C1 KEY POINTS

C1 Algebra and functions

x x
Surds (i) xy = x× y (ii) = (iii) a x ± b x = (a ± b) x
y y
N.B. In general x± y ≠ x± y

1 a 1 am b
Rationalising Given , multiply by . Given , multiply by
a a a± b am b

am
Indices 1. am × an = am + n 2. = am – n 3. (am)n = amn 4. a0 = 1
an
5. a–n =
1
an
1
6. a n = n
a 7. a n =
m
n
am = ( a)
n
m

Quadratic functions If f(x) = ax2 + bx + c, the discriminant is b2 – 4ac

For f(x) = 0, b2 – 4ac > 0 ⇒ two real, distinct roots, b2 – 4ac = 0 ⇒ two real, equal roots,
b2 – 4ac < 0 ⇒ two unreal roots
Factorising, completing the square, using the formula
− b ± b 2 − 4ac
If f(x) = 0, then x =
2a
Sketching quadratic functions
(a) To find the point of intersection with the y-axis: put x = 0 in y = f(x)
(b) To find the points of intersection with the x-axis: solve f(x) = 0
(c) To find the maximum/minimum point: use completing the square, symmetry or
solve f ´(x) = 0 [This latter method uses C2 techniques]

⎛ 1⎞
Other curves: reciprocal ⎜ y = ⎟ , cubics
⎝ x⎠
Expanding brackets, collecting like tems, factorising
Simultaneous equations (including one linear and one quadratic)
Linear and quadratic inequalities

Transformation Description
⎛0⎞
y = f(x) + a a>0 Translation of y = f(x) through ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝a⎠
⎛ – a⎞
y = f(x + a) a>0 Translation of y = f(x) through ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ 0 ⎠

y = af(x) a>0 Stretch of y = f(x) parallel to y-axis with scale factor a

1
y = f(ax) a>0 Stretch of y = f(x) parallel to x-axis with scale factor
a
C1 Coordinate geometry P (x1, y1) and Q (x2, y2)
y 2 − y1
Gradient of PQ = Distance PQ = ( x 2 − x1 ) 2 + ( y 2 − y1 ) 2
x 2 − x1
Equation of a straight line
(i) Given the gradient, m and the vertical intercept (0, c): y = mx + c
(ii) Given a point P (x1, y1) on the line and the gradient, m: y – y1 = m(x – x1)
y − y1 x − x1
(iii) Given two points P(x1, y1) and Q(x2, y2) on the line: =
y 2 − y1 x 2 − x1
⎛ x1 + x 2 y1 + y 2 ⎞
Mid-point of PQ M ⎜ , ⎟
⎝ 2 2 ⎠
Gradient of line l1 is m1, gradient of line l2 is m2
If line l1 is parallel to line l2, then m1 = m2
If line l1 is perpendicular to line l2, then m1× m2 = –1

C1 Sequences and Series

4
Sigma notation, e.g. ∑r =1
(2r + 5) = 7 + 9 + 11 + 13

un+1 = 3un + 5, n ≥ 1, u1 = –2 The first 5 terms of this sequence are –2, –1, 2, 11 and 38

An arithmetic series is a series in which each term is obtained from the previous term by adding a
constant called the common difference, d
nth term = a + (n – 1)d
n n
Sn = [2a + (n – 1)d] or Sn =
[a + l] where last term l = a + (n – 1)d
2 2
n
Sum of the first n natural numbers: 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + … + n: Sn = (n + 1)
2

C1 Differentiation
dy d2 y
Notation: If y = f(x) then = f ´(x) and = f´´(x)
dx dx 2

dy
y
dx

axn anxn–1 (a is constant)

f(x) ± g(x) f ´(x) ± g´(x)

Equation of tangents and normals: Use the following facts:

dy
(a) Gradient of a tangent to a curve =
dx
(b) The normal to a curve at a particular point is perpendicular to the tangent at that point
(c) If two perpendicular lines have gradients m1 and m2 then m1×m2 = –1
(d) The equation of a line through (x1, y1) with gradient m is y – y1 = m(x – x1)

C1 Integration
ax n +1
∫axn dx = +c provided n ≠ –1 ∫ ( f ´(x) + g ´(x) ) dx = f(x) + g(x) + c
n +1
 C2 KEY POINTS

C2 Algebra and functions

Algebraic division by (x ± a)
Remainder theorem: When f(x) is divided by (x – a), f(x) = (x – a)Q(x) + R where Q(x) is
the quotient and R is the remainder
Factor theorem: If f(a) = 0 then (x – a) is a factor of f(x)

C2 Coordinate geometry
Circle, centre (0, 0) radius r: x2 + y2 = r2
Circle centre (a, b) radius r: (x – a)2 + (y – b)2 = r2
Useful circle facts:
The angle between the tangent and the radius is 90°
Tangents drawn from a common point to a circle are equal in length
The centre of a circle is on the perpendicular bisector of any chord
The angle subtended by a diameter at the circumference is 90°

C2 Sequences and Series

A geometric series is a series in which each term is obtained from the previous term by multiplying
by a constant called the common ratio, r
a(1 − r n ) a
nth term = arn–1, Sn = , S∞ = where |r| < 1.
1− r 1− r

The following expansions are valid for all n ∈ N:

(a + b)n = a n + n C1 a n −1b + n C 2 a n −1b 2 + ... + n C r a n − r b r + ... + b n

n(n − 1) 2 n(n − 1)(n − 2)
(1 + x)n = 1 + nx + n C 2 x 2 + ... + n C r x r + ... + x n = 1 + nx + x + + ... + x n
2! 3!
n!
where nCr =
r!(n − r )!

C2 Trigonometry
a b c
Sine rule = = and ambiguous case
sin A sin B sin C
b2 + c2 − a2
Cosine rule a2 = b2 + c2 – 2bccosA or cosA =
2bc
Area of ∆ABC = ½absinC
1
sinx° = cos(90 – x)°, cosx° = sin(90 – x)°, tanx° =
tan(90° − x)
Graphs of trigonometric functions
sin(–x) = –sinx, cos(–x) = cosx, tan(–x) = tanx
sin30° = cos60° = ½, cos30° = sin60° = 23 , tan30° = 1
3
, tan 60° = 3
1
cos45° = sin45° = 2
, tan45° = 1

Degrees 360° 180° 90° 45° 60° 30° 270° 120° 135° etc
Radians 2π π π
2
π
4
π
3
π
6
3π
2
2π
3
3π
4

Arc length = rθ , Area of sector = ½r2θ (θ in radians)

 (180 – θ)° θ°

S A

T C
(180 + θ)° (360 – θ)°

sin θ
cos2θ + sin2θ = 1, tanθ =
cos θ

C2 Exponentials and Logarithms

If y = ax then logay = x
p
Laws of logarithms: logapq = logap + logaq, loga = logap – logaq, logaxn = n.logax
q
log b x
Other useful results: logax = , loga1 = 0, logaa = 1
log b a

f: x → ax x ∈ R a > 0 (a is constant) y

is an exponential function, e.g. 72x+4 y = ax, a > 0

1

Solve equations of the form ax = b O x

C2 Differentiation
dy d2 y
If = 0 and > 0 the stationary point is a minimum turning point
dx dx 2
dy d2 y
If = 0 and < 0 the stationary point is a maximum turning point
dx dx 2
dy dy
For an increasing function, > 0, for a decreasing function, <0
dx dx
Maxima and minima problems: (a) Find the point at which f´(x) = 0. (b) Find the nature of the
turning point to confirm that the value is a maximum or minimum as required. (c) Make sure that all
parts of the question have been answered (e.g. finding the maximum/minimum as well as the value
of x at which it occurs).

C2 Integration
b
∫ f(x) dx ∫ f ( x) dx = [F( x)]
b
If = F(x) + c then a = F(b) – F(a)
a
b
If y > 0 for a ≤ x ≤ b, then area is given by A = ∫ y dx
a

Trapezium rule
b−a
b

∫ f ( x ) dx ≈
a
1
2 h[y0 + yn + 2(y1 + ... + yn–1)] where yi = f(a + ih) and h =
n