SECTION 1.

1
1.1.1 - RING
A nonempty set R is called a ring if the binary operations addition “+” and
multiplication “·” Are defined in R and
i) R is an abelian Group under addition.
ii) R is semi Group under multiplication.
iii) Both left and right distributive laws hold in it: i.e. ∀a,b,c∈ R
a(b+c) = ab+ac
(b+c)a = ba+ca

1.1.2 - COMMUTATIVE RING :-

If R is a ring and commutative law w.r.t multiplication hold in it then R is called
commutative ring. OR
R is called commutative ring if ∀a,b∈ R ab = ba

1.1.3 - RING WITH UNITY (IDENTITY) :-

If R is a ring and it contain the multiplicative identity “1” then R is called ring with
unity.

Examples :-

1) The set of integers = { 0, +1, +2, +3,…….. } is commutative ring with

unity. (Ring of integers).
2) The set of all even numbers {0, +2, +4, +6, …..} is a commutative ring
without unity.
3) The set of rational numbers ; set of real numbers , set of complex
numbers are all examples of commutative ring with unity.
4) The set Mnxn( R) of all nxn matrices over the field of real numbers is non-
commutative ring with unity.
_ _ _ _ _ _
5) The set Z6 = { 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 } is a commutative ring with unity.
_ _ _
In general Zn = { 0, 1, 2, ….., (n – 1) } is a commutative ring with unity.

6) The set R = {ao+ a1i + a2j + a3k} where ai one real numbers and
i2 =j2 = k2 = ijk = -1 and
ij = -ji = k etc
R is a non-commutative ring with unity; this ring is called the ring of real
quatorinois.
7) Let x be a non-empty set and let P(x) b the set of all subsets of x. Let
addition and multiplication in P(x) is defined as ; ∀ A,B ϵ P(x)
A + B = (A - B) U (B – A)
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 AB = A ∩ B then x is commutative ring with unity; where X is the identity
element :
AX = A ∩ X = A ∀ A ∈ P(x)

1.1.4 - CONSEQUENCES FROM THE DEFINITION:-

C1:-
If “0” is the additive identity of R then
a.0 = 0.a = 0 ∀ a ∈ R

Proof:-
a.0 = a. (0.0) ∵ 0 is additive identity.
a.0 = a.0 + a.0 Left distributive law.
⇒ a.0 +0 = a.0 + a.0 ∵ 0 is additive identity.
⇒ 0 = a.0 cancellation law holds in group.
⇒ a.0 = 0
Now
0.a = (0 + 0) a ∵ 0 is additive identity.
0.a =0.a + 0.a Right distributive law.
0.a + 0 = 0.a + 0.a 0 is additive identity
0 = 0.a Cancellation low holds in group.
⇒ 0.a = 0
Thus a.0 = 0.a = 0
C2 :-
a (-b) = (-a) b = -(ab) ∀a,b∈ R.
Proof :-
∵ a.0 = 0
⇒ a. (b + (-b)) = 0
⇒ a.b + a. (-b) = 0 (Left distributive law)
this shows that ab is additive inverse of a(-b) i.e. a(-b) = -ab
Now
0.b = 0
⇒ (a + (-a)) b = 0
⇒ ab + (-a) b =0 (Right distributive law)
this shows that ab is the additive inverse
of (-a)b ; i.e. (-a)b = -(ab)
thus a(-b) = (-a)b = -(ab)
C3 :-
(-a)(-b) = ab
Proof:-
(-a)(-b) = - (a)-b) ∵ (-a)b = -(ab)
= -(-(ab)) ∵a(-b) = -(ab)
= ab
In Particular

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 (-1) a = -a (If 1 ∈ R)
∵ (-1) a + a = (-1) a + 1.a
(-1) a + a = (-1 +1) a right distributive law.
(-1) a + a = 0.a
(-1) a + a = 0
This shows that a is additive inverse of (-1) a
in (-1) a = -a ∎

1.1.5 - UNIT ELEMENT OF RING

A nonzero element of R is called a unit if it has multiplicative inverse in R.

Note:-
Unity (multiplicative identity) is also a unit but every unit need not to be unity.

1.1.6 - DIVISION RING OR SKEW FIELD:-

A ring R is called division ring if all the non-zero elements of R has its
multiplicative inverse in R; i.e. each non-zero elements of R is a unit.

1.1.7 - Filed:-
A ring R is called a field if all the non-zero elements of R form an abelian group
under multiplication.
OR
A commutative division ring is called a field.

1.1.8 - Zero Divisor:-

If R is a commutative ring then a non-zero element a ∈ R is called zero divisor if
there is non-zero element b ∈ R such that ab=0e.g;

1) For Z6 = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
2 and 3 are zero divisors.
Since 2·3 = 0 and 3·2 =0

2) For A = 1 2 2 4
3 6 ; B= -1 -2

AB = 1 2 2 4 2 -2 4-4
3 6 -1 -2 = 6 -6 12-12

= 0 0
0 0

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thus A and B are zero divisors.
1.1.A - Theorem :-
A ring (R, +, ·) has no zero divisor if and only if cancellation law hold in R.

Proof:-
Suppose cancellation law holds in R

i.e. a.b = a.c⇒ b = c

take a ≠ 0 such that ab = 0 for a,b∈ R
since a.0 = ab
by cancellation law we have
b=0
thus R has no zero divisor.

Conversely:-
Let R has no zero divisor, i.e.
for ab = 0 ; either a = 0 or b = 0
for a≠0
as ab = ac ⇒ab – ac =0
⇒ a (b - c) = 0
Since R has no zero divisor; and a ≠ 0; thus
b–c=0
⇒ b=c
this shows that cancellation law holds in R.
∎

Note:
If p is prime; then Zp does not have zero divisor.

SECTION 1.2
1.2.1 - INTEGRAL DOMAIN
A Commutative Ring R is called an integral domain if it has no zero divisor; i.e.
for a,b∈Rif
ab = 0 then either a = 0 or b = 0
The set of integers is an integral domain .

1.2.A - Theorem :-
Every field F is an integral domain.

1.2.2 - CHARACTERISTIC OF A RING

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If for a ring (R,+,·) there exists a least +ve integer “n” such that
na = a + a + a + …… +a = 0 (n times)
i.e. na = 0 ∀ a ∈ R then n is called the characteristic of R.
If no such integer exists then R is of characteristic zero.

1.2.3 - SUB-RING :-
Let S be a non-empty subset of a ring (R,+,·); then S is said to be a subring of R
if S satisfied all the axioms of ring under the induced binary operations.
i.e.
S is called a subring of R if
i) a-b∈S ∀ a, b ∈ S
ii) ab∈ S ∀ a, b ∈ S

Example :-
Given set of even integers {0, ±1, ±2, ±3, …..} is a subring of Ring of
integers {0, ±1, ±2, ±3, …}.

1.2.B - THEOREM :-
Let S be a non-empty subset of a ring (R,+,·) then S is a subring of R iff

i) a-b∈S ∀ a, b ∈ S
ii) ab∈ S ∀ a, b ∈ S

Proof :-
Suppose that S is subring of R, i.e S satisfied all the axioms of a ring.

Let a, b ∈ S
Since S is abelian group under addition; thus for b∈S , -b∈S (additive inverse).
∴ a, -b∈S
⇒ a + (-b) ∈S ⇒a – b∈S
Hence condition (i) is proved.

Also S is semi group under multiplication;

thus for a,b∈S
ab∈S
condition (ii) is proved.

Conversely
Suppose condition (i) and (ii) holds in S. We have to show that S satisfies all the
axioms of a ring
Let a,b∈S
by condition (i) a – b∈S
this shows that S is subgroup of R under addition.
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Also S⊆ R and commutative law holds in R under addition; thus it also holds in S
thus S is an abelian subgroup of R under addition.

Also for a,b∈S⇒ab∈S(by condition (ii)) thus S is closed under multiplication.

Since S ⊆ R and associative law holds in R; thus it also holds in S.
Thus S is a semi-group under multiplication again.
Since S ⊆ R and distributive laws holds in R, thus they also holds in S.

From above we have proved that

i) S is abelian subgroup of R under addition.
ii) S is semi group under multiplication.
iii) Distributive laws holds in S.
There S is a subring of R. ∎

1.2.C - THEOREM :-
Intersection of two subrings of a ring R is a subring of R.

Proof :-
Let S and T be two subrings of a ring R.
Take a,b∈S∩T
⇒ a,b∈S and a,b∈T
⇒ a – b∈S and a – b∈T (Since S and T are subrings)
ab∈S and ab∈T
⇒ a – b∈S ∩ T
and ab∈S ∩ T
thus S∩T is also a subring of R. ∎
Note :-
Intersection of any number of subrings of a ring R is a subring of R.

SECTION 1.3
1.3.1 - Ring Homomorphism :-
Let R and R’ be two rings. A mapping Ф : R R’ is said to be ring
homomorphism if∀ a, b ∈ R’
i) Ф (a+b) = Ф (a) + Ф(b)
ii) Ф (ab) = Ф (a) Ф (b)

Example :-
Let R = C (the set of complex numbers). Then the mapping Ф:CCdefined by
_
Ф(Z) =Z is ring Homomorphism;

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Since
_____ __ __
Ф(Z1 + Z2) = Z1 + Z2 = Z1 + Z2 = Ф(Z1) + Ф(Z2)
and ___ _ _
Ф(Z1Z2) = Z1Z2 = Z1Z2 = Ф(Z1)Ф(Z2)

1.3.2 - ISOMORPHISM :-
A ring Homomorphism
Ф : R → R’ is called isomorphism if Ф is
i) one - one
ii) onto

1.3.3 - KERNEL:-
If Ф is a ring Homomorphism from R to R’ i.e. Ф : R → R’ ; then KerФ is the set of
all the elements a∈R such that
Ф(a) = 0’ (0’ is additive identity of R’)
i.e
KerФ = {a∈R : Ф(a)=0’ }

1.3.A - THEOREM :-
Let Ф : R → R’ be a ring Homomorphism; then Ф is one-one if and only if
KerФ = {0}
Proof:-
Suppose Ф is one-one; we have to show that KerФ = {0}.
Suppose on contrary that KerФ ≠ {0};
Then there exists non-zero element r∈KerФ
∴ Ф(r) = 0’
But Ф(0) =0’
⇒ Ф(r) = Ф(0)
⇒ r=0 since Ф is one-one.
Which is a contradiction thus KerФ = {0}.

Conversely :-
Let KerФ = {0}; we have to show that Ф is one-one. For this let
Ф(r1) = Ф(r2)
⇒ Ф(r1) - Ф(r2) = 0’
⇒ Ф(r1 - r2) = 0’ since Ф is Homomorphism
⇒ (r1 - r2)∈KerФ
Since KerФ = {0}
Thus
r1-r2 = 0
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 ⇒ r1 = r 2
This shows that Ф is one-one. ∎

1.3.B - THEOREM :-
Let Ф R → R’ be a ring Homomorphism;
Then
i) Image of Ф is a subring of R’
ii) KerФ is a subring of R.

PROOF:-
i) Let r1’, r2’ ∈ Image of Ф i.e. r1´, r2´∈R´ then there exists r1,r2∈ R such that
Ф(r1) = r1´ and Ф(r2) = r2´
Now r1´ – r2´ = Ф(r1) – Ф(r2)
= Ф (r1 – r2) ∵ Ф is Homomorphism.
Since r1 – r2∈R (∵ R is Ring).
∴ Ф(r1 – r2) ∈ Image of Ф
i.e. r1´r2´∈ Image of Ф.
Also r1´r2´ = Ф(r1)Ф(r2)
= Ф(r1r2) ∵ Ф is Homomorphism.
Since r1r2∈R (∵ R is Ring).
∴ Ф(r1r2) ∈ Image of Ф
i.e. r1´r2´∈ Image of Ф.
Hence Image of Ф is a subring of R’.

ii)KerФ = {r ∈R :Ф ( r ) = 0´ }, We have to show that KerФ is a subring of R.

Obviously KerФ⊆R and KerФ is always non-empty; since at least 0∈KerФ
Such that Ф (0) = 0´
Let r1, r2∈KerФ

Then
Ф (r1) = 0´ and Ф(r2) = 0´
Now
Ф(r1 – r2) = Ф(r1) - Ф(r2) ∵Ф is Homomorphism
= 0´- 0´
= 0´
⇒ r1 – r2∈KerФ
and Ф(r1r2) = Ф (r1)Ф (r2) = 0´0´ = 0´
⇒ r1r2∈KerФ
Hence KerФ is a Sub-Ring of R. ∎

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 SECTION 1.4
1.4.1 - IDEALS
Left Ideal :-
Let I be a non-empty subset of a ring R; then I is said to be left ideal of R if
i) ∀a,b∈ I⇒ a-b ∈I
ii) ∀ a ∈I, r ∈ R ⇒ r a ∈I
Right Ideal :-
Let I be a non-empty subset of a ring R; then I is called right ideal of R if
i) ∀a,b∈I⇒ a-b ∈I
ii) ∀ a ∈I, r ∈ R ⇒ a r ∈I

1.4.A - THEOREM :-

Let Ф : R → R’ be a ring Homomorphism; then KerФ is an ideal of R.

Proof :-
∵KerФ {r ∈R : Ф (r) = 0’}
Let r1,r2∈KerФ
thus Ф(r1) = 0’ and Ф(r2) = 0’
Now
Ф(r1 – r2) = Ф(r1) – Ф(r2) ∵Ф is Homomorphism.
= 0’ – 0’ = 0’
⇒ r1 – r2∈ Ker Ф
Now
Let r ∈R and r1∈Ker Ф
⇒ Ф(rr1) = Ф(r) Ф (r1)
⇒ Ф (r) 0’ = 0’
⇒ rr1∈ Ker Ф
Also Ф (r1r) = Ф(r1) Ф (r) = 0’Ф (r) = 0’
⇒ r1r ∈ Ker Ф
This shows that Ker Ф is an ideal of R.∎

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1.4.2 - QUOTIENT RING :-
Let I be an ideal of a ring R then the set R/I = {a+I:a∈R} is called cosets of I in R
is a ring called Quotient ring, where addition and multiplication one defined as
(a+ I)+(b+ I) = (a+b)+ I ∀a,b∈ R
(a+ I)(b+ I) = ab+ I ∀a,b∈ R
Note:-
If R is a Commutative ring with unity then R/I is also a Commutative
ring with unity
1+I is the multiplicative identity of R/I and 0+I=I is the additive identity
of R/I.

1.4.B - THEOREM :-
If I is an ideal of a ring R; then R/I is a ring.
Proof:-
First we show that R/Iis an abelian group under addition.
∵ R/I = {a+I:a∈R}
Let a+I, b+I∈R/I where a,b∈R

(a+I)+(b+I) = (a+b)=I
∵a,b∈R⇒a+b∈R
⇒ (a+b)+I∈R/I
i.e. (a+I) + (b +I)∈R/I
clouser law holds in R/I under addition.
Now let (a+I),(b+I),(c+I) ∈ R/I;a,b,c∈R
(a+I)+[(b+I)+(c+I)] = (a+I)+(b+c)+I
= [a+(b+c)]+I
= [(a+b)+c]+I
= (a+b)+I+(c+I)
= [(a+I)+(b+I)]+(c+I)
Thus associative law holds in R/I under addition.Since 0∈R; thus 0 + I∈R/ I
0 + I is the additive identity of R/ I; since ∀a+I∈ R/ I
(0+ I)+(a+ I) = (0+a)+ I = a+ I
(a+ I)+(0+ I) = (a+0)+ I = a+ I
∀a∈ R; -a ∈ R (∵ R is ring).
Thus a+I∈R/I and (-a)+I∈R/I
(a+I) and (-a) +I are the additive inverses of each other; since
(a+I)+ ((-a) +I) = (a+(-a)) +I
= 0+I
Thus each element of R/I has its additive inverse in R/I.
For (a+I),(b+I) ∈R/I a,b∈R
(a +I) + (b +I) = (a + b) +I
= (b+a)+I ∵ R is commutative under addition.
= (b +I)+(a +I)
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Thus R/Iis commutative under addition.
Hence R/Iisabelian group under addition.

Now we show that R/Iis semi-group under multiplication.

Let (a +I), (b +I)∈R/I a,b∈R
(a +I)(b +I) = ab+I
Since a,b∈R⇒ab∈R
Thus ab+I∈R/I
i.e. (a+I)(b+I)∈R/I
clouser law holds in R/I under multiplication
For (a + I) , (b + I), (c + I)∈R/I a,b,c∈R
(a + I)[(b + I)(c + I)] = (a + I) (bc + I)
= a(bc)+I
= (ab)c+I
= (ab+I)(c+I)
= [(a+I) (b+I)] (c+I)
Thus associative law holds in R/I under multiplication.
Hence R/Iis semi group under multiplication.
Now we show that both left and right distributive laws holds in R/I.
Let (a+I),(b+I),(c+I)∈R/I for a,b,c∈R
and
(a +I) [(b +I) + (c +I)] = (a +I) [(b + c) +I]
= a (b + c) +I
= (ab +ac) +I
= (ab +I) + (ac +I)
= (a +I) (b +I) + (a +I) (c +I)
i.e. left distributive law holds in R/I
also
[(b+I)+(c+I)] (a +I) = ((b + c) +I)(a +I)
= (b + c)a +I
= (ba + ca) +I
= (ba+ I) + (ca + I)
= (b + I)(a +I) + (c + I)(a +I)
i.e. right distributive law holds in R/I
Hence R/Iis a Ring. ∎

Lemma :-
If I is an ideal of a ring R; then the mapping ⏀:R → R/I defined by
⏀(a) = a+I ∀a∈R
is a Homomorphism.
Proof :-
For a,b∈R⇒a+b∈R
in ⏀(a+b) = (a+b)+I

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 = (a+I)+(b+I)
= ⏀(a) + ⏀(b)
And ⏀(ab) = ab+I
= (a+I) (b + I)
= ⏀(a)⏀(b)
Hence ⏀is a Homomorphism.
∎

1.4.C - THEOREM :-
Let I be an ideal of a ring R; then there always exists an epimorphism⏀ : R →
R/Iwith Ker⏀ = I
Proof :-
Define a mapping ⏀ : R → R/I defined by
⏀(a) = a + I ∀a ∈ R
For a,b∈ R ⇒a + b ∈ R
In ⏀(a + b) = (a+b) + I
= (a + I) + (b + I)
= ⏀(a) + ⏀(b)
Also
⏀(ab) = ab + I
= (a + I) (b + I)
= ⏀(a) ⏀(b)
This shows that ⏀ is a Homomorphism.
Now we show that ⏀is onto.
For each a + I ∈ R/I; there is exists an element a ∈ r such that ⏀ (a) = a + I
Hence ⏀ is an onto mapping.
thus⏀is am emporphism.
Now we have to show that Ker⏀= I
Let a ∈ Ker⏀⇒⏀(a) = I (∵I is additive identity of R/I).
But ⏀(a) = a + I
⇒ a + I = I ⇒ a∈ I
In Ker⏀⊆I -①
Now Let b ∈ I
⇒ b+I=I ⇒⏀(b) = I
⇒ b∈ Ker⏀ -②
From ①and ② Ker⏀ = I ∎

1.4.3 - THEOREM :- (1ST FUNDAMENTAL THEOREM)

Let I be an ideal of a ring R and Ψ : R → R’ be an epimorphism with KerΨ =I
then
R/I≅R’
Proof :-
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Define a mapping ⏀:R/I → R’ by
⏀(a +I)= Ψ(a) ∀a∈R
First we shoe that ⏀is well defined. For this Let
A +I = b +I
⇒ a-b ∈I
⇒ a-b ∈KerΨ ∵I = KerΨ
⇒ Ψ(a-b) = 0’ where 0’∈R’
⇒ Ψ(a)- Ψ(b) = 0’
⇒ Ψ(a) =Ψ(b)
⇒ ⏀(a + I) = ⏀(b +I)
Hence ⏀is well defined.
To show that ⏀ is Homomrphism; let
⏀[(a +I) + (b + I)] = ⏀[(a + b) +I]
= Ψ(a+b)
= Ψ(a) + Ψ(b) ∵ Ψ is epimorphism
= ⏀(a + I)+⏀(b +I)
Also
⏀[(a +I)(b +I)] = ⏀[ab +I}
=Ψ(ab)
=Ψ(a)Ψ(b)
= ⏀(a+I) ⏀(b+I)
Thus ⏀ is a Homomorphism.
To show that ⏀ is onto;
Let r’ ∈ R’ be any element of R’.
Since Ψ is onto (epimorphism), then exists on element r ∈ R such that Ψ (r) = r’
⇒⏀ (r+I) = r’

Thus ∃on element r+I∈ R/I such that ⏀ (r+I) = r’ in ⏀ is onto.

To show that ⏀ is one–one.
Let
⏀(a+I) = ⏀(b+I)
⇒ Ψ(a) = Ψ(b)
⇒ Ψ(a) – Ψ(b) = 0’
⇒ Ψ(a-b) = 0’
⇒ a-b ∈ Ker Ψ
But Ker Ψ = I
Thus a-b ∈I
⇒ a+I=b+I
This shows that ⏀ is one-one.
∴⏀ is an isomorphism from R/I→ R’
Hence R/I≅ R’. ∎

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