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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

First of all we thank Almighty Allah who brought this moment in our life
when we came in SM DENIM for the internship. It has been a great experience to
work with all of you and we are feeling proud that we can say we have worked in
SM DENIM which is not only one of the best DENIM manufacturer & Exporters in
Pakistan but also all over the world and where the management and the workers
have demonstrated a very good performance in all areas of the business.

SM DENIM is a dynamic organization with professionals loving and

professionals making setup. As it is said “Time Spent in Training is time Well-
spent”. The golden time, which we spend here and the practical, conceptual and
industry- related knowledge, which we gained here will be a milestone in our
professional carrier.

We would like to thank Mr. Bilal Zahid (Manager Operations), who was
always there as a tornado of guidance for us.
Mr. Ali (Asst. Manager Operations), who kept all of the communications
flowing efficiently through this internship.
Mr. S.M.A Tauseef (Manager dyeing), who brilliantly coordinated with
all respects.
Our thanks to Mr. Irfan (Manager Weaving), for being such a nice
person and for sharing his knowledge with us.
Thanks to Mr. Anwaar (Manager Finishing), and Mr. Arshad (Quality
controller) for their assistance.

We are grateful to our class advisor Ms. Saira faisal for arranging this
internship.

We always remember the hospitality we received during our stay at

the SM DENIM. We are privileged to work with experienced personnel, who are
the master of their skill and field. Their ever supporting behavior, kind advice, and
professional approach taught us how to perform tough and critical tasks with
utmost ease.

We have very much enjoyed being amongst wonderful people. We

would like to thank Asif Merchant and his team for embracing us with warm
friendship and hospitality which we received during our stay. We wish each and
every one everlasting progress, success and of course wish SM DENIM a very
prosperous future.

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Preface

All praise is to Allah, Lord of the Worlds, the Beneficent, the Merciful and
every grace of Allah is on His Prophet Muhammad (P.B.U.H), who is always a
source of knowledge and guidance for humanity as a whole.

It is a matter of great satisfaction and pleasure for us to present this

report. This internship report is a part of our Degree programme which is done
during third year of our studies. We chose Denim sector of Textile field as it is a
Shinning, growing and challenging field.

The entire contents of this report are based on our internship in SM

DENIM. Our major emphasis has been on process, machine and product with the
calculations involved. We have included in this internship report the technical as
well as the Mechanical aspects. We moved department wise covering various
aspects. These days of Industrial training enhanced our spirit, courage and
confidence. We also improved our presentation and technical skills.
.

Even though every precaution has been taken, it may be possible that any
mistake(s) is found. We will feel grateful, if it is intimate.

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BRIEF INTRODUCTION OF SM TRADERS LIMITED

Ever since its establishment in 1976 S.M.TRADERS has come a long way in
recognizing itself as one of the leading woven and knitted fabric/garment
manufacturer and Exporter from Pakistan. The company is managed by a team
of highly qualified technical and professional staff, with years of experience in all
phases from procurements of yarn till finalization of orders.

S.M.TRADERS has built its reputation in the world market as a reliable and
quality manufacturer and exporter of denim fabrics, garments & Home Textiles.

Recipient of "Export Merit Trophy" by the Federation of Chamber of Commerce

and Industry of Pakistan numerous times for export performance shows
S.M.TRADERS firm commitment to give the right quality and in time shipment.

S.M.TRADERS is continuously updating its facilities to help with the increasing

consumer demands and has added another feather in its cap by launching
S.M.DENIM.

S.M.TRADERS is a family concern. Mr. Abdul Qadir Merchant is the chairman

and founder of the company. Mr. Shaheen Merchant, Managing Director, the
eldest son gave his father's vision a reality by aggressively marketing the
products all over the world. Backed by his brother Mr. Farokh Merchant,
Production Director, who handles all fabric productions of the company with his
profound technical experience in textiles. Mr. Irfan Merchant, Garments Director,
the youngest brother runs the entire garment division.

New addition to the top brass of the company is Mr. Asif Merchant, son of Mr.
Farokh Merchant, who is managing the entire Denim Division under the expert
guidance of Mr. Shaheen Merchant.

Company’s Vision:
S.M.TRADERS harnesses the synergy of skills and expertise of its member
companies, S.M.DENIM, S.M.GARMENTS and S.M.TEXTILES, in delivering
products of finest quality and is committed to achieving customer satisfaction by
providing quality products and services in a cost effective and environment
friendly manner. In a world where businesses are walking over each other in
order to win the race, S.M.TRADERS believes in fair play and healthy
competition. We practice what we preach and our commitment to our client
remains our fortress

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SM DENIM:

SM DENIM is project of SM Traders, Which is filling colors in the dreams of Mr.

Abdul Qadir Merchant and family. SM Denim is striving for continuous progress
with its dynamic and energetic team. Sayings of SM DENIM about the efforts for
achieving high quality product is that

“Quality that speaks for itself.”

S.M.DENIM is managed by a team of young energetic professionals, producing

superb quality denim from top-notch branded machines.

S.M. DENIM is best described as a high-tech manufacturing facility. Their denim

plant is modern and having latest machines from Switzerland, Germany, china
and Japan, to produce Basic to fancy, light to heavy denim in all qualities ranging
from stretch, ring/open end, ring x ring, cross hatch, chambray, Bradford ,
canvas, rain denim / sluby, reverse weave, regular, oxford etc.

CERTIFICATIONS:

As stated above that SM DENIM` s vision is to work for Quality and customer
satisfaction. For this purpose SM DENIM is certified by ISO 9002 the widely
appreciated Quality Management System in the world. SM DENIM is also WRAP
certified.

QUALITY ASSURANCE

The Quality Assurance department carefully analyzes the specifications provided

by the client against the final product. SM DENIM supports an extensive in-house
quality criterion against which it judges all its merchandise.
The SM DENIM laboratory is stocked with testing and laboratory scale sampling.
The dyestuffs and chemicals used are all imported from ISO certified European
and American manufacturers. They are under the set limit of the Oeko tex (direct
skin contact) and are Azo free (as per German Consumer Goods Ordinance)
criteria.
A range of standard testing machines is installed, to help check the product's
properties during process and preparation of the final lab report for buyers.

QUALITY CONTROL

The Quality Control Department plays a vital role in maintaining the reputation of
the SM DENIM products in the international market. Armed with strict quality
control procedures, the SM DENIM management places strong emphasis on the
need for constant improvement in the standard of the Denim products. Every

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stage of the production line is subjected to intensive quality control measures in

accordance with international standards.

QUALITY POLICY:
We are at S.M traders make a difference by:
• Striving for increasing capacity in quantity with containing improvement of
quality.
• Developing a culture of team work in the organization.
• Developing and maintaining system to meet the customers requirements
including competitive price and on time delivers.

SAFETY HEALTH AND ENVIRONMENT:

In the changing scenario of the world Trade and to achieve quality policy
objectives, we believe that compliance of safety, health and environment
standards is essential to maintain a good working environment and better
customer satisfaction.

AN INSIGHT OF SM DENIM:

S.M.DENIM is situated at Plot Number D-11 of Sindh industrial and Trading

Estate (S.I.T.E industrial area) Karachi.

There are two beautiful buildings in the plot. One for the Denim Section and other
for Garments section, Head Office of the organization is situated in Denim
section.
Brief information about the organization is as follows:

¾ Total area of the organization is 2.8 acres.

¾ More than 1700 different types of fabric qualities have been made.
¾ Total number of employee is about 350 in Denim section.
¾ Suppliers: local Market groups (Gulistan, Sapphire, Latif , Siddique sons,
Azgard 9 etc)
¾ Exports are the 60% of their production to Turkey, Bangladesh, Dubai,
U.S.A.
¾ Departments: warping, Yarn dyeing, weaving, finishing, QC Lab inspection
(other than garments).
¾ Production: 850,000m / month finished fabric
¾ Power generation plant: 2.2 Mega Watt per hour
¾ Reverse Osmosis plant: 125000 us gallons per day.
¾ Boilers: One of 10 tons per hour and second of 1 ton per hour. Second boiler is
run with the hot exhaust air of generation. It is also called Co-generation.

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HISTROY OF DENIM:

In fashion history, jeans and denim history continues to baffle. No one truly
knows the perfect answer to where jeans began. As so often happens fashions
often emerge together in various parts of the world and are the result of the
sudden availability of a new fabric, cloth, dye or technique.

But we do know that the phrase denim jeans is thought to derive from several
sources. No one is totally certain where the words come from. A majority of
source books suggest that denim derives from the English translation of the
South of France French phrase 'serge de Nîmes'. Denim fashion history is thus
associated with Serge de Nimes.

It may well be that the fabric which was made in France also had a version
made locally in England and was called by the same name of denim in the
same way that Cheddar cheese is called cheddar all over the world. The Serge
de Nîmes was originally a wool silk mix, twill weave. Certainly by the 19th
century in England denim had a white warp and a navy woof (weft). Denim was
considered a hard wearing sturdy fabric, ideal for heavy laboring.

When talking about denim the name Levi´ s is one of the first to be mentioned.
Levi´ s which stands for Levi Strauss is normally called the forefather of jeans.

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When tracing back the history of these trousers to its origins it is true that Levi
Strauss played an important role concerning their development and distribution
but he had also other inventive business partners. Now the question is: who has
sewn the first jeans and where does the history of this „blue phenomenon”
begin?

Levi Strauss in the year 1860 In 1847, at the age of 17 Levi Strauss left his
Frankonian native country in Germany and emigrated to New York together with
his family. The members of the Strauss family were capable and skilful
businessmen and ran a pedlary at that time. So Levi and his brother followed
their parents´ footsteps and also became peddlers. When his great gold rush
began in 1850, however, he decided to take part and sent over to San Francisco
in California. He took with him a spade, a pick hammer and a bale of fabric out of
brown sail cloth which was meant to put up a tent. This did not happen, however:
Levi found out that the gold diggers´ hard work in the mines made their clothes
get worn out very quickly and he produced stout working trousers out of the sail
cloth he had taken with him which he called „half overalls“. When he continued
producing these trousers he used cheap cotton fabrics coming from Genova. At
that time Genova was a flourishing place where cotton was exported all over the
world. The name of the town of Genova was modified into „jeans” in the
American slang. At the end of the sixties of the 19th century he replaced the
brown sail cloth by an indigo-dyed, wear resistant cotton fabric coming from
France.
The name of this fabric was „Serge de Nimes“. Serge is the French
Expression for a combined twill and Nimes is the French town where the
fabric comes from. The fabric´s name Serge de Nimes was quickly turned
into „Denim“ in American colloquial language.
By applying this indigo-dyed combined twill the first jeans out of Denim was
almost born - or better sewn. The only thing missing were the famous metallic
vets. The application of metal rivets for jeans is due to the Polish emigrant Jacob
W. Davis, also called Jacob Youphes. Although the working trousers out of
Denim were stout they had a tendency to get worn out where the pockets were.
Jacob Youphes mended the trousers with a needle and thread. One day a
customer inspired him to repair the torn off pockets with the help of rivets. From
then on Jacob Youphes made a lot of money out of repairing trousers. Since he
was worried that his invention might be stolen he wanted to apply for a patent.
For doing so, however, he needed a financially strong partner. For that reason he
addressed the manufacturer of the trousers that he mended, Mr. Levi Strauss.
Levi Strauss agreed and together they applied for a patent to strengthen the
pockets of the trousers and Levi Strauss acquired a share of 50%. This patent
was written down in 1873 and can thus be called the true year of birth. Under the
management of Levi Strauss the jeans were now produced in series. Since the
trousers were so stout not only the gold diggers liked them but which is not
surprising in America?

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The cowboys appreciated them very much, too. When the trousers were applied
as working trousers for cowboys, however they got worn out at the crotch tip.
This was no problem for Levi Strauss and Co. since they reinforced the trousers
again with metal rivets at the crossing point of the four seams at the crotch tip.

The metal rivet at the crotch had to be removed quickly since the way of living of
the cowboys had not been taken into consideration. The cowboys used to repair
their meals at the campfire and then they spent the rest of the evening sitting
round the campfire. When the cowboy approached the fire too much at night,
however he quickly learned the difference between the physical conductivity of
cotton and metal.
Those wearing these trousers were then suddenly startled out of their sleep. By
knowing very well the need for such a stout garment and thanks to the good
cooperation with Jacob Youphes as well as his very good instinct for marketing
Levi Strauss is still an important brand name in today’s textile industry.

About 1947 denim made a break-away from work clothing image, chiefly in the
area of sportswear and rainwear and an occasional appearance in high fashion
collections as a "different-looking" evening dress.

Jeans fashion history was truly made in the 1950s when film stars wore it in
movies that the teenagers of the day followed with avid interest.

For many years jeans were only used as work wear clothes, but by the 1940s
they were considered leisure wear in America. Once pop and film stars like
Elvis Presley, James Dean, and Marlon Brando sported them they became
desirable internationally in the 1950s and are associated with rock and roll and
pop music. Later in the 1960s, jean brands old and new were worn universally
in the western world.

1970 American youth adopted denim as their favorite fabric. Part of a "back to
nature" movement that emphasized ecology and the natural denim being a fabric
created from a natural fiber was a primary factor.

Since 1960 the jeans business has undergone an explosive transformation, from
a source of tough, cheap clothing for cowboys, blue-collar workers and penniless
youth into a fashion conscious market for a widening mass of people of almost all
ages.

Substantial growth in overseas sales of American jeans and denim. Exports of

American-made blue jeans grew. Overseas manufacturers of jeans also grew.
Production of indigo dyed denim started in Europe on an industrial level in 1972.

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Spreading of jeans fashions in the 1970’s and doubling of denim capacity in U.S.
led to the onslaught of imports. From 1976 to 1979 U.S. imports of denim into
Europe enjoyed penetration levels between 33% and 42%.

European textile industry saw in denim, an opportunity to restructure itself into a

more capital intensive high technology industry, thus becoming more competitive
against imports from lower-cost countries. From 1972 to 1976 capacities grew
from approximately 20 million square meters to 130 million. All mills were
basically running at capacity. It was a period of worldwide shortage of denim
when demand was substantially greater than capacity.

The 1976/7 fashion element subsided in Europe and U.S. Return to specialist
jean manufacturer producing basic jeans, with relative little fashion styling. The
introduction of "baggy" jeans – originated in Italy where previous shortage led to
youth wearing any size jeans available.

Since 1978 specialized denim manufacturers re-established positions mainly in

terms of quality.

Indigo denim first produced at Yarraville during 1965 on a narrow width Slasher
dyeing machine designed and built on the area. This dyeing method has now
been entirely replaced by the commissioning of the Morrison Rope Dyeing
Machine on July 4th, 1980. Dyeing capacity 15 to 16,000,000 square meters of
denim per annum are possible on this new Morrison dyeing Machine.

By the 1980s ripped, frayed and torn jeans were a normal sight. Colored jeans
from white through to pastels were also popular as were stonewashed blue
jeans. In the 80s, designer jeans with names like Gloria Vanderbilt, Calvin Klein
and Armani among so many fashion designers became the designer label jeans
to be seen in. Stone washed jeans became a must.

By the 1990s black jeans were very popular for a while and jeans in general
were seen a lot in the early 1990s. But shades of blue are always loved and
sometimes the darkest shade is high fashion and sometimes the most washed
out faded pairs become the hottest. Colored jeans of all shades made an
appearance.

In 2000 designers were crystal beading and silver or gold spraying jeans amid
tears, frayed slashes, and fur and feather decoration. Denim was hot yet again
and used to make everything from footwear, jackets, bags, basque corsets to
jeweled cuffs.

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WARPING
In general terms, warping is transferring many yarns from a creel of single-end
packages forming a parallel sheet of yarns wound onto a beam or a section
beam.
The warp beam that is installed on weaving machine is called the weaver’s
beam. A weaver’s beam can contain several thousand ends and for different
reasons it is rarely produced in one operation.

There are four types of warping, which are as follows

1. Direct Warping
2. Indirect or Sectional Warping
3. Ball Warping
4. Draw Warping

Direct Warping
In direct warping, the yarns are withdrawn from the single-end yarn packages on
the creel and directly wound on a beam.
Direct warping is used in two ways:
a) It can be used to directly produce the weaver’s beam in a single operation.
This is suitable for strong yarns that do not require sizing and when the
number of warps on the warp beam is relatively small. This is also called
direct beaming.
b) It can also be used to make smaller, intermediate beams called warper’s
beams. These smaller beams are combined later at the slashing stage to
produce the weaver’s beam. This process is called beaming.

Indirect or Sectional Warping

In Indirect warping, a section beam is produce first. It is also called band warping
or drum warping. The section beam is tapered at one end. Warp yarn is wound
on the beam in sections, starting with the tapered end of the beam. Each section
has multiple ends that are traversed together slowly during winding along the
length of the section to form the angle. Due to the geometry of the yarn sections,
the last section on the beam will have a tapered end that will make the whole
yarn on the beam stable. It is important that each layer on the beam contain the
same number of yarns. The same length of yarn is wound on each section.
After all the sections on the beam are wound completely, then the yarn on the
beam is wound on to a regular beam with flanges, before slashing. This process
is called rebeaming.

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Ball Warping
Ball Warping is mainly used in manufacturing of denim fabrics. The warp yarns
are wound on a ball beam in the form of a tow for indigo dyeing. After the dyeing
process, the tow is separated and wound on a beam. This stage is also called
long chain beaming or re-beaming.

Draw Warping

Draw Warping is combining the drawing of filament yarns with heat setting and
warping processes to achieve uniform stretching and heating for improved dye
uniformity, end to end. It is used for weaving of thermoplastic yarns

WARPING IN SM DENIM:

The warping section of the S.M.DENIM is working under the Manager of dyeing
and warping Mr.S.M.A.Tauseef. AG, CH-9240 UZWIL BENINGER 2002 warping
machine with v-creel is used there with a daily production of approx 35,000-
40,000m.of yarn cotton of both ring and open end spinning.
The department is connected with dyeing section directly and working 24 hrs. R
&D department inspects the cones which is converted in beams of required
length and forwarded to dyeing section.

BEN DIRECT:
MACHINE SPECIFICATIONS
Model: AG, CH-9240 UZWIL BENINGER 2002
Count: technical count of both ring and open end spinning.
Machine s peed: 1000m/min 1200 m/min.
Pressure of yarn tension: 5 bar
Maximum no of beams: 14 on one grill
Total cone capacity: 640
Maximum length of yarn can run: 28600m
Pressure of drum: 600daN

COMPONENTS OF MACHINE
• Creel
• Rods
• Chain System
• Control Devices
• Sensors
• Head stock
• Expansion Comb
• Dust and fly accumulation unit

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• Showering assembly

Creel

At the creel the yarn packages are placed. The machine have travelling package
V-creels. The max creel capacity is 640 cones on one end and 725 cones on the
other. When one end is on working then the cones for next lot are installed on
inner ends. After the one end’s stock ends then the creel is moved to other side.
Capstan tensioners are installed at the creel. Guide rods are installed at the
creel.

COMPARISON OF H AND V CREEL

H-CREEL V-CREEL
Parallel warping is used for V-creel is used for only in
sectional warping as well as for direct warping.
direct warping.
Suitable for comparatively low Suitable for high speed yarn
speed warping. warping.
Needs proper yarn guides. No need of yarn guide
Provide low tension on whole Provide uniform yarn tension
beam. across the whole beam.

No free yarn from creel to the Free yarn run from creel to the
warping machine because proper warping machine.
yarn guides are required.
More time consumable because of Less time consumable.
low speed.
More space is consumed. Less space is consumed.

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In indirect warping, a constant Surface friction drive and

speed drive is generally required to variable speed drive is
provide approximately uniform yarn commonly used to attain the
speed on the surface of the beam. uniform yarn speed.
H-creel has a wide range of V-creel has a low range of
package change system. Example: package change. Example:
with reversible package, with reversible frames, reversible
unrolling draw off, with fixed frames with automatic knotter,
package frames, with package and with travelling package.
trucks, with swiveling package
frames.

Rods:
Steel rods in creel frame for yarn support and guidance also important for yarn
tension.

Chain system:
Chain system is connected with motor. Use to rotate the creel frame in cone
changing process. There are two sides of frame one is in working and second
side is stationary till the filling of new cones. Proper oil lubrication is maintained in
the system.

Control Devices

Warp yarns are threaded through capstan tensioners and stop motions at the
creel. These tensioners are provided in order to provide necessary tension.
When the machine starts running it remain closed for a little time in order to
straightening of yarns. After the machine comes in running they open
automatically to provide tension.

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SENSORS:
A set of ten sensors on each assembly is provided on BEN DIRECT. Where as in
SM Denim only five cones are used on each assembly so five sensors are
installed

Headstock:

At the headstock, the warper’s beam is installed for winding. The maximum beam
width is 2200mm. A guide roller guides the yarns to the warper’s beam. A
pressing roller presses the warp sheet on the warper’s beam for winding with
proper tension.

The yarn build-up is determined by the tension of the warp threads and the
press roller force. Uniform thread tension from the middle of the beam to the
outside, i.e. from the front to the rear ends in the creel, must be assured. The
press roller must ensure compact winding and absolute cylindricity.

The first requirement for non-crossed ends is precision thread guidance with
minimal free thread lengths from zig-zag comb to beam.
It must be possible to match the width of the thread sheet exactly to the beam
width to avoid errors at the flanges.

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The presser roll is of hard paper and has strong end rings to prevent damage.
The increasing yarn diameter on the beam forces the press roller back against
the resistance of the pre-set pressing force. Thanks to this indirect pressing
action the winding is always perfectly cylindrical. Upon braking, the press roller is
immediately swung away hydraulically. All friction between roll and yarn is
avoided.

The standard equipment is intended for back beams with 40° toothed internal
taper. The teeth ensure exact centering as well as non-slip drive and braking.
The machine can also be configured to accommodate journal beams.

To avoid rolled-in threads, in the event of a thread break the direct warper must
be able to be stopped in a short distance, even at the highest speeds and with a
fully wound beam. This is performed by hydraulically operated disc brakes
mounted to the both sides.

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The low working height facilitates access to the comb and thread sheet. For large
flange diameters there is an optional lowerable platform available.

Expansion Comb

From the creel, the yarns are passed through the expandable zigzag comb. The
required warper’s beam width required can be set with the help of this comb.

Simple insertion of the threads into the comb. The stepped comb is moved apart
to simplify laying in the ends. The lateral alignment of the comb on the beam and

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the setting to the exact warp width are motor-driven. The horizontal comb
movement guarantees uniform yarn build-up on the beam. The traverse can be
set steplessly. Due to the vertical movement, the life of the comb is increased.
.

Dust and Fly Accumulation Unit

ON Ben Direct, a dust and fly accumulation unit is installed at the headstock,
which sucks dust, fluff and fly and prevent the warper’s beam from them.

Showering Assembly

A showering assembly is provided on the machine which creates humidity and

showers water in order to minimize yarn breakages and flying of dust in the
atmosphere.

PROCEDURE OF WARPING:
The creel stand has maximum capacity of five cones per stand.
The yarn from the cones is unwounded and passes from rod by cross wound,
holed by a catcher guided to the tensioning zone when cone rotates
anticlockwise. There are three types of tension in warping i.e. catcher tension,
rod tension, and sacker tension. Magnetic tensioner is used for yarn tension.
Then the yarn comes to the winding zone or headstock. Combs straighten the
yarns towards pressure drum, which supports beam, and yarns in an alignment
so that each and every yarn end can wound separately. Static charges due to
friction of yarns on metal surface cause static charges, which are removed
through an anti static device. Then the yarn is wounded on beam in this way for a
required length if beam is changed after one filling of beam then knotting of yarns
is made. Similarly if cones are finished on one frame side then trolley system of
cone changing is used in this way chains rotates the whole frame of empty side
and new filled side of frame is forwarded again knotting is done between the new
cones yarn and already winded yarn. Extra yarn is then removed through cutting.
Sensors sense any type of yarn breakage and in case of yarn breakage knotting
is done.

WARPING PLAN
The warper gets the required no of ends and the number of beams from the
weaving department and then he made the warping plan that how to complete
that task whether on one creel or on more no. of creels.
Some examples are given below to show the concept of warping plans using one
creel and two creels.
For example;
If,
No. of ends = 1080
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No. of beam = 4
Count = 10/s
No. of cones in one bag = 16
No. of warper's beams with no. of ends on each = ?
Length per beam = ?
No. of Bags of 100 lbs = ?

Plan for one Creel

Then,
The total no. of ends on the weavers beam = 1080 x 4 = 4320 ends

Cone wt. = bag wt. / no. of cones in bag

Cone wt = 100 / 16 = 6.25 lbs

Length of yarn on one cone = cone wt. In lbs x count x 768.1

Length of yarn on one cone = 6.25 x 10 x 768.1 = 48006 m

lessen the length up to 1 % because of variation in yarn length among

different cones
length of yarn on one cone = 47600 m

no. of ends x no. of beams = total no. of ends

617 x 6 = 3702
618 x 1 = 618
4320 ends

so, 7 warper's beams

i.e. 6 beams of 617 ends and
1 beam of 618 ends

Length / Beam = length of yarn on one cone / no. of beams

Length / Beam = 47600 / 7 = 6800 m / beam

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Bags required = No. of ends on warper beam / no. of cones in one bag
Bags required = 618 / 16 = 39 bags approx.

For example;
If,
No. of ends = 1140
No. of beams = 4
Count = 10/s
No. of cones in one bag = 24
No. of warper's beams with no. of ends on each = ?
Length per beam = ?
No. of Bags of 100 lbs = ?

Plan for two Creel

The total no. of ends on the weavers beam = 1140 x 4 = 4560 ends

Cone wt. = bag wt. / no. of cones in bag

Cone wt = 100 / 24 = 4.16 lbs

Length of yarn on one cone = cone wt. In lbs x count x 768.1

Length of yarn on one cone = 4.16x 10 x 768.1 = 31952 m

lessen the length up to 1 % because of variation in yarn length among

different cones
length of yarn on one cone = 51600 m

no. of ends x no. of beams = total no. of ends

570 x 8 = 4560 ends

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so, 8 warper’s beams 0f 570 ends each

No. of beams per creel = no. of warper’s beam / no. of creels

No. of beams per creel = 8 / 2 = 4

Length / Beam = length of yarn on one cone / no. of beams per creel
Length / Beam = 31600 / 4 = 7950 m / beam

Bags required = No. of ends on warper beam X no. of creels / no. of cones in
one bag
Bags required = 570 X 2 / 24 = 48 bags approx.

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D
E
N
I
M

D
Y
E
I
N
G

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DYEING

Dyeing is a process in which we impart colour into the fabric. All commercial
textile dyeing processes take place by the application of a solution or a
dispersion of the dyes to the textile material followed by some type of fixation
process. The dye solution or dispersion is almost always in an aqueous medium.
A major objective of the fixation step is normally to ensure that the coloured
textile exhibits satisfactory fastness to subsequent treatment in aqueous wash
liquors.

Dyeing is mainly depends on the type of fabric, structure of fabric and the
properties of dyes.

CLASSIFICATION OF DYES

For our convenience we make classes of dyes, due to these classes the
application of dyes is much easier. The classifications of dyes are as follows:

• Direct Dyes
• Reactive Dyes
• Disperse Dyes
• Sulphur Dyes
• Vat Dyes

DIRECT DYES

Direct dyes have been used to dye cellulose for over 100 years. Because of the
simplicity of application and great choice of products available, direct dyes are a
popular dye class. Direct dyes ranges from moderate to poor in wash fastness.
Light fastness varies from poor to excellent depending on the particular dye.
Direct dyes depend on secondary forces such as hydrogen bonds and vander
waals forces to bond with cellulose fibres. Since secondary forces are relatively
weak. Therefore, direct dye molecules have relatively high molecular weights,
typically 400 to 1200.
The great majority of direct dyes are azo structures.

REACTIVE DYES

Reactive dyes contain groups that react with the hydroxyl groups in cellulose.
The reaction between a reactive dye and the fibre produces a covalent bond. By
their nature reactive dyes also react with water. Dye which reacts with the fibre is

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said to be “fixed” to the fibre. Dye which reacts with water is said to be
“hydrolyzed”.

Fixation Reaction

Cell – CH2 – OH + DYE – X Cell – CH2 – O – DYE + HX

Cellulose reactive dye dyed fibre acid

X=reactive group

Hydrolysis reaction

H – O – H + DYE – X DYE – OH + HX

Dye molecules which react with the fibre and become fixed have excellent
fastness to washing because of the high strength of the covalent bond. Dye
molecules which are hydrolyzed may be weakly attached to the fibre and if not
washed out at the end of the dye cycle have very poor wash fastness.

DISPERSE DYES

The disperse dye class is so named because these dyes are almost insoluble in
water and are used as finely divided aqueous dispersion. Disperse dyes can be
applied to nylon, cellulose acetate, acrylics and occasionally other fibres, but the
major consumption is for dyeing of polyester. Disperse dyes comprises the only
dye class generally acceptable for dyeing of polyester and cellulose acetate.
Wash fastness and light fastness of disperse dyes is generally good. Some
disperse dyes hydrolyze at high temperature especially under alkaline conditions.
Therefore, dyeing with disperse dyes is virtually always done using slightly acidic
conditions.

SULPHUR DYES

Sulphur dyes are widely used on cotton mainly because they are economical to
use. They have good to excellent wash fastness and good light fastness in dark
shades. Light fastness of pale shades is poor. Sulphur dyes are usually dull in
shade since the molecular structures are complex. As a class, the sulphur dyes
are not resistant to chlorine containing bleaches.

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VAT DYES

Vat dyes are mainly on cellulosic fibres, but some can be applied to protein
fibres. They usually have outstanding colourfastness properties. Vat dyes are
more expensive and difficult to apply than other classes for cellulose such as
directs sulphurs, and reactive.

Indigo is a special case in the vat dye class. Indigo is attractive for its pleasing
blue colour and for the unique fading characteristics of garment dyed with it.
Vat dyes are characterized by the presence of a keto group. Vat dyes in keto
form are water insoluble pigments.

DENIM DYEING:

The classical jeans was produced out of indigo-dyed Denim fabric. The special
character of this fabric – only the warp thread is dyed – makes it necessary to
carry out dyeing in yarn form. The yarns applied for Denim were exclusively
produced on ring spinning machines in former times. The development of OE
yarns – by applying smaller rotors with a spinning speed of up to 200 m/min - has
led to the application of OE rotor yarns both for warp and weft. The yarns applied
for weaving must be of high quality: a high fiber for strength, regularity as well as
a small part of short-stapled cotton fibres belong to the basic features of the
denim yarn. For regular jeans qualities the warp yarns are spun in a fineness of
50 to 90 tex, for the weft yarn the fineness ranges are mainly 75 to 120 tex. If
Denim is made out of Tencel or Modal especially for jeans shirts the finenesses
are up to 25 tex.

Indigo, sulphur and indanthrene are mainly used in the dyeing process. Two
methods are applicable for continuous dyeing with indanthrene dyes: rapid
dyeing and vat dyeing. While processing the basic colored denim, reactive dyes
are used and fixed with hot caustic soda solution. The dyeing process is mainly
influenced by the dyestuff characteristics, dyeing temperature and necessary
chemicals used in the process. Indigo dye is the most popular choice as it has
good depth of shade and suitable rubbing and washing fastness.

When cotton yarn is dyed with indigo, it leaves a ring-dyeing effect, because of
which the outer layer of warp yarn is coated with indigo, and the core of the yarn
remains undyed. This gives the denim garment a unique ‘faded look’ and a rich
blue shade after repeated use and wash. Originally, the warp yarns or ends were
put through the dye bath side by side to form a sheet of yarn, which passed
continuously through several dye baths, squeeze rollers or airing sequences.
However, if there were breaks in the yarn (and there would be, as each yarn had
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to take the tension of being pulled through these processes virtually on its own),
the dyeing process had to be stopped. The yarns would be then mended, or else
it would lead to very bad tangling. These stoppages would in turn cause large
shade variations, and the yarn breaks would show up as bad faults in the fabric.
Now, an infinitely more efficient system has been introduced.

Special attention shall be paid here to Indigo, the „king of dyestuffs“since

it plays an important role in obtaining the jeans effect. Indigo belongs to the
category of water-insoluble dyestuffs. It was first mentioned in a book 13 BC; at
that time the name Indian blue indicated the country the color came from. It is
said to have been used for dyeing in India and China 2000 years BC already.
The Indigo plant is used for preparing Indigo

Indigo tinctoria L.

This plant came to Europe in the 16th century via India and gradually replaced the
woad which was one of the most important dyeing plants up to this time.
Only the leaves were used for good qualities whereas the leaves together with
the stalks were applied for normal qualities. In a vat filled with water and partially
with human fermented urine as alkali donor stems and leaves were exposed to a
putrefactive process. During this putrefactive process hydrogen was created by
means of micro-organisms which, as a reduction agent, transformed the dyestuff
contained in the Indigo plant into a water-soluble form.

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When this process was over the whole mass was filled into a liquid where the
fermented mass was stirred with poles. The reason for doing so was to transform
the Indigo into its water insoluble form again by air oxidation. In a last step the
water-insoluble dyestuff particles could then deposit on the bottom of a stationary
vat.
Then the liquid standing above was drained and what was left was a thin mash
which was dried in the open air and was put on the market in pressed or in
powder form

As shown in figure tading form of Indigo at that time, approx. 9 cm length of

edges and 163 g in weight.
When looking at these methods one can easily imagine that the reduction of
Indigo was considered to be an evil-smelling trade.

In 1880 Adolf von Baeyer succeeded in carrying out the first synthetic production
of Indigo. In the year 1897 the “Badische Anilin- und Sodafabrik“in Ludwigshafen
-hich is nowadays called BASF - was able to carry out an industrial-scale
production of the Indigo dyestuff for the first time. A few years later this synthetic
dyestuff replaced the indigo coming from British-India almost completely.
As was already mentioned Indigo is a dyestuff insoluble in water. In order to be
able to apply it on cotton it must be transformed into a water-soluble form. Similar
to the former production of Indigo this is done by reducing the dyestuff (ill. 4). In
practice this is nowadays carried out with sodium dithionite or hydroxiacetone in
the alkaline range.

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simplified description of the reduction/oxidation of Indigo In former times dyeing

with Indigo was carried out in wood or metal vats, normally in rope form.

Indigo sample dyer As very clearly visible on the above picture, at the bottom
side of the rope the water-soluble Leuco form of the indigo is yellowish and on
the side of the rope oxidized with air the indigo blue can be seen again.

Nowadays, yarn dyeing with indigo is done continuously. Here the various
dyeing processes with different concentrations of chemicals as well as the

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subsequent yarn sizing exert an influence on the quality and the appearance of
the ready fabric. There are three processes in the practice for continuous dyeing:
• · Rope Dyeing
• · Slasher or Sheet Dyeing
• · Loop Dyeing

ROPE DYEING:
Indigo Rope Dyeing When dyeing according to the rope dyeing or cable dyeing
method.350 - 400 warp threads are bound on the ball warper to very thick cables
of 10 000 - 15 000 m length. On the continuous dyeing installation, 12 to 36
cables are led side by side, wetted, dyed and dried after the dyeing process on
cylinders and put into cans. Then the cables are dissolved to warps on the long
chain beamer. The warps are added to the sizing machine, sized and then led
together to warp depending on the total numbers of threads.
In practice, this method has proven to be very good through obtaining an
optimum indigo dyeing. However it is important that the cables have a constant
tension in order to avoid warp stripes. The disadvantage compared to other
methods is that yarn breakages do occur more often.

Size of the dyeing unit is between 60 - 80 m. Normally, 6 dyeing vats are in use.
There are nevertheless variations with 3 to 8 dyeing vats.

SLASHER DYEING:
Indigo Sheet or Double Sheet Dyeing (Slasher Dyeing).When dyeing according
to the sheet dyeing method, instead of cables the warp threads are fed to the
machine parallel next to each other. These are much smaller compared to the
rope dyeing machines. Another advantage is that the cables don’t need to be
open after dyeing.

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Moreover, each yarn wets much faster and in this way reduces the dipping and
wetting times during dyeing. All in all, each thread has a larger surface
compared to a dyeing cable and this requires somewhat more hydrosulphite to
prevent a premature oxidation of the indigo.

Whereas during rope and sheet dyeing the yarns are always led in succession to
the dyeing baths, the fabric of the loop dye method is led several times through
the same dyeing bath. The machine is then much shorter and the hydrosulphite
consumption is lower. Depending on the number of dyed passages and the
concentration of indigo in the dyeing vats, different dyeings of the yarn.

The dyeing methods described here do not allow a total penetration of the
dyestuff during the short dyeing time and give the desired and necessary
ring dyeing important for the jeans effect.

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This is Fiber cross-section of a yarn dyed with Indigo

The sizing process follows the dyeing process of the yarn; this is already visible
by the machine sequences and is necessary to stabilize the warp thread against
the high mechanical stress while the weft thread is being fed. For sizing the warp,
PVA, CMC and acrylate sizes are used besides starch-containing products.

DIFFERERENCE BETWEEN SLASHER AND ROPE DYEING

ROPE DYEING SLASHER DYEING

Warp yarns are assembled on the Warp yarns are directly wound on a
ball warper to form a rope. beam in the form of a sheet.
Ropes are drawn through dyeing Dyeing is done in sheet form
range side by side.
After dyeing they are dried on a After dyeing the warp sheet is dried on
drum drier and deposited in cans. the same machine in continuous
The ends are spread out on long process by drying cylinders and then
chain beamer Or on a rebeamer, sizing is done on the same machine
and the yarn sheet is wound onto and after drying it is wound on a
warp beams. These beams are weaver beam
then taken to sizing. After sizing
they are dried and assembled on
the weaving beam.

Good depth of shade is achieved Depth of shade is not good

In rope dyeing we have very high In Slasher dyeing productivity is less
productivity but the limitation is that it is but it is feasible for short lots.

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very expensive for short lots.

It can only run for coarse yarn as the It can run for fine yarns too
tension on rope breaks the yarn
Time consuming processes are Rebeaming is not required and sizing is
rebeaming and then sizing done after dyeing.
As the dye bath is less exposed to air Setting up or stabilization of the dye
so dye is affected less. baths is affected faster.
The oxidation time is greater for fixation
The immersion and oxidation times are
much shorter
The wetting time is greater and so dye Owing to the paralleled warp threads,
is applied uniformly the wetting process is shorter and a
wetting trough may be adequate.
The rope dyeing machine is much The sheet dyeing machine is smaller
expensive than Slasher. than a rope dyeing machine, which
means that the prime costs are lower
Rope opening is avoided Warp sheet entanglement is a danger

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DYEING IN SM DENIM:

In SM DENIM dyeing of warp beam dyeing is carried out by Slasher. Normally it

is said that in Slasher dyeing shade variation is a normal practice but one who
achieve the minimum variation is market leader. Because it is very much
economical than rope dyeing. So in less investment there is margin of great
profit.

SM DENIM` s Dyeing Manager Mr. S.M.A. Tauseef claims that he is the only one
in Asia who is dyeing at a speed of 40 m/min and getting satisfactory results.
Slasher is normally operated at a speed of 30 m/min.

Dyeing department is present on first floor. There are two working shifts in the
department each of 12 hours a day.

One Slasher of Sucker Muller Hacoba, model no. 2002 is installed at dyeing
floor.
Input of dyeing department is beams from warping department. Output of dyeing
department is dyed warp sheet beams which are forwarded to weaving
department.

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In the first half of 1970s, a second type of dyeing machine was

developed in Europe, on which in stead of ropes, the warp threads are processed
lying parallel to each other. Sizing directly follows dyeing. This type of dyeing
machine is also called a ‘slasher’ like sizing machine.

The salient features of the machine include:

• Optimum dye fastness and uniform dyeing.

• Perfect yarn and warp control from the package to the loom.
• High dye batch stability ensured by cross flow circulation and
• Continuous metering.
• Reproducible computerized process management.
• Multi color capability achieved by flexible process engineering.
• Individual warp pre-treatment.
• Environmentally compatible, due to low consumption of dyes and
chemicals
• User friendly design with low maintenance requirement.
• Optimum sizing and residual stretch.
• High output.
• Synchronized motors capable of running the machine at a constant
speed.
• Easy drainage of liquor.
• Automatic dosing system.
• Re-storage of used dye liquor.
• Drying option after pre-washing, dyeing and sizing.
• Storage of 150 m long yarn sheet on accumulator.
• Automatic and manual controls of pressure of padders with
electronic load cells.
• Quick creel change.

SPECIFICATIONS OF SLASHER:
¾ Number of beam creels: 2
¾ Total no of tanks: 14
¾ Wetting tank: 1 (It is used for mercerization or pre treatment processes)
¾ Pre washing tanks: 2 (First tank is for hot washing and second is for cold
washing)
0
¾ Hot washing tank temperature is maintained at 85 C and its capacity is
600 liters.
¾ Cold washing tank temperature is maintained at room temperature and its
capacity is 600 liters.
¾ Dyeing tanks: 7 with liquor capacity of 800 liters
¾ Post washing tanks : 3 (one tank is for cold washing whose temperature is
maintained at room temperature, second tank is for warm wash whose
temperature is maintained at 600C , third tank is for hot washing whose
temperature is maintained at 850C).

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¾ Sizing box: 1
¾ Drying cylinders: 6 after pre-washing and 7 after dyeing and 14 after
sizing whose temperature is maintained at about 950C
¾ Speed: 30 - 40 m/min (normal running speed).

PARTS OF SLASHER

Creel
Beams arrangement in the creel is usually of two types
• Groups of 2, 4, 6, 8, one to four tiers
• Staggered, two-tier arrangements

The beams can be controlled in groups or individually. The let-off can be

individual let-off, single group let-off or warp- round let-off

There are three creels present on the machine in order to replace the used creel
quickly with a creel on which beams are already installed.

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The back beams are mounted in the back beam unit with insert able journals.
The Unwinding tension is imparted by pneumatically loaded and automatically
regulated band brakes and break shoes.
The upper beam supports can be shifted pneumatically making it easier to mount
the bottom beam.

The back beams are mounted in the back beam unit with insert able journals.
The Unwinding tension is imparted by pneumatically loaded and automatically
regulated band brakes and break shoes.
The upper beam supports can be shifted pneumatically making it easier to mount
the bottom beam.

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WETTING OF WARP SHEET:

After unwinding from the creel a combined warp sheet of all of beams enters the
first tank of the slasher. In which pretreatment of the warp sheet occurs.
Normally three processes are performed

1. Mercerization
2. Semi-Mercerization
3. Pre-wetting

Mercerization:

It is the process by which natural twist / convolutions are open by the help of
concentrated alkali under tension conditions. It is a treatment which makes the
cellulose start to swell at a certain alkali concentration.
Advantages of mercerization:

ƒ improves dye uptake up to 40%

ƒ permanent luster is obtained
ƒ improves tensile strength
ƒ dimensional stability
ƒ dead cotton coverage
ƒ less pilling effect

The advantages of mercerization are considerable. The increase in the dye

uptake capacity results in deep shades and expensive dyes savings can be
achieved. Furthermore as a rule, the color fastness and uniform appearance of
goods are also improved.

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• Concentration of NaOH is very important

• 29-30° Bome of NaOH
• Cold water is used i.e. 15-18°C is ideal temperature for mercerization or
maximum room temperature.
• pH should be in alkaline range

Since mercerization affects the dyeing properties, any irregularities have a direct
effect on the dyeing or print. The result of inadequate mercerizing are:

ƒ unleveled dyeing
ƒ reduced color fastness properties
ƒ ending or cross shading
ƒ varying dimensional stability
ƒ inadequate coverage of dead or immature cotton
ƒ alkali marks

Semi-Mercerization:

Sometimes when we are in need of light shades than mercerization is done on a

small scale by applying less caustic to the warp sheet.

PRE-WASHING:

After mercerization pre-washing of the warp sheet is done. Once the sheet is
washed by hot water and then cold water. Pre washing is done in order to
remove the excess pre-treatment chemical from the warp sheet. If they remain
inside the sheet than it will cause the fibers to loose and also dyeing will not
occur uniformly.

Squeezing rollers are provided at the end of each bath to remove the excess
liquor from the sheet. These rollers also drive the warp sheet. Pressure on these
rollers is adjusted according to the tensile strength of the warp sheet with the
help of load cells.

Clod washing is done after hot washing in order to reduce the temperature of the
warp sheet.

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DYEING:

As discussed above denim warp sheet is dyed with Indigo (Vat) dyes and sulfur
dyes. There are some options in dyeing of warp sheet

¾ Indigo: In this case we use indigo in all tanks. According to our shade.
¾ Bottoming: In this case another dye is applied before dyeing with indigo.
First the warp sheet is dyed with sulfur and then it is washed and then
dyed with indigo.
¾ Topping: In this case the warp sheet is dyed with indigo in start and then it
is washed and then it is dyed with another dye (normally with sulfur).
¾ Bottoming indigo Topping: In this case the warp sheet is firstly dyed with
some dye and then after washing with indigo and then after washing with
other dye like sulfur.

Washing is done after each bath in order to remove unfixed dye. Dyeing of indigo
occurs at low temperature and that of sulfur at high temperature.

Dyeing in the tank occurs by the following roller arrangement.

Firstly the warp sheet is dipped in the dyeing liquor and then airing is done in
order to do fixation as indigo and sulfur dyes are in reduced form in liquor than
they are oxidized by giving air. Which is necessary because if airing is not proper
than immature oxidation occurs. For this purpose an airing zone of about 40 m is
provided after each bath. The airing process is also known as dwelling time.

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The seven tanks are utilized according to the requirement. Washing can also be
achieved in these tanks during the process as per requirement. All seven tanks
have capacity of 800 liters.

COOKING TANKS AND DOSING SYSTEM:

A color kitchen is also known as cooking tanks. Five cooking tanks are also
provided with the machine which is used for the preparation of liquor for pre-
treatment, dyeing and sizing. They are connected with the machine via dosing
system.

The computer-controlled dosing system for dyestuff and chemicals is the heart of
the machine. Indigo vat, hydrosulphite and caustic soda are continuously added
according to calculated quantity indications and depending upon speed. Color
UN levelness owing to fluctuations in bath concentrations does no longer occur.
Owing to the high circulation rate of the dye liquor in two circuits, local bath
concentration differences are avoided. The metering control stores the required
adjustment parameters and guarantees a high level of process reliability and
reproducibility.

The used dyes can also be preserved with the help of two storage tanks on the
machine. Useless dye is drained easily from the tanks with the pipes connected
at there bottom.

AFTER-WASHING PROCESS AND DRYING:

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After dyeing of the warp sheet washing is done in order to remove the unfixed
liquor from the warp sheet. The two or three hot washes are done after the
dyeing. And then it is dried on the assembly having 07 drying cylinders.

SIZING:

Although the quality and characteristics of the warp yarns coming out of the
winding, warping and dyeing processes are quite good, they are still not good
enough for the weaving process for most of the yarns. The weaving process
requires the warp yarns to be strong, smooth and elastic or extensible to certain
degree. To achieve these properties on the warp yarns, a protective coating of
polymeric film forming agent (size) is applied to the warp yarns prior to weaving;
this process is called slashing or sizing.
The main purposes of slashing are as follows:
• To increase the strength of the yarns
• To reduce the yarn hairiness that would cause problems in weaving
process
• To increase the abrasion resistance of the yarn against other yarns and
various machine elements
• To reduce fluff and fly during the weaving process for high speed weaving
machines.

One sizing tank is provided after the drying zone. The capacity of the size box is
about 400 liters. Sizing material is provided automatically by dosing system or it
can be manually added.

Drying Zone
After the size box the yarns go through the dryer section. The wet yarns are dried
by using cylinder drying. Cylinder drying is done using steam heated hot rolls
called the drying cylinders. The cylinders are coated with Teflon to prevent
sticking of the yarns on the cylinders. The drying zone contains 14 cylinders.
ACCUMULATOR:
Accumulator is also known as compensators. After drying two accumulators are
provided on the machine. Whose function is to minimize chance of stoppage of
machine because of the change of beam on the head stock and insertion of rods
in the leasing zone they accumulate the extra warp when the speed is reduced
from the headstock by moving assembly to upward direction as shown in figure
below

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When the head stock is moved with a greater speed the excess warp is removes
from the accumulator.

LEASING ZONE
Due to the nature of sizing, the yarns in the sheet may be stuck together at the
exit of dryer section. Therefore they are separated into individual ends using
leasing rods. The individual sheets of yarns from each section beam are
separated.

EXPANSION COMB
Pins in the expansion comb separate the yarns within each sheet. With the
expansion comb the warps are spread according to the required width of the
weaver’s beam.
BEAMING

The yarns are wound on to weaver’s beam at the headstock. Maximum beam
width of 4000 mm can be used, usually 3600 mm is used. A pressing roller is
pressing the warp yarn for uniform tension winding. A guide roller guides the
yarns to the weaver’s beam. A pressing roller is pressing the warp yarn for
uniform tension winding. A machine speed of 100-110 m/min. is used

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WORKING PROCESS OF SLASHER

Warp beams are brought to the dyeing and sizing section in sheet form as per
requirement. The warp sheet is taken to wetting tank (like mercerize, semi
mercerize and causticize tanks depends upon the dyeing methods) which swells
the fiber and increases its dye uptake. It is then taken to a hot washing tank
whose temperature is maintained at 850C. It is then taken to cold washing tank
whose temperature is maintained at 600C. Warp sheet is then taken to dyeing
tanks where dye is reduced to soluble leuco form by using sodium hydrosulfite,
yarn is then contacted with the reduced dye, and the dye is adsorbed by the
fibers. The fixed leuco indigo in the yarns of the warp sheet was oxidized to form
pigment during transport of the warp sheet in the air space following the dwelling
chamber, taking approximately 60 seconds. It is taken to two hot washing tanks
for fixation. Following rinsing, warp sheet is dried on cylinders dryers prior to the
application of sizing agent.

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INDIGO REDUCTION

C16H10O2N2 + Na2S2O4 + 4NaOH → C16H10O2N2Na2 + 2Na2SO3 + 2H2O

OXIDATION REACTION

Na2S2O4 + O2 + 2NaOH → Na2SO4 + Na2SO3 + H2O + C16H10O2N2Na2 + ½ O2 + H2O +

Sodium Hydrosulfide C16H10O2N2 + 2NaOH

Oxidized indigo

During the slashing process, the sheet of yarns is passed through the size box which contains
the hot water solution or mixtures of sizing agents. The yarns pick up the required quantity of
size solution in the size box, excess size is squeezed off as the yarns pass through squeeze
rolls. After the size box, the yarns go through the dryer section. The wet yarns are dried by using
drying cylinders. Cylinder drying is done using steam heated hot rolls. The Teflon coating is
done on all the cylinders to prevent sticking of yarns. Accumulator stores 150 meters of warp
sheet. Due to the nature of sizing, the yarns in the sheet may be stuck together at the exit of the
dryer section. They are separated into individual sheets by leasing rods and individual ends of
yarns are separated by passing through comb then the yarns are wound on to a loom beam for
weaving.

TRANSPORTATION OF BEAMS:

After the winding of dyed warp beams the from the head stock the samples of the
yarn are taken to laboratory for testing and then it is transported to the weaving
department.

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W
E
A
V
I
N
G

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WEAVING:
The process of producing a fabric by interlacing warp and weft threads is known
as weaving. The machine used for weaving is known as weaving machine or
loom. Weaving is an art that has been practiced for thousands of years. The
earliest application of weaving dates back to the Egyptian civilization. Over the
years, both the process as well as the machine has undergone phenomenal
changes. As of today, there is a wide range of looms being used, right from the
simplest handloom to the most sophisticated loom.

BASIC WEAVE DESIGNS

There are three basic weaves:

• Plain weave
• Twill weave
• Satin Weave

Most of the other weaves are derived from these three basic weaves. The
immediate derivatives of these three structures are warp rib, filling rib, and basket
weave.

Plain Weave
Plain weave is the simplest of all weaves. It has one-over one-under interlacing
for both warp and filing yarns, there fore the plain weave formula repeats on two
warp and two filling yarns. Plain weave requires only two harnesses.

Warp Rib
Warp rib formula has 1/1 interlacing in the filling direction and an interlacing
pattern different than 1/1 in the warp direction. The result is the ribs across the
fabric in the warp direction, caused by the grouping of filling yarns.
The repeat units of all warp ribs have two warp yarns. The first warp follows the
formula and the second warp does the opposite. Therefore, nay warp rib design
requires a minimum of two harnesses. The number of filling yarns in the repeat
unit is the sum of the digits in the warp rib formula.

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Filling Rib
Filling rib formula has 1/1 interlacing in the warp direction and an interlacing
pattern different than 1/1 in the Filling direction. The result is the ribs across the
fabric in the Filling direction, caused by the grouping of warp yarns.
The repeat units of all Filling ribs have two Filling yarns. The first Filling follows
the formula and the second Filling does the opposite. Therefore, nay Filling rib
design requires a minimum of two harnesses. The number of warp yarns in the
repeat unit is the sum of the digits in the filling rib formula.

Basket Weaves
Combining the warp and filling ribs produces basket weaves i.e. warp and filling
yarns are grouped and they interlace together. The number of warp and filling
yarns in the unit cell is equal to the sum of the digits in the formula. The basket
weaves require a minimum of two harnesses.

Twill Weave
Twill Weave is produced in a stepwise progression of the warp yarn interlacing
pattern. The interlacing pattern of each warp yarn starts on a different filling yarn
and follows the same formula. These results in the appearance of a diagonal line
called twill line in the fabric, which is then characteristic of this design. Depending
on the direction of the twill line, the twill weaves are called right-hand or left-hand
twills.
The sum of the digits in the formula determines the unit cell of the design, which
also gives the minimum number of harnesses, requires weaving the design; at
least three harnesses are required for a twill weave.
Common twill, Steep twill, Reclining twill and Broken twill are the different
variations of the twill weave.

Satin Weave
In satin weave, one yarn has a long float over several of the other yarns on one
side of the fabric. A yarn is considered to have a float (knuckle) if it stays over or
under more than one other yarn. If a yarn is brought to the top surface of the
fabric, it is referred to as a ‘raiser’, if it is brought down to the back of the fabric, it
ids called “sinker”. At least five harnesses are required to for a stain weave,
which is named after the minimum number of harnesses requires making it, e.g.,
5-harness satin, 7-harness satin, etc.

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Satin waves can be classified as warp faced or filling faced. If the long warp float
is on the top surface of the fabric, the design is called warp faced. If the long
filling float is on the top, the design is called filling faced or sateen.

Shedding Systems
There are four shedding systems used to provide manipulation to the warp yarns:
1. Crank Shedding
2. Cam Shedding
3. Dobby Shedding
4. Jacquard Shedding

Crank Shedding
This is the simplest shedding system. In this system, the crankshaft of the
weaving machine provides the harness motion. This system is used only for plain
weave and its derivatives.
Cam Shedding
A typical cam system can handle weave patterns with up to 14 different
harnesses. Cam shedding mechanisms are relatively simple. A pair of cams is
sufficient to weave plain fabric.
A cam is a disk that transforms a rotational motion of its own to a reciprocating
motion of a follower. The transfer is done by means of the cam’s edge or a
groove cut in its surface.

Dobby Shedding
Dobby mechanisms are more complicated than cam systems. They are normally
built to control up to 30 harnesses. Picks per repeat are virtually unlimited in
dobby.
Basically there are two separate functions in dobby mechanism: 10 power
transmission, 2) connection and disconnection of the harnesses to from the
power source at the proper time. Dobby mechanisms are classified as negative,
positive and rotary dobby. They can be mechanical or electronic.

Negative Dobby Shedding

In negative dobby shedding, the harnesses are lifted by the dobby and lowered
by a spring motion.

Positive Dobby Shedding

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In positive dobby shedding, the harnesses are both raised and lowered by the
dobby mechanism, which eliminates the need for a spring under-motion.

Rotary Dobby Shedding

Rotary dobby is a positive machine operating according to the rotary principle.
The dobby is composed of the following units:
• Main drive with modulator and complementary cams
• Drive block with cam units for harness frame motion
• Control unit with magnet block fro transformation of electronic
signals
• Electronic control box

Jacquard Shedding
Jacquard Shedding offers unlimited patterning possibilities. The Jacquard
machines offer the highest level of warp yarn control. This versatility is due to the
separate control of each warp end or groups of similarly interlacing warp ends
within the pattern repeat across the fabric width. They enable the most
sophisticated patterns, such as pictures, to be produced in the woven fabrics.
Jacquard machines can be mechanical or electronic with single lift or double lift
mechanisms; the new machines are all double lift. Most Jacquards heads
generally are equipped to handle over 2000 harness cords or hooks with pattern
repeating on about on about 9000 picks and multiple heads can be employed
over a single weaving machine to increase the weave pattern capability.
Jacquard systems are placed on top of the weaving machine.

Filling Insertion
After each shed change, the filling yarn is inserted through the shed. It is possible
to select and insert different filling yarns one after another.
Weaving machines are usually classified according to the filling insertion
mechanism. The major filling insertion systems used today are rapier, projectile,
air-jet, and water- jet, which are called shuttle-less weaving systems.

Classification of Weaving Machines

Weaving machines are classified according to their filling insertion mechanism.
The classification is as follows:
1. Shuttle
2. Shuttle-less
• Rapier
• Projectile
• Air-Jet
• Water-Jet

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Shuttle Weaving
In shuttle weaving, a shuttle that traverses back and forth across the loom width,
inserts the filling. Shuttles can be made of wood or plastic. Filling yarn is wound
on the quill and the quill is placed in the shuttle. As the shuttle move across the
loom, the filling yarn is unwound from the pirn and lay in the shed.

Rapier Weaving
In Rapier weaving, a flexible or rigid solid element, called rapier, is used to insert
the filling yarn across the shed. The rapier head picks up the filling yarn and
carries it through the shed. After reaching the destination, the rapier head returns
empty to pick up the next filling yarn, which completes the cycle. A rapier
performs a reciprocating motion.
Rapier weaving machines can be of two types:
1. Single Rapier Machines: A single, rigid rapier is used in these
machines. The rigid rapier is a metal or composite bar usually with a
circular cross section. The rapier enters the shed from one side, picks up
the tip of the filling yarn on the other side and passes it across the loom
width while retracting. Therefore, a single rapier carries the yarn in one
way only and half of the rapier movement is wasted. Also there is no yarn
transfer since there is only one rapier. The single rapier’s length is equal
to the width of the loom.
2. Double Rapier Machines: Two rapiers are used in these machines:
one rapier, called the giver, takes the filling yarn from the yarn
accumulator on one side of the loom, brings it to the center of the machine
and transfers it to the second rapier which is called the taker. The taker
retards and brings the filling yarn to the other side. Similar to the single

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rapier machines, only half of the rapier movements is used for filling
insertion.

Projectile Weaving
Projectile weaving machines use a projectile equipped with a gripper to insert the
filling yarn across the machine. The gripper projectile draws the filling yarn into
the shed. The Projectile glides through the shed in a rake- shaped guide. Braked
in the receiving unit, the Projectile is then conveyed to its original position by a
transport device installed under the shed.

Air-Jet Weaving
Air-jet weaving is a type of weaving in which the filling yarn is inserted into the
warp shed with compressed air. Air-jet system utilizes a multiple nozzle systems
and a profiled reed.
Yarn is drawn from a filing supply package by the filing feeder and each pick is
measured for the filling insertion by means of a stopper. Upon release of the
filling yarn by the stopper, the filling is fed into the reed tunnel via tandem and
main nozzles, which provide the initial acceleration. The relay nozzles provide
the high air velocity across the weave shed. Profiled reed provides guidance for
the air and separates the filling yarn from the warp yarn.

Water-Jet Weaving
A water-jet weaving machine inserts the filling yarn by highly pressurized water.
The relative velocity between the filling yarn and the water jet provides the
attractive force. If there is no velocity difference, then there would be no tension
on the yarn results in curling and snarling of the yarn. Water-jet weaving machine
can only be used for hydrophobic fibers.

Beat-up
When the filling yarn is inserted through the shed, it lies relatively far from its final
position. This final position is called the fell, which is the imaginary line where the

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fabric starts. Beat-up is the process of pushing the last inserted filling yarn to the
cloth fell by using a device called reed. The fabric is not formed until beat-up
occurs.
Reed is a closed comb of flat metal strips. These metal strips are uniformly
spaced. The spaces between the metal strips are called dents. The reed is also
used to control the warp yarn density (ends/inch) in the fabric, which affects the
weight of the fabric. The reed holds one or more warp yarns in each dent and
pushes them to the cloth fell. After beating up the filing yarn, the reed is
withdrawn to its original rest position before the insertion of the next filling.
Reeds are identified by a “reed number’ which is the number of dents per unit
width. Specifying the number of ends per dent with a certain reed number
dictates the density of warp yarns in the fabric.
Reeds are of two types according to their shape; Regular reed and Profiled reed
(used in air-jet weaving). Reed can be single or double. A double reed has two
rows of metal strips. The rear row starts from the middle of the first dent of the
front row of the metal strips. The double reed is used in terry weaving.

Fabric take-up
As the fabric is woven, it should be removed from the weaving area. This is
achieved by the take-up motion. The fabric take-up removes the cloth at a rate
that controls filling density (picks per inch).

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WEAVING IN SM DENIM

In SM DENIM weaving is air Jet. The department is working under the esteem
supervision of Mr. Irfan who is weaving manager and very much dedicated to his
work. He is working with all his technical, management hardworking staff. Like
some other departments weaving department is running 24 hours a day and
meeting the sales requirements. Weaving department is playing a leading role in
denim manufacturing at of denim at SM DENIM.

Air jet weaving is a type of weaving in which the filling yarn is inserted into the
warp shed with compressed air. Air jet weaving utilizing a multiple nozzles
system and profile reed. Yarn is drawn from a filling supply package by the filling
feeder and each pick is measured for the filling insertion by means of a stopper.
Upon release of the filling yarn by the stopper, the filling is fed into the reed
tunnel via tandem and main nozzles. The tandem and the main nozzle
combination provide the initial acceleration, where the relay nozzles provide the
high air velocity across the weave shed. Profile reed provides guidance for the air
and separates the filling yarn from the warp. A cutter is used to cut the yarn when
the insertion is completed.
The air jet weaving machine combines high performance with low manufacturing
requirements. It has an extremely high insertion rate .Due to its exceptional
performance, air jet machines are used primarily for the economical production of
standard fabrics, covering a wide range of styles. Meanwhile, more and more
niches and special fabric segments are covered: heavy cotton fabrics such as
denim, terry fabrics, glass fabrics, tire cord, etc.
The advantages of air jet weaving machines are:

• High productivity.
• Low initial outlay.
• High filling insertion rates.
• Simple operation and reduced hazard because of few moving parts.
• Reduced space requirements.
• Low noise and vibration levels
• Low spare parts requirement.
• Reliability and minimum maintenance.

After the tandem and main nozzles are turned on, yarn is released from the
clamp (stopper).When all the coils of the particular pick have been pulled off the
feeder, the stopper closes the yarn decelerates and then will be beaten into the
fabric. Thereafter, the air is turned off and the pick is cut to complete the cycle.

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WEAVING MACHINES IN SM DENIM:

¾ Machine used is Tsudakoma ZAX – e.

¾ Total 57 looms in the Shed.
¾ Weaves which are made are 1/1,2/1,3/1,2/2,3/2,4/2
¾ 11 different types of available reeds according to count.
¾ Fabrics are made between 5.5 to 14 oz (normally)
¾ Yarns used are Ring spun, Open end and polyester (including lycra)

SPECIFICATIONS OF TSUDAKOMA ZAX-e:

Speed: min 500 rpm, max 850 rpm

Humidity of shedding: 75 – 80%

Width: 190 cm

Max Air pressure per loom: 6.5 bar

Temperature of Shed: 25 0C

LOOMING

Looming covers the process involved in warp preparation after sizing up to

setting them to loom. The process can be shown as follows:

Drawing-in → Warp Tying → Loom

During slashing, the exact number of warp yarns required in fabric is wound on to
the loom (or weaver's) beam. The warp ends are then passed through the drop
wires of the warp stop motion, the heddles of the harness frames and the dents
at the reed. This can be achieved by drawing -in or tying -in, the choice
depending upon whether or not the new warp is different form the warp already
on the loom.

DRAWING-IN
The process of drawing every warp end through its drop wire, heddle eye and
reed dent can be performed manually or by means of automatic machines. In
both case, a length of warp yarn, just enough to reach to the other side of the
frame, is unwound. Leasing (i.e. selecting warp) of the warp at this stage

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simplifies the separation of the yarns. Then they are threaded through drop wires
heddle eyes and reed dents. The automatic drawing machine can handle the
leasing-in and drawing -in process in one single operation.

TYING-IN
When fabric of a particular type is being mass-produced, the new warp beams
will be identical with the exhausted beams on the looms. Therefore, if every end
on the new beam is tied to its corresponding end on the old beam, the drawing-in
process can be omitted. Tying-in may be done by means of a small portable
machine on the loom or as a separate operation away from the loom.

ELECTRONIC CARD
The operation can activate the desired function at the touch of a finger. Guided
by a menu, the operator enters pattern data and machine settings, optimizes
settings, retrieves operating date or receives information concerning causes of
and remedies for malfunction. The entire system routine in microprocessor
controlled.

Setting data can be transferred from one machine to other machine with a
memory card. If no setting data are available for new style, the microprocessor
calculates standard settings from the fabric specifications and automatically
adjusts them on the electronically controlled functional units. The weaving
machine is thus very quickly sets and ready for operation. This program, called
ICS (initial conditions setting), is based on empirical values.

BASIC MECHANISMS
In order to interlace wrap and weft threads to produce a fabric, the following
mechanisms are necessary on any type of loom:

1. Primary mechanisms
2. Secondary mechanisms
3. Auxiliary mechanisms

1. PRIMARY MECHANISMS
These are fundamental or essential mechanisms. Without these mechanisms, it
is practically impossible to produce a fabric. It is for this reason that these
mechanisms are called ‘primary’ mechanisms. The primary mechanisms are
three in number.

a. Shedding mechanism

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b. Picking mechanism
c. Beat-up mechanism

(a) SHEDDING MECHANISM

The shedding mechanism separates the warp threads into two layers or divisions
to form a tunnel known as ‘shed’. The shed provides room for passage of the
shuttle. A shed may be formed by means of tappets, dobby and jacquard.

Positive tappet shedding is used in this industry.

Types of Tappet Shedding Mechanism

Generally there are two types of shedding

1. Negative tappet shedding

2. Positive tappet shedding

Negative Tappet Shedding

In a tappet shedding mechanism, if the tappet controls only one movement,

either an upward or downward movement of the healed shafts, then the shedding
is known as “negative tappet shedding”. The healed shafts are returned by some
external devices like springs, dead weights, rollers, etc.

Positive Tappet Shedding

In a tappet shedding mechanism, if the tappet controls both upward and

downward movements of the healed shafts, then the shedding is known as
positive tappet shedding.

TRANSMISSION OF SHEDDING MOTION

The force, transmitted from timing pulley fixed on loom pulley through timing belt
to cam device, rotates cam.
When shedding lever contacts the lobe of cam, it positively pulls down healed
frame via wire connector and under wire set. When lever contact the smaller
diameter of the cam, side motion device mounted on both sides of the main body
frame lifts the frame to the fixed height.

SHEDDING COMPONENTS

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There are two main shedding components:

• Healed frame
• Cam

THE HEALDS OR HEDDLES

Alternate vertical movements according to the evolution of the warp yarn and the
passage of the picks drive the heddles.
Healed frame or heddles consists of a wooden frame, which consist of healed
wires. To provide straight path for the passing of the warp. These are twisted and
metallic wires, which slides on flat bars within the frame.

CAM / TAPPET

The purpose of the cam is to control the motion of harness frames , the lift of
reed and the weave pattern.
Possible weave patterns of fabric are 1/1 , 2/1 , 3/1 and 4/1. There are 6 cams in
the air jet loom and a single cam is double plated. The cam acquires special
curved shape. Different cam setting can be used for different weave pattern. It is
the required condition that the machine revolution should match with gear system
gear ratio is adjusted according to the weave pattern.

A pair of tappets Cam

Healed Shaft

A healed shaft consists of a wooden or metal frame carrying healed wires. The
width of a healed shaft is slightly greater than that of the warp sheet and is
usually 36 to 48 cm deep.

The functions of a healed shaft are:

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1. To carry healed wires and maintain warp yarns in their correct positions
2. To form a shed line.

(b) PICKING MECHANISM

The picking mechanism passes weft thread from one selvedge of the fabric to the
other through the shed by means of a shuttle, a projectile, a rapier, a needle, an
air-jet or a water-jet. The inserted weft thread is known as “pick”.

COMPONENTS OF PICKING MECHANISM

CONE STAND

The purpose of this stand is to hold the cones. The main components of cone
stand are:
• Cone holder
• Disc
• Tensioner

CONE HOLDER

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The shape of the cone holder is a little bit like an aero plane. It contains two
propeller shape rubber stopper so as to stop the forward and backward slippage
of the cone during running condition and to provide grip.

PLASTIC DISC
The weft yarn from the cones passes through a plastic disc provided with the
hole in the center the purpose of this hole is to allow the weft yarn to pass
through the disc setting of the disc is in such that at a time of weft yarn from the
first and fourth or the last weft yarn passes through the first and second disc
respectively.
The distance between the discs can be adjusted with the help of the spring
provided with the nut. From the disc the weft yarn is delivered to the Tensioner.

TENSIONER

The use of tensioner is to give tension to the weft yarn otherwise the weft yarn
coils within its self. This tensioner consists of two small discs or plates. A spring
is also provided at the side of one disc so that the discs can adjust themselves
according to the count of the weft yarn.
If count is fine then low tension is required whereas coarser count needed
relatively higher tension. The alignment of the disc and the cone is in such a way
that a free path is provided to the weft yarn.

CONE BREAK DETECTOR

Cone break detector detects filling yarn breaks that occur between the cone and
prewinder. The cone break detector stops the weaving machine before the
prewinder is empty. Cone break detector between the cone and the prewinder
prevents starts up marks.

THE FILLING TENSIONER

Filling tensioner are necessary to ensure a most uniform yarn tension between
the cones and prewinder drum , therefore ensuring an absolute uniform tension
under filling yarn winding without any loop formation.

WEFT ACCUMULATOR OR PREWINDER

The prewinder draw filling yarn from a cone, winding it on the winder drum which
in turn, makes for gentle pick insertion. The weft yarn is drawn off the package
and wound on to measuring bands and fingers by the rotating motion of thread
guiding tube. The diameter of the measuring band can be adjusted according to
the width of the loom. Adjusting the measuring bands and the number of coils
sets the pick length. The electro magnetically controlled stopper pin releases the
weft yarn at the machine angle set.

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MEASURING DRUM AND STORAGE SECTION

Electric drum storage device for 1 or 2 color change controls weft yarn storage
and measuring.

STORAGE CONTROL
As it takes time to rise the motor rpm to the standard rpm at starting required weft
yarn for next insertion is wound in advance to secure smooth weft insertion.
While the loom is running, corresponding length weft yarn to one insertion is
supplied to the prewinder, and storage is controlled in the prewinder.

MEASURING CONTROL

One pick length of weft yarn is measured by releasing or hooking solenoid FDP
pin electrically. There are two timings; one is for the first pick at starting and the
other is preceding pick at normal operation. These timings secure accurate
measuring, storage, measuring and weft insertion are controlled by output of
signal command.

BALLOON BREAKER
The balloon breaker reduces the balloon dimensions when drawing yarn from the
prewinder. The closer the prewinder to the balloon breaker, the smaller the yarn
balloons. When weaving heavy filling yarns, there is the potential to increase the
rate of insertion when using a balloon breaker.

MAIN NOZZLE
Nozzle is a duct of smooth varying cross section in which air is used to
accelerate weft yarn through the shed across the width of fabric. On air jet
weaving machines in each channel there are two main nozzles, one is fixed and
other is movable.

RELAY NOZZLES
Relay nozzle mounted in sley are connected in groups to electromagnetic valves.
The electromagnetic relay nozzle valve starts the air jet. The length of time the
valve is opened depends on the reed width and relay valve spacing as well as on
the yarn. The compressed air is distributed from the compressed air tank via the
valves to the nozzles.
Relay nozzles are arranged over the entire length of the reed, the relay nozzles
assists the movable main nozzle in blowing the pick through the reed guiding
channel. These relay nozzles are divided up into groups, in that each group of
nozzle is served independently by a relay nozzle valve. These valves are driven
such that the rate of insertion is correct and that yarn flow is uniform.

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FILLING CUTTER
The function of cutter cuts the filling at the left hand and right hand side of an
insertion. The cutter is driven by the motor and is completely independent of the
machine drive. The position, the movement of cutting and the condition of the
filling cutter are very important for the insertion. Cutter is mounted on both ends
of the fabric. On yarn supply side, yarn is securely cut every time reed is beaten.
On driving side preceding yarn is cut between the temple and the space roll. The
motion of the cutter cam attached to the main shaft is transmitted through cutter
cam lever and cutter rod to cutter edge.

FILLING DETECTORS
The filling detectors or sometimes called feelers mounted at the reed holder on
the loom and the end of the driving side photo electrically monitors whether there
is weft yarn arrive or not.

(C) BEAT UP MECHANISM

The beat-up mechanism beats or pushes the newly inserted length of weft thread
(pick) into the already woven fabric at a point known as “fell of the cloth”. These
three mechanisms namely shedding, picking and then beat-up are done in
sequence.

BEATING COMPONENTS

SLEY
The sley is a metal frame. In case of air jet contains profile reed , relay nozzles,
filling detector, stretch nozzle and side detector. At its forward motion the last
pick is beaten up to the fell of the cloth, and at its forward motion the weft is
allowed to insert through relay nozzles through the open shed. The heavy
reciprocating sley with the help of a reed firmly beats up the last pick to the fell
with the sufficient velocity.

REED
The reed is an arrangement if vertical steel wires spaced a given distance apart a
securely fastened at the top and bottom by the bindings. The spaced between
two wires is known as "dent". Reeds are made with any desire number of dents
per inch, according to the requirements of the cloth that is to be woven. A reed
contains a definite number of dents on a given length; this is termed as the count,
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the pitch, or the number of reed. The reeds are named differently. Reeds are
named from the number of dents contained in one inch. The shape and thickness
of the metal wires used in the reed is important. Reed selection depends on
several considerations including fabric appearance, fabric weight (ends per unit
width), beat up force , air space requirements and weave design.

AVAILABLE REEDS IN SM DENIM:

Reeds are very expansive machine parts and its correct use makes it long time
running. In fine counts reed damages very quickly. A good manager is that who
runs his weaving shed with minimum number of reeds rather than investing a
large amount on reeds and storing them. In SM DENIM the shed of 57 looms is
running on following reeds. With these reeds SM DENIM has made almost all of
there orders

Sr. no. REED COUNT AVAILABLE REEDS

1 15 13
2 16.26 40
3 18.25 17
4 21.34 30
5 12.50 01
6 23.11 40
7 26 01
8 28 13
9 33 01

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10 34.17 01
11 45 01

2 SECONDARY MECHANISMS

These mechanisms are next in importance to the primary mechanisms. If

weaving is to be continuous, these mechanisms are essential. So they are called
the ‘secondary’ mechanisms. They are:

a. Take-up motion
b. Let-off motion.

Take-up motion

The take-up motion withdraws the cloth from the weaving area at a constant rate
so as to give the required pick-spacing (in picks/inch or picks/cm) and then winds
it on to a cloth roller. The main part of the mechanism is the take up rollers ,
which draws the cloth at the regular rate, and the number of picks per inch
decides this rate. The take up roller is covered with emery cloth or hard rubber
depending upon the type of cloth woven. The drive to the take up roller is by a
train of gear wheels put into motion directly from the main shaft.

Let-off motion
The let-off motion delivers the warp to the weaving area at the required rate and
at constant tension by unwinding it from the weaver’s beam. The secondary
motions are carried out simultaneously.

The speed of the servo motor is transmitted to warp beam gear via reduction
gear, thus driving beam.

3 Auxiliary Mechanisms

To get high productivity and good quality of fabric, additional mechanisms, called
auxiliary mechanisms, are added to a loom. The auxiliary mechanisms are useful
but not absolutely essential. This is why they are called the ‘auxiliary’
mechanisms. These are listed below.

a. Warp protector mechanism

b. Weft stop motion
c. Temples

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d. Brake
e. Warp stop motion (Predominantly found in automatic looms)

Warp protector mechanism

The wa0rp protector mechanism will stop the loom if the shuttle gets trapped
between the top and bottom layers of the shed. It thus prevents excessive
damage to the warp threads, reed wires and shuttle.

Weft stop motion

The object of the weft stop motion is to stop the loom when a weft thread breaks
or gets exhausted. This motion helps to avoid cracks in a fabric.

Temples

The function of the temples is to grip the cloth and hold it at the same width as
the warp in the reed, before it is taken up.

Brake

The brake stops the loom immediately whenever required. The weaver uses it to
stop the loom to repair broken ends and picks.

Warp stop motion

The object of the warp stop motion is to stop the loom immediately when a warp
thread breaks during the weaving process.

TAPPET

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This shedding motion is a system of tappets and cams that cause shafts to be
raised to form the shed. The bulkiness of its mechanical arrangement limits the
loom to a maximum of eight shafts.
Simplest, least versatile shedding motion
As a tappet loom usually has no more than eight shafts, this represents the
maximum size of its weave repeat. This restricts it to the weaving of plain
weaves, simple twills and simple sateen and satin weaves. Should the repeat of
the desired design require more than eight shafts, then a dobby loom would be
required.

SPECIAL FEATURES OF ZAX-e

IT-Board:

This IT-board is mounted on the ZAX-e Air Jet Loom. Because Tsudakoma has
nearly 100 years of loom technology experience, IT-board is design for ease of
use. The IT-board is a touch board with conspicuous color-coded graphic.
Automatic data setting, automatic diagnosis and controlling functions are greatly
expanded and improved and necessary information can be viewed with the
fewest key store keys, along quick action.

Energy Savings:

The electromagnet valve with built-in valve manifolds have excellent response
and produce sharp jetting. The valve stabilizes pressure pulses to ensure stable
filling insertion at high speed.

Driving Rush Start Motor:

This rush start system developed by Tsudakoma delivers high power torque at
starting enabling increased bating power for first pick eliminating stop marks and
contributing to high quality production.

WELL-PROVEN PERFORMANCE FILLING INSERTION TECHNOLOGY

REALIZES ULTRA-HIGH SPEED HIGH QUALITY AND ENERGY SAVINGS.

Filling insertion:

The ZAX-e equipped with the AJC (Auto jet controller). This computerized
system watches the filling arrival timing at the filler and compensates it by filling

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insertion timing. Specially suited for filling packages having wide packages
having a wide fluctuation in release tension from full to small diameter.

Enhance Filling Control:

According to filling being inserted filling insertion is automatically controlled for

defect free fabric de-sized realizing energy conservation it stabilizes filling arrival
timing when the supply yarn package diameter is decrease, when the loom is
restarted.

Independent sub-nozzle timing control:

Setting different jetting timing of the nozzles by color according to filling yarn kind
when using filling of different kind or different thickness contributes to stable
performance, improvement in fabric quality and energy conservation.

First pick control:

The loom speeds for the first pick is slower then the specified, so problems such
as long pick or tip trouble may occur. The ZAx-e controls filling insertion timing at
the first pick by computer for trouble free start-up to enhance the stability.

Filling Detectors:

The ZAX-e for filament fabrics has a detector of single filler head. However, the
ZAX-e for spun fabric has two filler heads, making detection or normal miss pick
as a matter of course, but they also detect filling blow off. The high performance
reflection-type filler heads can detect over a wide range, a never overlook any
miss-insertion. The heads are dirt resistance ensuring a high reliability.

Filling Drum Pulley (FDP) Sensor:

The FDP sensor checks yarn release by a dust free laser beam assuring further
stability of measuring and storage, even for uneven or high twisted yarn.

Weft break system (WBS):

The WBS sharply reduces peak tension that occurs at the end of the filling
insertion in order to prevent filling breakage and looseness. The WBS precisely
controls break stroke according to the yarn release timing detected by the FDP
sensor. The system is best for extra-wide weaving which invites higher peak
tension. It is also helpful for worst yarns which may cause broken picks.

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One-Pick Insertion Start:

After repairing a defective tick, filling are inserted, and the loom is started. By
decreasing blank pick beating during forward or reverse rotation, the fabric at the
cloth feel can be kept well-balance. Thus, corrugation marks prevented.

Quick insertion Start (QIS):

The QIS is a re-starting system to prevent stop marks generated by blank

beating during reverse rotation in the process of repairing defective pick or warp.

EXCELLENT MECHANISM FOR ULTRA-HISH SPEED AND HIGH QUALIY

Let-Off:

The reinforced structure, the large diameter beam gear, and the positive easing
driving shaft built in oil bath ensure good performance even for high-density
fabrics at high speed. A large beam flange (up-to 1100 mm) can be selected
without sacrificing operation ability. (No rising-up is necessary for a flange up-to
914 mm)

Electronic Let-off (ELO) for Constant Warp Tension:

The ELO detects the total warp tension by the load cell installed on the tension
roll the computer processes the single and regulates the AC servo motor to
control warp let-off. It automatically adjusts to beam diameter variations maintain
let-off. It automatically adjust to beam variations maintains let-off precision, keep
warp tension uniform and assure excellent weaving quality.

No cloth fell adjustment necessary:

Further more, the ELO computer control warp stretch in accordance with the
duration or the cause of stoppage. Kick back function to move let-off beams
backward and fell control (optional0 place the cloth fell in the optimum position. In
the way stop marks are eliminated for the highest quality weaving.

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TAKE UP

Electronic Take-up (ETU):

The device is suitable for heavy or extra weave fabric. Clear shedding even at
high speed is possible the PCM-L with auto leveling mechanism is also available.

SHEDDING
Positive Cam Motion:

The device is suitable for heavy or extra weave fabric. Clear shedding even at
high speed is possible the PCM-L with an auto-leveling mechanism is also
available.

Independent Shedding Motion for the catch cord:

The catch cord shedding is independent from the heald frames. Because all the
heald frames can be used for fabric construction, complicated fabric construction
is possible. It also efficiently saves energy.

Drive & Break:

Rush start motor plus electromagnetic break. Rush start torque can be selected
between three kinds (100, 800, 1200%). Rush start motor was developed by
Tsudakoma and effective for start mark brake unit is directly built on crank shaft
there is no stress at loom stop.

SELVAGE
The narrow edge of woven fabric that runs parallel to the warp. It is made with
stronger yarns in a tighter construction than the body of the fabric to prevent
raveling. A fast selvage encloses all or part of the picks, and a selvage is not fast
when the filling threads are cut at the fabric edge after every pick.

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Planetary selvage forming:

The twisted selvage formation system by a planetary gear-motion assures high

speed operation and prevents loose selvage.

Independent 2/2 selvage:

This independent shedding motion is applied for the formation of tucked selvage
or selvage or selvage for denim fabric. Thus the load on the main shedding can
be reduced.

Automatic Leveling:

All the heald frames automatically close at loom stop and thus prevent
corrugation marks even after a long stoppage.

Off-loom let-off and take-up:

Good for elevation mill operation mill operation efficiency and labor savings. Most
recommendable for fabric of thick yarns such as denim.

Fully expanded AI weaving technology makes Tsudakoma` s ZAX-e truly

user-friendly. Incorporating Tsudakoma` s nearly 100 years of weaving
knowledge the ZAX-e uses weaving IT for quick response.

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COMPARISON BETWEEN ZAX-e AND TOYODA JAT 610

TSUDAKOMA TOYOTA
ZAX-e TOYODA JAT 610

Reed space 190 cm 190 cm

Driving PSS Programmable start Start, Stop,
Push-Button Operation forward/reverse, Slow
with both ends motion activated by push
button operations.
Solenoid-break stoppage,
automatic compensation
for fixed-position stops.
Motor capacity 3.7 KW. 4P 3-phase induction
motor, 1.5 to 5.0 KW.
Let Off Electronic let off (ELO), Electronic let-off motion
with kickback function (Digital AC servo motor)
Flange Diameter negative easing positive Feel forward device
Reed space up to 190cm
800nm, 914mm, 1000mm
Take Up Mechanical take up
Pick density MTU: 6.6~80.5 picks per motion
centimeter (16.7~204.4 Electronics take-up
picks per inch ) motion
ETU: 9.8~ 118.1 picks
per centimeter (25~300
picks per inch)
Beating Crank type beating, Two-sided crank drive
multiple sley sword with oil bath.
beating Multiple short sley sword
4 Links (Reed space up
to 190cm)
6 links (Reed space up to
190 cm)
Shedding Crank plain shedding Negative came
:shaft number:4,6 shedding
Positive came (maximum of 8 heald
shedding: frames)
Shaft number up to 8 Positive came shedding
Dobby Shedding (maximum of 8 heald
(Mechanical /electronic, frames)
negative/ positive , floor/ Crank shedding
top-mounted ): shaft (maximum of 6 heald

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number up to 16 frames)
Jacquard shedding Dobby shedding
(maximum of 16 heald
frames)
Jacquard shedding
Filling Insertion Main and sub nozzle High-propulsion main
combined system, profile nozzle, tapered sub
red auxiliary main nozzle. nozzle combination direct
New solenoid valve with drive, super responsive
built-in manifolds solenoid valves
independent sub-nozzle Two independent sub-
timing control by color nozzle tanks
AJC Auto jet controller, Auto pick finder
First pick control One-short device
Automatic weft insertion
device (ATC)
Stop motion Electronic Warp Stop
Filling yarn Reflective weft feeler motion.
one-head system, two Leno-selvage & waste-
head system. selvage break stop
motion.
Warp Yarn Electric 6-row contract 4colors single lamps.
bar system

Others Stop motion for selvage

and catch cord yarn

Stop cause Indication by message on

indication IT-Board
4-color multi-function
indication lamps.
Lubrication Oil bath system for main Oil bath lubrication
driving parts, centralized system for main units,
lubrication (Automatic grease lubrication
release)
Selvage Planetary gear motion ZT Left/right rotary fill-leno
tucker (left & right , selvage device
intermediate) 4 thread half leno
ZTN needle less tucker selvage device.
(left 7 right , intermediate) Tuck-in selvage device
Center leno, 2/2 selvage (left/right and centre0
motion. Centre selvage device
Filling Selection 2-color mixing, 2-color at- Electric drum (single)
will, 4-colors, 6 colors Electric drum 9mixing0
Electrics drum(2 colors at

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will)
Electric drum (4 colors at
will)
Electric drum (6 colors at
will)
Sub Nozzle Single hole The sub nozzle features
Regarding to the carrying at tapered hole to prevent
force, Tsudakoma did the to prevent air dispersion,
comparison between thus enabling stable weft
single and multi-hole in insertion with lower air
the laboratory several volumes.
times and got good
results on single hole
nozzle
Stretch Nozzle The stretch nozzle Using a stretch nozzle to
effectively prevents filling stretch nozzle to stretch
looseness. It holds the the weft yarn at the right
filling looseness. It holds selvage edge reduce the
the filling by air to volume of air required by
element any slack. A new the sub nozzle. This
type of stretch nozzle for feature is also effective in
blowing air laterally is preventing slack filling
available to ensure the that can occur when
performance of the two- weaving with filament
headed filling detector. yarns.
Weft Break System The WBS sharply reduce In addition to timing
peak tension that occurs checker, this feature
at the end of filling provided a graphical
insertion in order to display of the yarn` s
prevent filling breakage travel status and valve
and looseness. The WBS timing. This allows an
precisely control timing operator to set optimum
and break stork timing condition for weft
according to the yarn to insertion while observing
release timing detected the yarns travel status.
by the FDP sensor this
system is best for extra
wide waving which invites
high peak tension. It is
also helpful for worst yarn
which may cause broken
pick.
Weave able range Spun : Ne120-Ne 2.5
Filament; 16.6 dtex-1350
dtex

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Filling supply stand Floor mounted for 4

packages (2colors)
Floor mounted for 8
packages (4 colors)
Cutter Mechanical cutter
Electrical cutter

NEGATIVE & POSITIVE POINTS

ZAX-e

POSITIVE POINTS NEGATIVE POINTS

Sub nozzle G type one hole. No Lube Lubrication pump is not better
washing no gauging. than Toyoda
Rocking balance for balance for
controlling beating vibrations.
4 link crank for controlling cramping
mark, start mark

TOYODA

POSTIVE POINTS NEGATIVE POINTS

Centralized lubrication pump working is 19 hole sub nozzle washing & cleaning
very good reinforced
With one rocking balance
Simple crank very difficult for control
start mark

TRANSPORTATION FROM WEAVING

A doff of required length according to Let off of the loom and quality of the fabric
is removed from the loom and transported to the finishing department.

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F
I
N
I
S
H
I
N
G

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FINISHING OF FABRIC
“A process done to fibers, yarns and fabric causing them to change in
appearance, texture and performance.”

The term finishing covers all those treatments that serve to impart to the textile
the desired end-use properties. These can include properties relating to visual
effect, handle and special characteristics such as waterproofing and non-
flammability.
Finishing treatment is done to achieve the ultimate customer requirements.
These are mostly value added processes. Finishing may involve
• Mechanical Finish
• Chemical Finish

Mechanical Finishing
Mechanical Finishing is defined as any operation performed to improve fabric
appearance or function by physical manipulation. Steam or water may
accompany the physical manipulation; however, chemicals other than lubricants
are seldom used. Fabric luster, smoothness, softness, residual shrinkage and
hand are examples of the properties that can be altered by mechanical finishing.
• Compacting (Shrink-proofing)
• Calendaring
• Raising (Napping, Sueding)
• Shearing
• Polishing
• Corduroy Cutting

Chemical Finishing
Among chemical treatments one can further distinguish between treatments that
involve a chemical reaction of the finishing agent with the fiber and the chemical
treatments where this is not necessary ( e.g. softening treatment). Some finishing
treatments are more typical for certain types of fibers like easy care finishes for
cotton antistatic treatment for synthetic fibers and mothproofing and anti-felt
treatments for wool.
In case of fabric the finishing treatment often take place as a separate operation
after dyeing. In more than 80% of cases the finishing liquor, in the form of an
aqueous solution/dispersion, is applied by means of padding techniques. The dry
fabric is passed through the finishing bath containing all the required ingredients,
and is then passed between rollers to squeeze out as much as possible of the
treating solutions before being dried and finally cured. Washing as final step,
tends to be avoided unless absolutely necessary.

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The application of the chemical can also be done by

• Kiss-roll
• Spray application
• Foam application

Following are some of the Chemical Finishes:

Easy Care Treatment

Easy care finishing is applied to cellulose containing fibers to impart

characteristics like easy to wash, creasing resistance during wash and wear, no
ironing or minimum ironing. These properties are now required for cellulose fibers
to allow them to compete with synthetic fibers such as polyamide and polyester.

Water Repellent Treatment

Water repellent finishing is done to fabric for which waterproofing properties are
required but which also need air and water -vapor permeability.

This may be obtained by

• Precipitation of hydrophobic substances such as paraffin emulsions
together with aluminium salts.
• Chemical transformation of the surface of the fabric by polymer
addition that form a cross liked water repellent film (Silicon
repellent, resin based).

Flame Retardant Treatment

Flame retardant finishing has become more and more important and is
compulsory for some articles. Flame-retardants should protect the fiber from
burning, without modifying the handle, the look or color of the fabric.
They are generally applied to cotton and synthetic fibers. In some specific cases,
in particular in the carpet sector, they can also be required for wool, even though
this fiber is already flame resistant.

Antistatic Treatment
The processes consist of treating the fabric with hygroscopic substances which
increase the electrical conductivity of the fiber, thus avoiding the accumulation of
electrical charge. This finish is very common for synthetic fibers.

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Anti-Felt Treatment
Anti-felt treatment is applied in order to provide anti-felt properties to the good.
This will prevent shrinking of the finished product when it is repetitively washed in
a laundry machine.

Softening Treatment
Softeners are used not only in finishing processes, but also in batch dyeing
processes where they are applied in the dyeing baths or in the subsequent
washing baths. The application of the softener does not involve curing process.
In the continuous ore semi continuous processes the fabric is dried in stenter
frames.
Softener reduces the fiber-fiber friction, an effect, which hand feel, describes as
soft or smooth. Quite often softeners are used together with resins or optical
brighteners.
Fabric softener are water based emulsions or dispersions of water-insoluble
active materials such as
• Non-ionic surfactants
• Cationic surfactants
• Paraffin and polyethylene waxes
• Organo-modified silicon

Non-ionic surfactants have no substantivity for the fibers and are as wash fast as
cationic. In spite of this, their usage is increasing as the volume of the textile with
more permanence and increased wrinkle resistance is growing. Non-ionic
surfactants such as fatty acids, fatty esters and fatty amides belong to this group.
Because of their substantivity cationic surfactants produce more permanent
softening effect then non-ionic. Further more they are more effective at much
lower concentrations. Their substantivity for synthetic hydrophobic fibers is
limited, increasing in the order; polyester, polyamide, acetate, cotton, viscose
and wool. Some disadvantages of the cationic agents are their lack of
compatibility with anionic compounds typically employed as detergents and
soaps, etc. As such, cationic softeners are applied after the complete removal of
anionic detergents from the fabric. Cationic softeners are ionic molecules that
have a positive charge on the large part of the molecule. The important ones are
based on nitrogen, either in the form of an amine or in the form of a quaternary
ammonium salt. The amine becomes positively charged at acidic pH and
therefore functions as a cationic material at pH below 7. Quaternary ammonium
salts (hereafter referred to as QUATS), retain their cationic nature at all pH. The
important types will be described in this section. An important quality of cationic
softeners is that they exhaust from water onto all fibers. When in water, fibers
develop a negative surface charge; setting up an electronic field for attracting
positively charged species. These forces causes the cationic softener to deposit
in an oriented fashion, the positive end of the softener molecule is attracted to
the fiber surface forcing the hydrocarbon tail to orient outward. The fiber now

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takes on low energy, non- polar characteristics; therefore, the fiber has the
lowest possible coefficient of friction. Cationic are highly efficient softeners. The
ionic attraction causes complete exhaustion from baths and the orientation on the
fiber surfaces allows a mono-layer to be as effective as having more lubricant
piled on-top.

FINISHING IN SM DENIM
S.M.DENIM finishing department is a well-established modern section with a
suitable range of the finishing processes required for denim.
Department is working under the supervision of MR.ANWAAR manager finishing.

WORKING IN FININSHING DEPARTMENT OF SM DENIM:

It is divided in to four main sections as follows:

Batcher formation
Singeing
Washing (chemical treatment)
Sanforizing

Finishing is done according to the customer` s requirement and as per profit of

the organization. Singeing, skewing, washing and sanforizing are done according
to end use of fabric. Parameters of the finishing are set by testing under the
supervision of the finishing department.

The following types of finishes are applied to the denim fabric at SM Denim.

Flat finish
Stretch finish.
Rigid or Regular finish.

DENIM FINISHING:

The finishing of denim fabric is accomplished for several purposes. The fabric is
brushed to remove the loose lint, singed to burn off the hair-like fibers. The denim
must be preshrunk to prevent the finished garment from shrinking after washing.
The fabric is often chemical treated with size, wetting agent and lubricants.
Washing a piece of unfinished fabric and measuring the normal shrinkage that
occurs determine the amount of shrinking needed. During finishing the fabric is
skewed to prevent the garments from skewing after fabrication. The basic denim
compressive shrinking range is used in the factory that has most denim finishing
in a separate denim finishing range. The machine consists of entry end, shrinking
machine, drying, folding or batching.

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The process of finishing are described below

SINGEING

DEFINITION

Singeing means burning off loose fibers sticking out of textile goods.

REASONS FOR SINGEING

Common reasons for singeing include:

1. Textiles are first and foremost singed in order to improve their wear and end
use properties.

2. The burning-off of protruding fiber ends which are not firmly bound into the
yarns results in clean surface which allows the structure of fabric to be clearly
seen.

3. Fabrics which have not been singed soil more easily than singed fabrics.

4. The risk of pilling, especially with synthetic fibers, is extremely low in case of
singed fabric.

5. A closely singed fabric is essential for printing fine intricate patterns.

6. The risk of skitter dyeing with singed piece dyed articles in dark shades is
considerably reduced as randomly protruding fibres cause a diffuse reflection
of light.

7. Singeing process facilitates and speeds up desizing. This effect, however, is

achieved only if the fabric is impregnated with desizing liquor immediately
after singeing.

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FABRIC BEFORE AND AFTER SINGEING

Before singeing After singeing

TYPES OF SINGEING

Singeing can be classified into two types:

1. Direct singeing
2. Indirect singeing

Direct singeing is the most popular procedure. The fabric passes either glowing
metal with contact (mainly for pile fabric) or a direct gas flame. Important for both
techniques: when the machine stops, the fabric is moved from the metal and the
flame stops, too.

The indirect singeing works with highly heated ceramic modules. Infrared
beams are burning the loose fibres; speed controls the singeing effect.

GAS SINGEING

It is a type of direct singeing in which fabric is exposed to direct flame in such a

way that it only burns the protruding fibres at the surface not the fabric. Gas
singeing machine along with burner also equipped with cooling rollers to cool
down the fabric and brushing zone in front and after singer.

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SINGEING POSITIONS

Talking about gas singeing, it is of utmost importance, that the three different
positions of the burner can be realised:

1. Tangentially passing the cooling roller

2. Directly on to the cooling roller
3. Singeing onto the free guided fabric

Tangential singeing
Flame passes tangentially over the fabric
bended over a water cooled roller
recommendable for fabrics which cannot
tolerate direct exposure to flame and for
repair of filamentation

Onto water cooled roller

Flame meets right-angle onto the fabric
bended over a water cooled roller.
Recommended for fabrics of temperature
sensitive fibres, those of open-weave,
blended ones weighing less than 125g/m2

Onto free guided fabric

Flame meets right-angle onto dense woven
fabric freely guided between 2 rollers,
recommended for natural fibres and blends
weighing more than 125g/m²

SEQUENCE OF SINGEING

The singeing process contains three steps:

1. One cleaning step in front of the singer,

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2. The singeing itself and

3. The cleaning step afterwards.

Pre-cleaning:

Well prepared and cleaned fabric is a pre-condition for good singeing. The first
cleaning should contain brushing and beating units to achieve the best output.
Fabric heavily vibrates due to the beating bars. Dust, fibres and other residues
get loosened and are extracted; fibres sticking to the surface get lifted by the
brush segments presenting it in such a way that they easily can be singed-off.

Singeing:

It is of utmost importance since if proper control is done here it leads to very

severe damage to the fabric. The heart of any singeing machine are the burners,
together with the supply and control units for the gas-air mixture.

The essential conditions to prevent fabric damage and singeing faults are:

a) A high energy flame (mechanical and thermal) to burn polyester with any
residue
b) A uniformly hot and hard flame to prevent singeing marks
c) Machine design that minimizes flame/fabric contact time and keeps thermal
energy away from the ground as much as possible to avoid thermal effects.

Burner should be such that it gives oxidizing flame so that there are no soot
marks on fabric. Oxidizing flame or blue flame is only possible if there is proper
mixing of the fuels [Normally it is mixture of air and oxygen (3:1)].

Post cleaning:

A second cleaning after the singeing unit ensures that ashes and other products
resulting from singeing are separated from the system. Cleaning after singeing is
as well of importance, impregnating liquor remains cleaner and reduced amount
of dust in the following process steps.

SINGEING PARAMETERS

Fabric speed (m/min)

Flame intensity (mbar)
Fabric temperature (oC)
Singeing positions
Burner fabric distance (mm)

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ASSESMENT TEST FOR SINGEING

The assessment test used for measuring level of singeing is the PILLING TEST.

Principle of pilling test:

It is based on the principle that pills are formed by the entanglement of loose
fibres which protrude from the fabric surface. If singeing is done right there are
very few pills. Under the influence of rubbing action these loose fibres develop
into small spherical bundles anchored to the fabric by a few unbroken fibres.
There are different machines used for pilling testing e.g., random tumble pilling
tester, ICI pilling box etc. The fabric obtained after rubbing action from these
machines is assessed visually with standard photographs having following
ratings.

1-very severe pilling

2-severe pilling
3-moderate pilling
4-slight pilling
5-no pilling

After singeing it should be 4 or 5 or 4-5.

SINGEING FAULTS

Common singeing faults are as follows:

1. Uneven singeing effect
1 a: across the fabric width
1 b: along the fabric length
1 c: in the form of horizontal and/ or vertical steps

2. Thermal damage of the fabric or individual fibre types within the fabrics e.g.,
formation of beads of molten material in polyester.

SINGEING MACHINE IN SM DENIM:

In SM Denim one Singeing machine of OSTHOFF is installed. The machine is

working in one shift.

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WASHING
In S.M DENIM three types of washes are done depending upon the requirements
of customer.

• Flat finish
• Regular or rigid finish
• Stretch finish

SPECIFICATIONS

No of washing tanks = 5 (Capacity of 2 tanks is 2000 litre and capacity of 3 tanks

is 1200 litre).
Speed = minimum is 16 m/min, maximum 55-60 m/min.

FLAT FINISH
Special process done at mill to impart fabric with an even wash down effect and
very clean surface. Originally liquid ammonia was used but most suppliers now
use mercerization plus calendering process to achieve the flat surface.
Mercerization swells up the cotton fibers and allows the calendering to press flat
surface. It is considered as an imitation process to use ammonia, which is toxic
and not allowed in commercial use in most countries.

In S.M.DENIM ammonia as a chemical is not used.

Chemicals used for flat finish are:
Caustic: It is used for increasing strength and luster.
Lumen: It is used as a softener.
JU Extra: It is used as a wetting agent.
Nervance LT: It is used as a desizer.

PROCESS SEQUENCE
Desize
Mercerize
Neutral (by using acid)
Wetting
Softening

STRETCH FINISH
This finish process is specially done for lyrca.It increases the elasticity.

Chemicals used for stretch finish are:

Siligen: It is used as a softener.

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JU Extra: It is used as a wetting agent.

Nervance LT: It is used as a desizer.

PROCESS SEQUENCE
Desize
Bleaching
Neutralize
Wetting
Softening

REGULAR FINISH
This finish process is done for imparting softening. It is suitable for dark shades.

Chemicals used for regular finish are:

JU Extra: It is used as a wetting agent.
Siligen: It is used as a softener.

PROCESS SEQUENCE
Wetting
Softening

DRYING
Forty drums are used for drying by using steam.
After drying fabric is wound on a batcher and forwarded to sanforizing.

Skew and washing

The effect of skew with twill fabrics finished with the weft yarn at right angles to
the selvedge is that the leg twisting occurs in jeans during garment washing. The
aim of pre-skewing during fabric finishing is to eliminate this phenomenon.

When a non pre-skewed cotton denim fabric of twill weave construction is

washed, the leading edge of the twill is advanced 3/1 twill fabrics skew to a
greater extent than 2 – 1 twill fabrics and each construction needs to be tested to
establish its potential skew. No skew effect is observed with broken twill and
plain weave constructions

3 x 1 twill advances approximately 8%

2 x 1 twill advances approximately 5%

Fabrics that have been pre-skewed is identified by the finishing code letter ‘Z’ for
‘Z’ twills and the letter ‘S’ for ‘S’ twills.
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SANFORIZING

OBJECTIVE OF SANFORIZING

The sole objective of sanforizing is to control the length wise shrinkage of fabric.
The maximum percentage of shrinkage depends on fabric construction and
quality but controlled according to the customer specifications.

SHRINKAGE PHENOMENON

During spinning, weaving, bleaching, dyeing and the various finishing processes, yarns
and cloth are under a continuous tension.

Yarns and/or fabrics are not fixed materials. They consist of separate, stretchable fibres
which submit to the tension. In other words, fabrics do stretch in length and width. The
tension within the yarns, which is caused by this stretching, can be eliminated when the
friction within the fabric is reduced. This reduction in friction occurs during laundering
where both water and soap act as a lubricant. The lubricant, along with the mechanical
action of the washer, helps the fibres relax and contract to their original length before the
elongation takes place. This means that the fabric shrinks and recaptures its original
equilibrium.

CONTROLLED COMPRESSIVE SHRINKAGE PROCESS

The internationally well-known and most important shrinking process today dates back
more than 70 years. Though the correct expression for this process is Controlled
Compressive Shrinkage, the average person knows it as SANFORIZED. The process is
a purely mechanical treatment without any addition of chemicals.

The Sanforized label means dimensional stability for garments made up of Sanforized
labelled fabrics.

The purpose of the process is to shrink fabrics in such a way that textiles made up of
these fabrics do not shrink during washing.

The amount of potential wash shrinkage must be determined prior to shrinking. A full
width sample is wash-tested according to the test method. After the lengthwise and
widthwise shrinkage has been determined, the compressive shrinkage machine can be
adjusted accordingly.

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PRINCIPLE OF MECHANICAL SHRINKING

The shrinking process takes place between the rubber belt and the heated
shrinking drum. The pressure roller presses the rubber belt against the shrinking
drum and the belt is stretched. When the pressure of the roller is relieved the belt
shrinks again. The fabric inserted between the rubber belt and the drum has to
follow the shrinking of the belt and is itself shrunk.

1) Fabric
2) Rubber belt
3) Heated shrinking drum

The fabric shrinkage can be varied by varying the pressure of the roller on the
rubber belt. The greater the roller pressure, the greater the shrinking.

TECHNICAL DATA

Model : 2002
Manufacturer : Monfortex
Maker : Germany
Width of the machine : 1800 mm
Speed : 55-60 m/min
Production capacity : 3600m/hr

FAULTS IN FABRIC

If fabric moves in loose condition, without maintaining tension crease marks or

cut marks occur on fabric.

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FAULTS IN MACHINE

1. Wear and tear in the rubber blanket

2. Rotary joint at drying cylinder may wear out due to which steam
leakages occur and causes spots on fabric.

3. Electric faults

TENSIONING BAR

It is placed one at entry and one at exit to maintain tension in fabric.

MAINTENANCE

Maintenance is done weekly .It involve oiling and cleaning of different parts.

DESCRIPTION OF MAIN PARTS

ENTRY

In the entry zone main parts include the edge guiders to ensure that fabric
passed is in complete open width form and the foreign particle separator which
ensures that fabric is not carrying and deposited materials on its surface which
may cause damage to the rubber belt.

MOISTURIZING ROLLER

It is a perforated roller in which steam is injected. The fabric is passed over it and
moisturized by the steam coming out of its perforations.

SHRINKING UNIT

The shrinking unit consists of;

• Pressure roller
• Rubber belt
• Heated shrinking roller

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The shrinking process is done on the rubber belt as described earlier. The fabric
is fed on the convex part of a drying cylinder and when the blanket retracts to the
concave section of the blanket, the cloth is physically forced to comply with the
curvature and shrinks according to the thickness of the blanket. The cylinder
serves to hold the fabric on to the blanket and does not let it slip back.

The excessive heat of the shrinking cylinder can cause damage to rubber belt. In
order to prevent this, perforated water pipes spray water on the belt as it leaves
the fabric. This has two advantages;

o The rubber belt is cooled down and prevented from surface hardening.

o Very little water remains on the grainy surface of the rubber belt and
absorbed by the fabric. This results in good and easy shrinking process.

PALMER UNIT

It consists of two steel drums which are steam heated. The fabric is passed only
over the larger diameter drum while the smaller drum is only for drying of the
bonded blanket. A bonded blanket is guided by rollers as shown in the figure.
This blanket ensures controlled residual moisture and proper stabilizing of
shrinking done in the shrinking unit.

COOLING DRUMS

Two water cooled drums cool down the temperature of fabric before batching.

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SCHEMATIC DESCRIPTION
The process can be described by the following schematic:

FIG-1: COMPRESSIVE SHRINKAGE PROCESS

Fabric (F) passes through the skyer (S) or other moistening device and is
moistened by water and/or steam. This will lubricate the fibres and promote
shrinkability within the fabric. Normally, a fabric must be moistened in such a way
that every single thread achieves a moisture content of approximately 15%. This
allows compression of the fabric with very little resistance.

When the fabric passes through the clip expander (C), we obtain the required
width. The clip expander also transports the fabric to the most important part of
the machine: the rubber belt unit (indicated by arrows in above figure). In the
close-up of fig. 1, we see the endless rubber belt (R). By squeezing rubber belt
(R) between pressure roll (P) and rubber belt cylinder (RB), we obtain an
elastical stretching of the rubber belt surface. The more we squeeze the rubber
belt, the more the surface is stretched. This point of squeezing is known as the
pressure zone, or the nip point.

Fabric (F) is now fed into the pressure zone. When leaving the pressure zone,
the rubber belt recovers itself and the surface returns to its original length
carrying the fabric with it. The effect of this action is a shorting of the warp yarn
which packs the filling yarns closer together. At this actual moment, shrinkage
occurs.

After compaction within the rubber belt unit, the fabric enters the dryer (D). Here
the fibres are locked in their shrunken state by removing the moisture from the
fabric.
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After the compressive shrinkage process is completed, another sample of the

fabric is taken. This sample is also wash-tested. The final result of this test must
meet the Sanforized Standard, in length and width before it may carry the
Sanforized label.

MONFORTS SANFORIZER

1) Moisturizing roller
2) Heated shrinking drum
3) Rubber belt
4) Palmer unit
5) Cooling drums

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DEPARTMENTAL INTRODUCTION
The inspection department is working under the supervision of Mr.ARSHAD
along with employees. Four inspection frames of Taiwan are used. They work 24
hrs in two shifts. Eight lights are used for inspection in one frame. Input is
finished fabric. Output is inspected fabric roll.

INSPECTION
Quality is ultimate concern; every single yard of the denim goes through
inspection department and rated by a point count system to ensure that quality is
up to standard before packing. Defective fabric pieces are rejected and sold as
seconds and relatively minor defective points are marked clearly using stickers to
alert cutters.

PROCESS
Fabric batcher is set at the back side of machine equipped with rollers which
provides fabric unwinding. Inspection table is laminated white to enhance the
defect identification. Four tube lights are provided to optimize the lighting.
Measuring counter is provided in front of the inspection table for controlling
length. It has forward, reverse, start and stop button controls. Inspection is
carried out on slanting glass plate table. The cloth is pulled over the glass plate
by a variable speed motor and different cloth defects are recorded for quality
control purpose. They inspect the fabric according to 4 point system. After
inspection fabric is wound on roller.

Machine speed: min 5-8 m/min, max 60-70 m/min.

4 Inspection machines are used. (Inspection frame model: Taiwan)

4 POINT SYSTEM
This is issued by the American Society for Testing and Materials with reference
to the designation: ASTM D5430-93.
Faults are scored with penalty points of 1, 2, 3 and 4 according to their size and
significance.

SIZE OF DEFECT(LENGTH PENALTY POINTS

IN INCHES)
3 inches or less 1
Over 3 inches but less than 6 inches 2
Over 6 inches but less than 9 inches 3
Over 9 inches 4

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DEFECTS

• Removable defects
• Non-Removable defects

REMOVABLE DEFECTS

Removable defects are those defects which are removed by washing and by
cutting.

Defects are:
* Sizing stains, oil stains
* Slubs
* Hole

OIL STAINS
When fabric gets spots of oil lubrication from any part.

SLUBS
It is the collection of the threads at the surface of the fabric. Similarly fibers
present in the form of bunch at the fabric are called slubs. This defect is removed
by combing.

HOLE
When fabric passes through temple it produces holes on the fabric due to its wiry
surface.

NON REMOVABLE DEFECTS

Those defects which cannot be removed by mending and these are count in
fabric grading. These are:

JALA
In warp and weft direction there is a gap, it looks like that some warps or wefts
are missed.

CRACKS
During weaving when m/c stops and again starts running then there is a gap
between the two wefts. It seems like that the beating is not done properly.
PATTI
It is the dark color or thick weft lines in the fabric.
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DOUBLE PICK
The two or more threads are inserted at the same place. It is somewhat emboss
and occur at the full length of the fabric.
BROKEN PICK
If the double or thick yarn is inserted 1/4 or ½ width of the fabric then it is known
as cut or broken pick.
BROKEN END
When the warp end is broken.
KNOT
It comes due to knotting of broken warp end.
FINGER MARK
It comes when a person touches the warp ends.
CREASE MARK
Creases occur due to improper finishing.

WRONG DENTING
When more yarns are passed through dents.

TIGHT END
When warp end becomes tight due to tension in dyeing.

COARSE END
It comes when warp end is coarse.

MISS PICK

If the weft yarn is missing from any place of fabric then it is known as miss pick.

REED MARKS
The lines are formed on the fabric due to reed movement and this defect is called
reed marks.

STARTING MARKS
That mark which is due to the beating motion of the loom is called starting mark.

A GRADE FABRIC
If 30 points comes in 100 meter fabric then it is considered as A grade fabric.

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B GRADE FABRIC

If more than 30 points comes in fabric then it is considered as B grade fabric.

PACKAGING
Each roll of denim is packed with air-tight heat sealed plastic to protect the roll
from possible damages that may be caused during shipment.

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INTRODUCTION

The process lab in SM DENIM is a modern and developed lab in which latest
machinery and testing equipment is present to ensure that the products
developed are high quality and meet the requirements of customers. The lab is
ISO-9000 certified and is recognized through out Pakistan.

RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT

This section of application services works on new chemicals as dyes and

different agents marketed by chemical industries. The chemical industries
send various newly developed chemicals to the lab where the R & D
section tests it for some basic properties.
New processing techniques are also tested in the department for
continuous advancement of technology owned by the mill.

This department eliminates the problems which may occur during various
stages of processes.
During processing some removable faults as oil stains etc are sent to lab
by the production staff where it is tested with various chemicals and the
best suited chemical is suggested to the production staff for correction.

Shade matching is done during running lots and also when a sample is
send by customer.

TESTING LAB

The testing lab is subdivided as;

• raw material testing

At the Yarn lab, physical testing of the yarn purchased from the
different Spinning mills is done
• fabric testing services
There are number of tests performed on export fabric. The tests
to be performed and their specs are specified by customer.

The tests that can be performed are;

• yarn fluff
• stiffness

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• tear strength
• skew
• miosture
• Fabric width (inches,cm)
• Wt/sqm (gm)
• Shrinkage warp%
• Shrinkage weft%
• Pilling ICI
• Tear strength
• Tensile strength
• Flammability
• Wash fastness
• Crocking dry
• Brushing
• Light fastness
• Finish construction
• Finish count
• Appearance retention
• crocking dry

LAB REPORTS

Lab reports of a running lot are constantly maintained. After each process
a sample for testing is sent by the production staff usually after many
meters of run.
Lab reports contain information about various tests performed according to
customer requirements and their results with remarks of responsible staff
about the fabric

EQUIPMENTS USED IN TESTING LAB

Wrapping Reel (By Mesdan Salo Italy)

It is used to prepare lea for measuring the count and strength of lea.

Working Of Wrapping Reel

Separate yarn stand is provided to accommodate cops. More than one lea can
be prepared at a time. Number of revolutions is pre-selected by the operator to
achieve desired length of lea. The reel starts gently and smoothly to increase
normal speed under microprocessor control, before reaching the pre-selected
measuring length, it slows down and approach the end of the measurement

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slowly and stops at accurate position, which ensures uniform winding without any
stretch.

Strength Tester (By J.A. King & company)

This instrument is used to determine the breaking load of yarn in lea form. The
observed breaking load is expressed in pounds (lbs) or kgs.

Types of Strength Tester

Three types of strength testers are available namely:
1. Automatics lee strength tester
2. Electronic lee strength tester
3. Mechanical lee strength tester
Available instrument in yarn testing lab is of mechanical type.

Working of Strength Tester

A long length of yarn is wound into a skein using a wrap reel. The whole skein
is then mounted in a strength-testing machine between two jaws. The skein is
subjected to increasing extension. The machine in works on the principle of
CRT i.e. constant rate of traverse in which the pulling clamp moves at a
uniform rate and the load is applied through the other clamp which moves
appreciably to actuate a load measuring mechanism so that the rate of
increase of load or elongation is usually not constant and is dependent on the
extension characteristics of the specimen. The load is applied by swinging a
weighted pendulum (A and A+B) and force is monitored in kgs or lbs
depending on the weight applied.

Balance (by sartorius TE3135)

This instrument is used to determine yarn count in the form of lea, roving, sliver
and the cloth GSM.
It is a combination of electronic balance and computer. The computer
automatically converts the specimen weight determined by the balance into the
yarn count. It can be used to test different count units, which includes Tex, dTex,
Denier, English count, Metric count etc.

CLSP value can be calculated by multiplying lea strength and count

i.e.
CLSP = Lea strength x count

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Moisture meter(By Mesdan Salo Italy)

This instrument checks the moisture of fabric and yarn. Moisture of yarn varies
with count. Coarser yarn has more moisture.

Planofil (By Mesdan Salo Italy)

This instrument is used to check yarn fluff. The yarn is wound on a black
coloured sheet on which fluff is seen easily.

.shrinkage, skew scale

It marks how much fabric is shrinked or skewed.

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FAULTS OF WARPING
FAULTS IN MACHINE:

• Stop motion does not work on creel and on warping drum as a result
broken ends are not traceable for knotting.
• Chain breakages
• If frictional drum should not be kept in a polished state, then thermal
damages occur due to abrasion.
• Brake could be inefficient.
• Sprockets are jammed.
• If comb do not move properly then there is a chance of cutting of comb
due to friction with yarn.
• Tension supplied if varied it causes breakages or loosening in yarn.
• If speed of warper increase than yarn sheet may break

FAULTS IN RAW MATREIAL

• Neps
• Long thick places (in case of non slub yarn)
• Short thick places (in case of non slub yarn)
• Thin places
• Weak places
• Count variation
• Hairiness

FAULTS IN PRODUCT:

• Misalignment of yarn sheet if the yarn sheet is not properly adjusted

• Uneven package density
• Too soft package winding
• Package could not be in uniform density

FAULTS OF DYEING
FAULTS IN MACHINE:

• leakage of steam in drying cylinders

• wear and tear of rollers if bearing is jammed
• Improper working of load cell on squeezing roller. Which causes
entanglement of warp sheet as pressure is not properly distributed
• Faults in dosing system can cause serious problem of shade variation.

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• If the accumulator do not work properly than the machine is stopped.

• If speed of the machine is kept greater than the yarn` s bearable strength

FAULTS IN RAW MATERIAL:

The main causes of the dye ability variations in yarn are:

• Immature fibres
• Dead fibres
• Vegetable matter or other foreign matter
• Wrong twist
• Bad splice
• Neps
• Count variations

SIZING FAULTS

• pressure rolls do not work properly

• squeezing rollers do not work properly

WEAVING FAULTS

• dropper will not fall

• sensors do not work properly
• Problem in electrical panel
• Problem in electronic card
• wear and tear of temple
• if dust comes in nozzles
• improper working of solenoid valves

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