − 2𝑐 √𝐾𝑎 Bell’s equation
 The effect of cohesion in soil is to reduce the pressure intensity everywhere by 2𝑐 √𝐾𝑎
 Depth of tension crack
2𝑐
ℎ=
𝛾√𝐾𝑎
 Critical depth of Unsupported cut
4𝑐
ℎ=
𝛾√𝐾𝑎
• Passive stage
 𝑝𝑝 = 𝐾𝑎 𝜎𝑣 − 2𝑐 √𝐾𝑎
g. Coulomb’s wedge theory
• Assumptions
 Soil is homogeneous, isotropic, semi-infinite, elastic dry and cohesionless.

23
  The slip surface is plane which passes through the heel of the wall.
 The sliding wedge itself acts as a rigid body, and the value of earth pressure is obtained by
considering the sliding of wedge as a whole.
 The location and direction of resultant earth pressure are known, which acts on the back of
the wall at one third the height of the wall from base and inclined at 𝛿 to the normal to the
back.
 The back of the wall is rough and a relative movement of the wall and the soil on the back
develops frictional forces which influence the resultant pressure.
• Points to remember
 Resultant reaction on slip plane acts at an angle 𝜙 with the normal
 The Coulomb wedge theory which assumes a plane rupture surface introduces significant
errors in the estimation of passive earth resistance, although the error is small in the
estimation of active thrust. Thus, it is generally recommended that analysis based on curved
rupture surface (for example, Terzaghi’s logarithmic spiral method) be used for passive
resistance.
 One of the main deficiencies in Coulomb’s theory is that, in general, it does not satisfy the
static equilibrium condition occurring in nature. The three forces (weight of the sliding
wedge, earth pressure and soil reaction on the rupture surface) acting on the sliding wedge
do not meet at a common point, when the sliding surface is assumed to be planar.
2
 Angle of wall friction Terzaghi recommends in the absence of data 𝛿 = 3 𝜙

h. Rebhann’s (1871), Culmann’s (1860), Poncolete (1840) theories are graphical in nature.
• Culmann’s method permits one to determine graphically the magnitude of the earth pressure
and to locate the most dangerous rupture surface according to Coulomb’s wedge theory.
 This method has more general application than Poncelet’s and is, in fact, a simplified
version of the more general trial wedge method.
 It may be conveniently used for ground surface of any shape, for different types of
surcharge loads, and for layered backfill with different unit weights for different layers.
• Friction between the wall and fill (which is neglected in Rankins theory) is supposed to reduce
the active earth pressure on the wall and increase the passive resistance of the soil. Similar is the
effect of cohesion of the fill soil. Thus it is seen that, by neglecting wall friction as also cohesion
of the backfill, the geotechnical engineer errs on the safe side in the computation of both the
active pressure and passive resistance. Also, the fill is usually of cohesionless soil, wherever
possible, from the point of view of providing proper drainage.
i. Sheet pile wall
• Cohesion less soil
 Moment balance about lower point

24
 1 𝐻+𝐷 1 𝐷
 𝐾 𝛾ሺ𝐻 + 𝐷ሻ2 ( ) − 3 𝐾𝑝 𝛾𝐷2 3 =0
2 𝑎 3
• For pure cohesive soil
 𝐾𝑎 = 𝐾𝑝
1
 Above ground 𝑃1 = 2 𝛾𝐻2 triangular distribution
 Below ground 𝑃2 = ሺ4𝑐 − 𝛾𝐻ሻ𝑑 rectangular distribution
• For anchored Sheet Pile wall (MAINS)
 moment need to be balanced about the anchorage point to find the depth of embedment.
11. Stability of slopes
a. Force Analysis
• Weight of prism
 𝑊 = 𝑧𝑏 cos 𝛽 𝛾
o z – vertical height, b – length along slope
• Normal stress
 𝜎 = 𝛾𝑧 cos2 𝛽
• Shear stress
 𝜏 = 𝛾𝑧 cos 𝛽 sin 𝛽
• Factor of safety
𝜏𝑓 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝜎 tan 𝜙+𝑐
 𝐹= = =
𝜏 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝜏
b. FOS of Infinite slope
No water table Submerged slope Seepage along surface

Cohesionless tan 𝜙 𝛾′ tan 𝜙 𝛾′ tan 𝜙

soil tan 𝛽 𝛾′ tan 𝛽 𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 tan 𝛽

Cohesive soil 𝑐 + ሺ𝛾𝑧 cos2 𝛽ሻ tan 𝜙 𝑐 + ሺ𝛾′𝑧 cos2 𝛽ሻ tan 𝜙 𝑐 + ሺ𝛾′𝑧 cos2 𝛽ሻ tan 𝜙
𝛾𝑧 cos 𝛽 sin 𝛽 𝛾′𝑧 cos 𝛽 sin 𝛽 𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 𝑧 cos 𝛽 sin 𝛽

𝛾′ 1
• 𝐹𝑂𝑆 = 𝛾 ≈ 2 thus, the factor of safety is reduced to nearly half when there is seepage on
𝑠𝑎𝑡
surface.
• For cohesive if 𝜃 > 𝜙, the slope can be stable only up to a limited depth known as the critical
depth 𝐻𝐶
𝑐 + 𝛾𝐻𝑐 cos 2 𝛽 tan 𝜙
⇒ =1
𝛾𝐻𝑐 cos 𝛽 sin 𝛽
𝑐 1
⇒ 𝐻𝑐 = 2
𝛾 cos 𝛽 ሺtan 𝛽 − tan 𝜙ሻ
𝑐
⇒ cos2 𝜃 ሺtan 𝛽 − tan 𝜙ሻ = = 𝑆𝑛
𝐻𝑐 𝛾
 This dimensionless quantity is called stability number, which only depends on 𝜽, 𝝓
c. Taylors stability number
𝑐 𝑐
𝑆𝑛 = =
𝐻𝑐 𝛾 𝐹𝑂𝑆 𝐻𝛾
• If height is less than critical height, soil will not utilize its full shear strength, it means the
mobilized cohesion can be determined as
𝑐
 Factor of safety against cohesion 𝐹𝑐 = 𝑐
𝑚
tan 𝜙
 Factor of safety against friction 𝐹𝜙 = tan 𝜙𝑚
d. Stability analysis of Finite slope
• Types of failure
25
  Slope failure: the failure occurs along a surface of sliding that intersects the slope at or
above its toe.
 Toe failure: failure surface passes through the toe.
 Base failure: if the soil beneath the toe is weak, the failure surface passes at same distance
below the toe of the slope.
• Methods of analysis
Culmann’s method This method of planer failure surface, is suitable for very steep slope.

Swedish circle ➢ It is also called slip circle method or method of slices

➢ It is total stress analysis.
➢ The frictional forces between the slices are neglected and each slice is considered
to be an independent column of soil of unit thickness.
➢ The shear strength at different points on the slip surface varies according to the
value of the effective normal stress at these points.
➢ It is a general approach which is equally applicable to homogeneous soils,
stratified deposits, partially submerged cases and non-uniform slopes. Seepage
effects also can be considered.

Friction circle ➢ This method is based on total stress analysis.

➢ Radius of friction circle 𝑟 sin 𝜙
➢ The resultant reaction between two portions of soil mass on either side of slip
plane is assumed to pass at an angle of 𝜙 with normal to the slip plane and
tangential to friction circle.
➢ It is assumed that cohesion is partially mobilized and friction is fully mobilized.

Bishop method ➢ It considers the forces acting on the sides of slice, which were neglected in slip
circle method.
➢ It is an effective stress analysis.
12. Bearing capacity
a. Definitions
• Foundation: The lowest part of a structure which is in contact with soil and transmits loads to it.
• Footing: The portion of the foundation of the structure, which transmits loads directly to the soil.
• Gross pressure is the total pressure at the base of foundation due to self-weight of soil, footing
and applied load.
• Net pressure is that part of gross pressure at the base of footing which is in excess to the initial
effective overburden pressure.
𝑞𝑛 = 𝑞𝑔 − 𝜎̅
• Ultimate Bearing capacity (𝑞𝑢 ): It is that maximum gross pressure, which can be applied
without shear failure.
• Net Ultimate Bearing capacity (𝑞𝑛𝑢 ): it is that maximum net pressure which can be applied at
the base without shear failure.
• Net Safe Bearing capacity (𝑞𝑛𝑠 ): The maximum allowable net loading intensity on the soil at
which the soil neither fails in shear nor undergoes excessive or intolerable settlement,
detrimental to the structure.
𝑞𝑛𝑢
𝑞𝑛𝑠 =
𝐹𝑂𝑆
• Safe Bearing Capacity: It is that gross pressure at the base of footing which can be applied
safely without the risk of shear failure. The factor of safety should be applied to the net
ultimate bearing capacity and the surcharge pressure due to depth of the foundation should then
be added to get the safe bearing capacity.

26
 𝑞𝑛𝑢
𝑞𝑠 = + 𝛾𝐷
𝐹𝑂𝑆
b. Types of shear failure
General ➢ Occurs in shallow foundations, when placed on medium to dense soil.
shear ➢ At failure foundation gets tilted and heaving occurs at sides.
failure ➢ Before failure small settlement occurs, but stress zone extends up to ground level.
➢ Clear failure point is obtained in load vs settlement curve.

Local ➢ Occurs in shallow foundations, when placed on loose sand or soft clay.
shear ➢ There may be little to no heaving at the sides.
failure ➢ Before failure large settlement occurs, and stress zone doesn’t extend up to ground
level.
➢ Progressive failure is obtained in load vs settlement curve.

Punching ➢ Occurs in deep footing or piles which are placed on loose or soft soils.
shear ➢ Soil below the foundation gets cutoff from the adjacent soil by shearing and
failure excessive settlement is recorded.
➢ The adjacent soil remains undisturbed, there is no tilting and heaving at the sides.
c. Terzaghi’s theory
• It is an improvement over Prandtl’s theory, as he considered base of footing to be smooth,
whereas Terzaghi considered the base to be rough.
Zone I A wedge-shaped zone located beneath the loaded strip, in which the major principal
stresses are vertical.
➢ The soil located in zone I is in a state of elastic equilibrium and behaves as if it
were a part of the sinking footing.

Zone II Two zones of radial shear, emanating from the outer edges of the loaded strip, with
their boundaries making angles ሺ45˚ − 𝜙/2ሻ and 𝜙 with the horizontal
➢ It remains in plastic equilibrium. Rapture plane is circular in clayey soil and Log
spiral in sand and silt.

Zone III Two passive Rankine zones, with their boundaries making angles ሺ45˚ − 𝜙/2ሻ with the
horizontal

• Assumptions:
𝐷
 Foundation is shallow ( 𝐵𝑓 < 1)
 Base of footing is rough
 Failure is general shear failure
 Footing is stripped 𝐿 ≫ 𝐵, this
makes the analysis 2D
 At the time of failure soil reaches
plastic equilibrium.
 The stress zone extends only to the foundation level not up to the ground level.
 Shear resistance of soil above the foundation level is ignored. -* this is main reason this
theory is not applicable to deep foundation.
 Soil above foundation level is replaced by an equivalent surcharge 𝑞 = 𝛾𝐷𝑓
 Load is concentric, there is no inclination, and there is no water table effect.
• Bearing Capacity equations
Strip 𝑐𝑁𝑐 + 𝑞𝑁𝑞 + 0.5𝐵𝛾𝑁𝛾

27
 Square 1.3𝑐𝑁𝑐 + 𝑞𝑁𝑞 + 0.4𝐵𝛾𝑁𝛾

Circular 1.3𝑐𝑁𝑐 + 𝑞𝑁𝑞 + 0.3𝐵𝛾𝑁𝛾

Rectangular 0.3𝐵 0.2𝐵

(1 + ) 𝑐𝑁𝑐 + 𝑞𝑁𝑞 + 0.5 (1 − ) 𝐵𝛾𝑁𝛾
𝐿 𝐿
• In the above case, general shear failure is considered, but soil may fail in local shear, for that
modification is required
2 2
𝑐𝑚 = 3 𝐶 tan 𝜙𝑚 = 3 tan 𝜙
• Effect of water table
Depth of Water table Beyond the stress zone water table has no effect on bearing
below footing 𝑧1 > 𝐵 capacity

Third term is affected

𝛾𝑏 𝑧2 +𝛾′ሺ𝐵−𝑧2 ሻ
➢ Effective parameter 𝛾eff = 𝐵
𝐷𝑓 < 𝑧2 < 𝐵 ∗ 1 𝑧
➢ Water table correction 𝑅 = 2 (1 + 𝐵2 )
𝛾𝑏 𝑧2 +𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡ሺ𝐵−𝑧2 ሻ
𝛾eff = 𝐵

➢ 2nd term 𝛾 will change like previous case

0 < 𝑧3 < 𝐷𝑓
➢ 3rd term 𝛾′ will be used
 Case I: cohesionless soil
o In sandy soil ultimate bearing capacity depends upon width of footing
▪ 𝑞𝑢 = 𝛾𝐷𝑓 𝑁𝑞 + 0.5𝑩𝛾𝑁𝛾
o If water table rise to ground level, ultimate bearing capacity approximately reduces
by 50%
▪ 𝑞𝑢 = 𝛾′𝐷𝑓 𝑁𝑞 + 0.5𝐵𝛾′𝑁𝛾
 Case II: For purely cohesive soil (clay)
o 𝑁𝑐 = 5.7, 𝑁𝑞 = 1, 𝑁𝛾 = 0
o As 𝑁𝛾 is zero, in clayey soil the bearing capacity is independent of the width of
footing. But bearing force depends on width.
o And if water table rises to ground level, net ultimate bearing capacity is nearly
unaffected.
d. Skempton’s theory
• Based partly on theory and partly on laboratory test, Skempton observed that 𝑁𝑐 increases with
𝐷
ratio 𝐵
• This theory is applicable for pure cohesive soil, in this theory side resistance and base resistance
both are considered hence this theory is applicable for shallow and deep foundation.
• Net ultimate bearing capacity for clay is:
 𝑞𝑛𝑢 = 𝑐𝑁𝑐
D/B =0 ≥ 2.5 < 2.5

Strip 0.2𝐷𝑓
5 7.5 5 (1 + )
𝐵

Square /circular 0.2𝐷𝑓

6 9 6 (1 + )
⃞ ⃝ 𝐵

Rectangular 0.2𝐷𝑓 0.2𝐵

6 9 5 (1 + ) (1 + )
𝐵 𝐿

28
 e. Meyerhof theory
• It is most generalized theory in which shape factor, depth factor and inclination factor are used
to account for variations.
• In this theory stress zone is assumed to be extended up to ground level, hence side resistance and
base resistance are used.
• For clayey soil
 𝑁𝑐 = 5.14, 𝑁𝑞 = 1, 𝑁𝛾 = 0
f. Plate load test (IS 1888)
• Experimental specifications
 Pit of size not less than 5 times size of plate of depth equal to footing depth is excavated.
 Water table is lowered below the test pit level by pumping.
 Initial load of 7 kN/m2 is applied and removed, 3 dial gauges are the attached to the plate.
 Test is conducted until failure or at least until the settlement of about 25 mm has occurred.
 Load settlement graph is plotted, for dense and stiff soil, failure occurs when plate starts
settling suddenly at a faster rate, in loose and soft soil failure is progressive hence to find
failure condition, graph may be plotted in log-log scale.
Clay Sand

Bearing 𝐵
𝑞𝑓 = 𝑞𝑝 𝑞𝑓 = 𝑞𝑝 𝐵𝑓
Capacity 𝑝

Settlement 𝐵𝑝 2
𝐵𝑝 ሺ𝐵𝑓 +0.3ሻ
∆𝑝 = ∆𝑓 ∆𝑝 = ∆𝑓 [ ]
𝐵𝑓 𝐵𝑓 ሺ𝐵𝑝 +0.3ሻ

• Limitations
 Test result doesn’t reflect the true behavior of soil, because width of plate is less than width
of footing, hence results represent behavior of soil up to a lesser depth.
 Results are not valid in strip footing
 It is essentially a short duration test; hence test doesn’t give ultimate settlement particularly
in case of clayey soil.
g. Standard penetration test
• Experimental specifications
 Split spoon sampler is placed over the soil in a bore hole (55mm to 150mm)
 Sampler is driven by hammer (65kg) with fall (75cm)
 1st 150mm reading is ignored, last 300mm reading of number of blows is N value
 Test is conducted every 2m to 5m interval or at change of strata.
• Corrections are applied in sequence
 Overburden:
o Due to lesser value at shallow depth SPT value is underestimated, hence
normalization is required.
350
𝑁1 = 𝑁𝑜 ( )
𝜎̅ + 70
o if effective stress is greater than 280 it is not applied.
 Dilatancy: the values obtained after applying overburden correction is corrected further for
dilatancy.
o Due to sudden impact load, excess pore pressure develops which increases the
penetration resistance.
1
𝑁2 = 15 + ሺ𝑁1 − 15ሻ
2
• Limitations

29
  Applicable only for medium to dense sand because in loose saturated sand liquefaction may
occur.
 In clays remolding or excess pore pressure may setup.
 Obtained density index and friction angle are not reliable.
h. Housel approach to finding bearing capacity of footing.
• According to Housel, failure load is function of area and perimeter of plate/foundation and soil
properties.
• Plate load test is conducted on two rigid plates of different size at same depth, and simultaneous
equation is solved to find the unknows
 𝑄 =𝐴∙𝑚+𝑃∙𝑛
 m – bearing pressure at base of footing, n – perimeter shear
i. Contact pressure and settlement
• Flexible footing
 Contact pressure is uniform
 Settlement
o Clay: maximum at center
o Sand: maximum at edges
• Rigid footing
 Contact pressure
o Clay: infinite at edges and q/2 at center in clay,
o Sand: zero at edges and parabolic with maximum at center.
 Settlement is uniform

j. Bearing capacity as per settlement criteria

• Peck Hensen Equation
 Net allowable bearing capacity
𝑞𝑎 𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 0.41𝑆𝑁𝐶𝑤
 S is permissible settlement given by IS code in mm
 N final SPT number
 𝐶𝑤 water table correction
1 𝐷𝑤
o 𝐶𝑤 = 2 (1 + 𝐷 ) depth is taken from surface.
𝑓 +𝐵

o 0.5 ≤ 𝐶𝑤 ≤ 1, 𝐷𝑤 is depth of water table from ground.

• Teng’s Equation
𝐵+0.3 2
 𝑞𝑎 𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 1.4 ( ) ሺ𝑁 − 3ሻ𝑆𝐶𝑤 𝐶𝐷
2𝐵
𝐷𝑓
o 𝐶𝐷 is depth correction factor = 1 + ≤2
𝐵
1 𝐷
o 𝐶𝑤 = (1 + 𝐵𝑤) depth is taken from foundation level.
2
k. Settlement of foundation
• Elastic settlement
1−𝜇 2
 𝑆𝑖 = 𝑞𝐵 ( ) 𝐼𝑓
𝐸𝑠

30
  𝐼𝑓 – influence factor for immediate settlement depends on footing’s size, shape, rigidity and
location.
• Consolidation settlement
𝐶 𝐻 𝜎𝑜+∆𝜎
 𝑆𝑐 = 1+𝑒
𝑐
log
𝑜 𝜎𝑜
 𝐶𝑐 = 0.009ሺ𝐿𝐿 − 10ሻ
13. Shallow foundation
a. General types of foundation
Spread footing ➢ Spread footing foundation is basically a pad used to ‘‘spread out’’ loads from walls or
columns over a sufficiently large area of foundation soil.
➢ Spread footing required to support a wall is known as a continuous, wall, or strip
footing, while that required to support a column is known as an individual or an
isolated footing.
➢ Two miscellaneous types—the monolithic footing, used for watertight basement (also
for resisting uplift), and the grillage foundation, used for heavy loads.

Strap footing ➢ A ‘strap footing’ comprises two or more footings connected by a beam called ‘strap’.
This is also called a ‘cantilever footing’ or ‘pump-handle foundation’. This may be
required when the footing of an exterior column cannot extend into an adjoining
private property.

Combined ➢ A combined footing supports two or more columns in a row when the areas required
footing for individual footings are such that they come very near each other. They are also
preferred in situations of limited space on one side owing to the existence of the
boundary line of private property.

Raft foundations ➢ A raft or mat foundation is a large footing, usually supporting walls as well as several
columns in two or more rows.
➢ This is adopted when individual column footings would tend to be too close or tend to
overlap; further, this is considered suitable when differential settlements arising out of
footings on weak soils are to be minimised.

Pile foundation ➢ Pile foundations are intended to transmit structural loads through zones of poor soil to
a depth where the soil has the desired capacity to transmit the loads.
➢ Piles are slender foundation units which are usually driven into place. They may also
be cast-in-place.

Pier foundation ➢ Pier foundations are somewhat similar to pile foundations but are typically larger in
area than piles. An opening is drilled to the desired depth and concrete is poured to
make a pier foundation.
➢ Usually, pier foundations are used for bridges.

31
 Caissons (wells) ➢ A caisson is a structural box or chamber that is sunk into place or built in place by
systematic excavation below the bottom. Caissons are classified as:
➢ Open caissons may be box-type or pile-type. The top and bottom are open during
installation for open caissons. The bottom may be finally sealed with concrete or may
be anchored into rock.
➢ Pneumatic caisson is one in which compressed air is used to keep water from
entering the working chamber, the top of the caisson is closed. Excavation and
concreting are facilitated to be carried out in the dry. The caisson is sunk deeper as
the excavation proceeds and on reaching the final position, the working chamber is
filled with concrete.
➢ Box or floating caisson is one in which the bottom is closed. It is cast on land and
towed to the site and launched in water, after the concrete has got cured. It is sunk
into position by filling the inside with sand, gravel, concrete or water. False bottoms
or temporary bases of timber are sometimes used for floating the caisson to the site.

Floating ➢ The floating foundation is a special type of foundation construction useful in

foundation locations where deep deposits of compressible cohesive soils exist and the use of
piles is impractical.
➢ The concept of a floating foundation requires that the substructure be assembled as a
combination of a raft and caisson to create a rigid box
➢ This foundation is installed at such a depth that the total weight of the soil excavated
for the rigid box equals the total weight of the planned structure. Theoretically
speaking, therefore, the soil below the structure is not subjected to any increase in
stress; consequently, no settlement is to be expected.
b. Minimum depth of foundation
• Rankine’s formula
2
𝑞 1−sin 𝜙′
• 𝐷𝑓 𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝛾 (1+sin 𝜙′ )
c. Principle of design of footing
• The footing is designed using following procedure
 The safe bearing capacity is determined.
 And footing is proportioned according to that.
d. Footing subjected to eccentric load
• Resultant force is in the middle third of the base
𝑉 6𝑒
 𝑞 = 𝑏𝐿 (1 ± )
𝑏
𝑉 6𝑒 6𝑒
 𝑞 = 𝐴 (1 ± 𝑏
± 𝐿)
𝑏
 𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 6
• Resultant force outside the middle third of the base
𝑞𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑥𝐿
 𝑉= 2
𝑏 𝑥
 (2 − 𝑒) = 3
 Solving these 2 equations we get
𝑉 4𝑏
o 𝑞𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐴 [3𝑏−6𝑒]
• Useful width concept
 For the determination of the bearing capacity of an eccentrically loaded footing, the concept
of ‘useful width’ has been introduced. By this concept, the portion of the footing which is
symmetrical about the load is considered useful and the other portion is simply assumed
superfluous for the convenience of computation (Teng, 1976).

32
 14. Deep foundation
a. Classification
Function ➢ End bearing: Used to transfer load through the pile tip to a suitable bearing stratum, passing
soft soil or water.
➢ Friction: Used to transfer loads to a depth in a frictional material by means of skin friction
along the surface area of the pile.
➢ Tension or uplift: Used to anchor structures subjected to uplift due to hydrostatic pressure or
to overturning moment due to horizontal forces.
➢ Compaction: Used to compact loose granular soils in order to increase the bearing
capacity. Since they are not required to carry any load, the material may not be required to
be strong; in fact, sand may be used to form the pile. The pile tube, driven to compact the
soil, is gradually taken out and sand is filled in its place thus forming a sand pile*.
➢ Anchor: Used to provide anchorage against horizontal pull from sheetpiling or water.
➢ Fender: Used to protect water-front structures against impact from ships or other floating
objects.
➢ Sheet: Commonly used as bulkheads, or cut-offs to reduce seepage and uplift in hydraulic
structures.
➢ Batter: Used to resist horizontal and inclined forces, especially in water front structures.

Composition ➢ Timber: These are made of timber of sound quality. Length may be up to about 8 m;
splicing is adopted for greater lengths. Timber piles perform well either in fully dry
condition or submerged condition. Alternate wet and dry conditions reduce the life of a
timber pile; to overcome this, creosoting is adopted.
➢ Steel: These are usually H-piles (rolled H-shape), pipe piles, or sheet piles (rolled sections
of regular shapes).
➢ Concrete: These may be precast or cast-in-situ. Precast piles are reinforced to withstand
handling stresses. They require space for casting and storage, more time to cure and heavy
equipment for handling and driving. Cast-in-situ piles are installed by pre-excavation, thus
eliminating vibration due to driving and handling. The common types are Raymond pile,
Mac Arthur pile and Franki pile.
➢ Composite: These may be made of either concrete and timber or concrete and steel. These
are considered suitable when the upper part of the pile is to project above the water table.

Installation ➢ Driven: Timber, steel, or precast concrete piles may be driven into position either vertically
or at an inclination. Pile hammers and pile-driving equipment are used for driving piles.
➢ Cast in-situ: Only concrete piles can be cast-in-situ. Holes are drilled and these are filled
with concrete. These may be straight-bored piles or may be ‘under-reamed’ with one or
more bulbs at intervals.
➢ Driven and cast in-situ: This is a combination of both types. Casing or shell may be used.
The Franki pile falls in this category.
• Sand pile:

33
  Vertical sand drains increase the rate of consolidation, hence most of the settlement occur
during construction only.
 Smear effect: a smeared zone is formed around a sand drain, due to remolding of clay
caused during its construction, hence a decrease in coefficient of permeability in the radial
direction occurs.
b. Methods for determining pile load capacity
• Static formula
 The ultimate bearing load of a pile is considered to be the sum of the end-bearing
resistance and the resistance due to skin friction
𝑄𝑢𝑝 = 𝑄𝑒𝑏 + 𝑄𝑠𝑓
𝑄𝑢𝑝 = 𝑞𝑏 𝐴𝑏 + 𝑓𝑠 𝐴𝑠
o where, 𝑞𝑏 is in point bearing for the pile and 𝑓𝑠 is unit skin friction for the pile soil
system. 𝐴𝑏 is base area and 𝐴𝑠 is surface area of pile in contact with soil.
 The general form of equation for base resistance
𝑞𝑏 = 𝑐𝑁𝑐 + 𝑞𝑁𝑞 + 0.5𝐵𝛾𝑁𝛾
o Which is same form as shallow foundation
o For piles in sand 𝑞𝑏 = 𝑞𝑁𝑞 + 0.5𝐵𝛾𝑁𝛾 for square or rectangular pile
▪ 𝑞𝑏 = 𝑞𝑁𝑞 + 0.3𝐷𝛾𝑁𝛾 for circular pile
o For driven pile the term involving the size of pile is negligible compared with
surcharge term. Thus, for all practical purposes,
𝑞𝑏 = 𝑞𝑁𝑞
o For piles in clay 𝑞𝑏 = 𝑐𝑁𝑐 + 𝑞
▪ For all practical purposes
𝑞𝑏 = 9𝑐
 The general form for unit skin friction resistance 𝑓𝑠 is given by
𝑓𝑠 = 𝑐𝑎 + 𝜎ℎ tan 𝛿
o Where 𝑐𝑎 is adhesion, which is independent of the normal pressure on the contact
area. Cohesion c is used if the shearing is between soil and soil;
𝐾𝛾𝐿
▪ 𝜎̅ℎ = 𝐾𝑠 𝑞̅ = 2
o For piles in sand 𝑐𝑎 = 0,𝑓𝑠 = 𝜎ℎ tan 𝛿 . The values of tan δ may be determined by
direct shear tests in which one half of the shear box is replaced by the same material
as the pile surface.
o For piles in clays: 𝑓𝑠 = 𝑐𝑎 = 𝛼𝑐 , where 𝛼 is Adhesion factor which is always ≤ 1
𝑄𝑢𝑃 = 9𝑐𝐴𝑏 + 𝛼𝑐̅𝐴𝑠
𝛼 – adhesion factor
𝑐̅– average cohesion
Clay ➢ For very long pile skin friction also depends on effective overburden
pressure. L ≥ 25m
𝑄𝑢𝑃 = 9𝑐𝐴𝑏 + 𝜆ሺ𝜎̅𝑣 + 2𝑐̅ሻ𝐴𝑠
𝜎̅𝑣 – average vertical effective stress for imbedded length

1
Sand 𝑄𝑢𝑝 = ሺ𝛾𝐿ሻ𝑁𝑞 𝐴𝑏 + 𝐾𝑎 𝛾𝐿 tan 𝛿 𝐴𝑠
2
When group action is considered 𝛼 = 1 𝛿 = 𝜙
• Dynamic Formulas: when a pile hammer hits the pile, the total driving energy is equal to the
weight of hammer times the height of drop. In case of double acting hammers, some energy is
also imparted by the steam pressure. The total downward energy is consumed by the work done

34
 in penetrating the pile and by certain losses. It is also assumed that soil resistance of dynamic
penetration of pile is same as to the penetration of pile under static loading.
• Engineering News formula
 Allowable load
𝑊ℎ 𝐻
𝑄𝑎 =
FOSሺ𝑠 + 𝐶ሻ
o W – weight of hammer
o H – height of fall of hammer (cm)
o FOS – factor of safety (6)
o C – empirical constant (representing the temporary elastic compression of the helmet,
pile and soil). The value of C (in cm) is taken as 2.5 for drop hammer, and 0.25 for
steam hammer.
o s – final penetration (set) per blow. It is taken as average penetration per blow for the
last 5 blows or 20 blows depending on whether the hammer is a drop hammer or
steam hammer (cm)
𝑊ℎ 𝐻
Drop hammer 𝑄𝑎 =
6ሺ𝑠 + 2.5ሻ
𝑊ℎ 𝐻
Single acting 𝑄𝑎 =
6ሺ𝑠 + 0.25ሻ

Double acting
ሺ𝑊ℎ + 𝑎𝑝ሻ𝐻
a-area (cm2) 𝑄𝑎 =
6ሺ𝑠 + 2.5ሻ
p-pressure (kg/cm2)
• Hiley’s formula / (§ IS 2911)
𝜂ℎ 𝜂𝑏 𝑊𝐻
 Ultimate load on pile 𝑄𝑓 = 𝑐
𝑆+2

o 𝜂ℎ – efficiency of hammer
o 𝜂𝑏 – efficiency of blow
o C – total elastic compression
o Factor of safety = 3
c. Pile load test
• Load test on a pile is one of the best methods of determining the load-carrying capacity of a pile.
It may be conducted on a driven pile or cast-in-situ pile, on a working pile or a test pile, and on a
single pile or a group of piles. A working pile is one which forms part of the foundation, while a
test pile is one which is used primarily to check estimated capacities.
• Cyclic loading, where each load increment is repeatedly applied and removed. Settlements are
recorded at every increment or decrement of load. These help in separating elastic and plastic
settlements, and also point-bearing and frictional resistances.
• The allowable load on a single pile may be obtained as one of the following [I.S: 2911 (Part I)-
1974]:
 50% of the ultimate load at which the total settlement is equal to one-tenth the diameter of
the pile.
 Two-thirds of the load which causes a total settlement of 12 mm.
 Two-thirds of the load which causes a net (plastic) settlement of 6 mm (total settlement
minus elastic settlement).
d. Pile groups
• The bearing capacity of a pile group is not necessarily the capacity of the individual pile
multiplied by the number of piles in the group; the phenomenon by virtue of which this
discrepancy occurs is known as ‘Group action of piles’.

35
 • Column and wall loads are usually transferred to the pile group through a pile cap, which is
typically a reinforced concrete slab structurally connected to the pile heads to help the group act
as a unit.
• Ultimate load carrying capacity of pile group
Clay 𝑄𝑓𝑔 = 9𝑐𝐵2 + 𝑐̅ሺ4𝐵𝐿ሻ

1
Sand 𝑄𝑓𝑔 = (𝛾𝑙𝑁𝑞 )𝐵2 + [ 𝐾𝛾𝑙 tan 𝜙] 4𝐵𝑙
2
• Minimum spacing
 Point-bearing piles may be more closely spaced than friction piles. The minimum spacing
of piles is usually specified in building codes.
o For friction piles, the recommended minimum spacing is 3d.
o For point-bearing piles passing through relatively compressible strata, the minimum
spacing is 2.5d when the piles rest in compact sand or gravel; this should be 3.5d
when the piles rest in stiff clay.
o The minimum spacing may be 2d for compaction piles.
• Group efficiency
 It is defined as the ratio of ultimate load carrying capacity of the group to the ultimate load
carrying capacity of n individual piles.
𝑄𝑓𝑔
𝜂𝑔 =
𝑛𝑄𝑓𝑃
 Converse-Labarre formula
𝜙˚ 𝑚ሺ𝑛 − 1ሻ + 𝑛ሺ𝑚 − 1ሻ
𝜂𝑔 = 1 − [ ]
90˚ 𝑚𝑛
𝑑
o 𝜙 = tan−1 𝑠 in degrees, d and s being the diameter and spacing of piles
o m – number of rows, n – number of piles in a row.
e. Negative skin friction
• Negative skin friction or ‘down drag’ is a phenomenon which occurs when a soil layer
surrounding a portion of the pile shaft settles more than the pile. This condition can develop
where a soft or loose soil stratum located anywhere above the pile tip is subjected to new
compressive loading, the soil may settle more than the pile.
• It can also develop by lowering of ground water, which includes consolidation of soft soil.
• Skin friction is important because it not only decreases the surface area of pile in contact but
also increases the load acting on the pile, because the weight of the consolidating layer is
transferred to pile by friction, thus imposing extra load on the pile.
For clay 𝑄𝑛𝑓 = 𝛼𝑐ሺ𝜋𝑑𝑙1 ሻ

For sand 𝑄𝑛𝑓 = 0.5𝐾𝛾𝑙1 tan 𝛿 ሺ𝜋𝑑𝑙1 ሻ

For group 𝑐̅ሺ4𝐵𝑙ሻ + 𝛾𝑙𝐴𝑔

𝑄𝑛𝑔 = max ( )
𝑛ሺ𝛼𝑐̅ 𝜋𝑑𝑙ሻ
f. Settlement of group pile
• Group settlement ratio: is the ratio of pile group to settlement of individual piles. It is always
greater than 1 and may be as high as 16.

36
 • Case I: when end bearing
 A raft is assumed at the base of pile group.
𝐶 𝐻 𝜎𝑜+∆𝜎
 𝑆𝑔 = 1+𝑒
𝑐
log 10
𝑜 𝜎𝑜
𝑄
 ∆𝜎 = ሺ𝐵+𝑧ሻ2 , load distribution 2V:1H
•Case II: when friction pile group in uniform clay deposit
 A raft is of B⨉B is assumed at 2/3L from ground level
• Case III: when friction pile group in two different clay deposit
 Let length of pile in top soft layer is l1 and in bottom stiff clay
be 𝑙2
 B⨉B raft is assumed at 2/3l2 below top layer
g. Under reamed pile design
• An ‘under-reamed’ pile is one with an enlarged base or a bulb; the
bulb is called under-ream.
• Under-reamed piles are cast-in-situ piles, which may be installed
both in sandy and in clayey soils. The sides may be stabilised, if necessary, by the use of
bentonite slurry, sometimes called ‘drilling mud’. The under-reams are formed by a special
under-reaming equipment.
• Bulb diameter should be 2 to 3 times shaft diameter.
• The bearing capacity of the pile increases because of the
increased base area.
• Minimum length of pile should be 3.5m and minimum
desirable depth of center of 1st bulb is 1.5m or
• Minimum spacing between bulbs should be 1.5 times the bulb
dia.
• Bearing load
𝜋
 Single bulb 𝑄𝑢𝑝 = 9𝑐 ( 4 𝑑𝑢2 ) + 𝛼𝑐̅ሺ𝜋𝑑𝑙ሻ
𝜋
 Multi bulb 𝑄𝑢𝑝 = 9𝑐 ( 4 𝑑𝑢2 ) + 𝛼1 𝑐̅1 ሺ𝜋𝑑𝑙1 ሻ + 𝛼2 𝑐̅2 ሺ𝜋𝑑𝑢 𝑙2 ሻ
o
𝛼2 = 1 This is based on the assumption that the soil between the bulbs might move
together with the bulbs at ultimate load.
h. IS code guideline for design of raft
Differential settlement Maximum settlement

Clay should not exceed 40mm should be limited to 65 to 100mm

Sand should not exceed 25mm should be limited to 40 to 65mm

15. Stabilization of soil
a. Stabilization in a broader sense, incorporates various methods employed for modifying properties of a
soil to improve its engineering performance.
b. Without additives
• Mechanical stabilization: means improving the soil properties by rearrangement of particles and
densification by compaction, or by changing the gradation through addition or removal of soil
particles.
• Stabilization by drainage
 By application of external load
 By gravity or pumping
 By electrical gradient or electro-osmosis
 Thermal gradient
c. With additives
37
 • Types of additives used
 Cementing material: Increase in strength of the soil is achieved by the cementing action of
the additive. Portland cement, line, fly-ash and sodium silicate are examples of such
additives.
 Water proofers: Bituminous materials prevent absorption of moisture. These may be used if
the natural moisture content of the soil is adequate for providing the necessary strength.
 Water retainers: Calcium chloride and sodium chloride are examples of this category.
 Water repellents: Certain organic compounds such as stearates and silicones tend to get
absorbed by the clay particles in preference to water. Thus, they tend to keep off water from
the soil.
 Modifiers and other miscellaneous agents: Certain additives tend to decrease the plasticity
index and modify the plasticity characteristics. Lignin and lignin derivatives are used as
dispersing agents for clays.
• Lime stabilization:
 There are two types of chemical reactions that occur when lime is added to wet soil. The
first is the alteration of the nature of the adsorbed layer through ion exchange of calcium for
the ion naturally carried by the soil, or a change in the double layer on the soil colloids. The
second is the cementing action or pozzolanic action which requires a much longer time.
 Lime generally increases the plasticity index of low-plasticity soil and decreases that of
highly plastic soils; in the latter case, lime tends to make the soil friable and more easily
handled in the field.
 It increases the optimum moisture content and decreases the maximum compacted density;
however, there will be an increase in strength. About 2 to 8% of lime may be required for
coarse-grained soils, and 5 to 10% for cohesive soils.
16. Soil exploration
a. Direct method: test pit, trial pit or trenches
• Test pit: Test pits or trenches are open type or accessible exploratory methods. Soils can be
inspected in their natural condition. The necessary soils samples may be obtained by sampling
techniques and used for ascertaining strength and other engineering properties by appropriate
laboratory tests.
b. Semi-direct method: boring
• Auger boring: ‘Soil auger’ is a device that is useful for advancing a bore hole into the ground.
Augers may be hand-operated or power-driven; the former are used for relatively small depths
(less than 3 to 5 m), while the latter are used for greater depths. The soil auger is advanced by
rotating it while pressing it into the soil at the same time. It is used primarily in soils in which
the bore hole can be kept dry and unsupported. As soon as the auger gets filled with soil, it is
taken out and the soil sample collected.
• Auger and shell boring: If the sides of the hole cannot remain unsupported, the soil is prevented
from falling in by means of a pipe known as ‘shell’ or ‘casing’. The casing is to be driven first
and then the auger; whenever the casing is to be extended, the auger has to be withdrawn,
• Wash boring: Wash boring is commonly used for exploration below ground water table for
which the auger method is unsuitable. This method may be used in all kinds of soils except those
mixed with gravel and boulders. The soil particles collected represent a very disturbed sample
and is not very useful for the evaluation of the engineering properties.
• Percussion boring: A heavy drill bit called ‘churn bit’ is suspended from a drill rod or a cable
and is driven by repeated blows. Water is added to facilitate the breaking of stiff soil or rock.
The slurry of the pulverised material is bailed out at intervals. The method cannot be used in
loose sand and is slow in plastic clay.
• Rotary drilling: This method is fast in rock formations. A drill bit, fixed to the lower end of a
drill rod, is rotated by power while being kept in firm contact with the hole. Drilling fluid or
38
 bentonite slurry is forced under pressure through the drill rod and it comes up bringing the
cuttings to the sur- face. Even rock cores may be obtained by using suitable diamond drill bits.
c. Indirect method: sounding or penetration tests and geophysical methods.
• The Standard Penetration Test (SPT) is widely used to determine the parameters of the soil in-
situ. The test is especially suited for cohesionless soils as a correlation has been established
between the SPT value and the angle of internal friction of the soil.
• Static cone penetration test: Among the field sounding tests the static cone tests in a valuable
method of recording variation in the in-situ penetration resistance of soils, in cases where the
in-situ density is disturbed by boring operations, thus making the standard penetration test
unreliable especially under water. The results of the test are also useful in determining the
bearing capacity of the soil at various depths below the ground level. In addition to bearing
capacity values, it is also possible to determine by this test the skin friction values used for the
determination of the required lengths of piles in a given situation. The static cone test is most
successful in soft or loose soils like silty sands, loose sands, layered deposits of sands, silts and
clays as well as in clayey deposits.
• Dynamic Cone Penetration test is a simple device for probing the soil strata and it has an
advantage over the standard penetration test in that making of a bore hole is avoided. Moreover,
the data obtained by cone test provides a continuous record of soil resistance.
 A cone of apex angle 60º is driven into the soil by blows of freely falling hammer of 65kg,
through a height of 75cm.
 Number of blows for each 100mm penetration is recorded, up to the required depth.
 Number of blows required for 300 mm penetration is recorded as dynamic cone resistance.
𝑁𝑐𝑑 which can be correlated with SPT number N and bearing capacity can be found
empirically.
 It is quick and less expensive test. It helps in identifying the uniformity or the variability of
the sub-soil profile.
• In-situ vane shear test is best suited for the determination of shear strength of saturated cohesive
soils, especially of sensitive clays, susceptible for sampling disturbances. The vane shear test
consists of pushing a four-bladed vane in the soil and rotating it till a cylindrical surface in the
soil fails by shear. The torque required to cause this failure is measured and this torque is
converted to a unit shearing resistance of the cylindrical surface. The test may be conducted
from the bottom of a bore hole or by direct penetration from ground surface.
d. Geophysical methods
• Seismic refraction (MAINS)
 When a shock or impact is made at a point on or in the earth, the resulting seismic waves
travel through the surrounding soil at speeds related to their elastic characteristics. Velocity
is given by
𝐸𝑔
𝑣 = 𝐶√
𝛾
 The magnitude of the velocity is determined and is utilised to identify the material.
 A shock is created and the radiating shock waves are picked up by detectors, called
geophones, placed in a line at increasing distances, d1, d2, ..., from the origin of the shock.
The time required for the elastic wave to reach each geophone is automatically recorded by
a ‘seismograph’.
 Some of the waves, known as direct or primary waves, travel directly from the source along
the ground surface or through the upper stratum and are picked up first by the geophone. If
the sub soil consists of two or more distinct layers, some of the primary waves travel
downwards to the lower layer and get refracted as the surface. If the underlying layer is
denser, the refracted waves travel much faster.

39
  As the distance from the source and the
geophone increases, the refracted waves
reach the geophone earlier than the direct
waves.
 The distance of the point at which the
primary and refracted waves reach the
geophone simultaneously is called the
critical distance which is a function of
the depth and the velocity ratio of the
strata.
 Limitations
o The method cannot be used where a hard-layer overlies a soft layer, because there
will be no measurable refraction from a deeper soft layer.
o Discontinuities such as rock faults or earth cuts, existence of thin layers of varying
materials may also cause misinterpretation of test data.
• Electrical resistivity (MAINS)
 The electrical resistivity method is based on the fact that in soil resistivity differs
sufficiently to permit identification.
 Each soil has its own resistivity depending upon the water content, compaction and
composition
 To determine the resistivity at a site, electrical currents are induced into the ground through
the use of electrodes. Soil resistivity can then be measured by determining the change in
electrical potential between known horizontal distances within the electric field created by
the current electrodes.
 The Wenner configuration with four equally spaced electrodes is simple and is popularly
used. The four electrodes are placed in a straight line at equal distances. A direct voltage,
causing a current of 50 to 100 milliamperes typically, is applied between the outer
electrodes and the potential drop is measured between the two inner electrodes.
𝐸
𝜌 = 2𝜋𝐷
𝐼
 The calculated value is the apparent
resistivity, which is a weighted
average of all material within the
zone created by the electrical field
of the electrodes.
 It is necessary to make a
preliminary trial on known formations, in order to be in a position to interpret the resistivity
data for knowing the nature and distribution of soil formations.
e. Soil sampling
• Types of samples
 Disturbed sample: A disturbed sample is that in which the natural structure of the soil gets
modified partly or fully during sampling.
o Non-representative: Non-representative samples consist of mixture of materials from
various soil or rock strata or are samples from which some mineral constituents have
been lost or got mixed up. Soil samples obtained from auger borings and wash
borings are non-representative samples. These are suitable only for providing
qualitative information such as major changes in subsurface strata.
o Representative: Representative samples contain all the mineral constituents of the
soil, but the structure of the soil may be significantly disturbed. The water content

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 may also have changed. They are suitable for identification and for the determination
of certain physical properties such as Atterberg limits and grain specific gravity.
 Undisturbed sample: is that in which the natural structure and other physical properties
remain preserved.
• Types of samplers
 Soil samplers are classified as ‘thick wall’ samplers and ‘thin wall’ samplers. Split spoon
sampler (or split tube sampler) is of the thick-wall type, and ‘shelby’ tubes are of the thin-
wall type.
 Depending upon the mode of operation, samplers may be classified as the open drive
sampler, stationary piston sampler and rotary sampler.
Open drive It can be of the thick wall type as well as of the thin wall type. The head of the
sampler sampler is provided with valves to permit water and air to escape during driving. The
check valve helps to retain the sample when the sampler is lifted. The tube may be
seamless or may be split in two parts.

Stationary ➢ It consists of a sampler with a piston attached to a long piston rod extending up to
piston the ground surface through drill rods. The lower end of the sampler is kept closed
sampler with the piston while the sampler is lowered through the bore hole.
➢ When the desired elevation is reached, the piston rod is clamped, thereby keeping
the piston stationary, and the sampler tube is advanced further into the soil.
➢ The sampler is then lifted and the piston rod clamped in position. The piston
prevents the entry of water and soil into the tube when it is being lowered, and
also helps to retain the sample during the process of lifting the tube.
➢ The sampler is, therefore, very much suited for sampling in soft soils and
saturated sands.

Rotary Rotary samplers are of the core barrel type (USBR, 1960) with an outer tube provided
sampler with cutting teeth and a removable thin liner inside. It is used for sampling in stiff
cohesive soils

f. Sample disturbance 𝐷𝑐 -inside dia of cutting edge

• Inside clearance 𝐷𝑤 - outside dia of cutting edge
𝐷 −𝐷 𝐷𝑠 -inside dia of sampling tube
 𝐶𝑖 = 𝑠 𝑐 should be 1-3%
𝐷𝑐 𝐷𝑡 - outside dia of sampling tube.
 Inside clearance allows for elastic expansion of the soil as it
enters the tube, reduces frictional drag on the sample from
the wall of the tube, and helps to retain the core.
• Outside clearance
𝐷𝑤 −𝐷𝑡
 𝐶𝑖 = 𝐷𝑡
should be 0-2%
 Outside clearance facilitates the withdrawal of the sample
from the ground.
• Area ratio
2 − 𝐷2
𝐷𝑤 𝑐
𝐴𝑟 = 2 < 10%
𝐷𝑐
 Area ratio is the most critical factor which affects sample disturbance; it indicates the ratio
of displaced volume of soil to that of the soil sample collected. If 𝐴𝑟 is less than 10%, the
sample disturbance is supposed to be small. 𝐴𝑟 may be as high as 30% for a thick wall
sampler like split spoon and may be as low as 6 to 9% for thin wall samplers like Shelby
tubes.
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 • The recovery ratio
𝐿
 𝑅𝑟 = 𝐻
 where, L = length of the sample within the tube, and H = depth of penetration of the
sampling tube. This value should be 96 to 98% for a satisfactory undisturbed sample. This
concept is more commonly used in the case of rock cores.
17. Geosynthetics (MAINS)
a. Classification
Geotextiles These are permeable textiles—woven or non-woven synthetic polymers.

Geogrids These are relatively stiff net-like materials with large open spaces between the
ribs that make up the structure. They can be used to reinforce aggregate layers in
bituminous pavements and for construction of geo-cells for improvement of
bearing capacity.

Geomembranes A continuous membrane—type liner composed of asphaltic, polymeric materials

with sufficiently low permeability so as to control fluid migration.

Geo-composites These are various combinations of geotextiles, geogrids, geomembranes and/or

other materials to serve all the primary functions with better performance.
b. Functions (MAINS)
Fluid A geosynthetic provides fluid transmission when it collects a liquid or a gas and
transmission conveys it towards an outlet within its own plane. Permeability is the key property
of the geosynthetic here.

Filtration A geosynthetic acts as a filter when it allows liquid to pass normal to its own
plane, while preventing most soil particles from being taken away by the liquid
current. Permeability and continuity are the key properties of the geosynthetic here.

Separation A geosynthetic acts as a separator when placed between a fine soil and a coarse
material. It prevents the fine soil and the coarse material from mixing under the
action of repeated applied loads. ‘Continuity’ is the key property of the
geosynthetic here.

Protection A geosynthetic protects a material when it alleviates or distributes stresses and

strains transmitted to the protected material. Two cases may be considered
➢ Surface protection: a geotextile, placed on the soil prevents its surface being
damaged by weather, light traffic, etc.
➢ Interface protection: a geotextile, placed between two materials (such as
asphalt overlay/cracked pavement, or geomembrane/stony ground) from being
damaged by the large stresses or strains imposed by the other material.
Continuity is the key property of the geotextile here.

Reinforcement A geosynthetic can provide tensile strength to a soil through interface shear
strength. It can also act as a tensioned membrane when it is placed between two
materials, its tension balancing the pressure difference between them; this, in
effect, is the reinforcement function of the geosynthetic, the key property being its
tensile strength.

Wrapping Specially fabricated geosynthetics, filled with sand, act as construction elements
using the soil material at the site. This is the wrapping function, the key property
being again the tensile strength.

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