Green Zones in the Future of Urban Planning

F. Gómez1; J. Jabaloyes2; and E. Vañó3

Abstract: This work analyzes certain influences of climatological variables on the city, as well as the main interactions between green
spaces and the environmental parameters that form the urban environment. Several comfort indices were used in different parts of the
eight districts most representative of the urban complex. The formulation of these indices was statistically correlated with the green zone
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areas, in order to find out the surface area of these areas that the city should have in order for this to be considered theoretically
comfortable. The scenario for the study was in all cases the city of Valencia, Spain, taken as a prototype of the Mediterranean city.
DOI: 10.1061/共ASCE兲0733-9488共2004兲130:2共94兲
CE Database subject headings: Urban planning; Vegetation; Trees.

Introduction Solar radiation intervenes in the city by heating up all the

space—which is why such importance is attached, for example, to
The city is the space where the human being has most effectively the direction in which the buildings are facing. Furthermore, a
altered his environment. These alterations affect not only the good deal of the long-wave emission is trapped by the buildings
countryside but also, to a large extent, the environmental param- themselves. Both questions explain why the city heats up. At the
eters. Today there is proof that climatic conditions in a city are same time, radiation is the greatest source of heat for the human
different from those in its geographical environment. Indeed, body when it is directly exposed, apart from the long-wave ap-
many pieces of research have acknowledged that the city is lo- propriation of the objects that reflect it; this will be decisive when
cated in an intensely transformed physical environment from attempting to establish the energy balance of the human body, to
which it is distinguished by a number of determining factors of a study comfort conditions.
natural kind 共Landsberg 1970; Oke 1981兲. On the other hand, the urban ecosystem demands replacing a
There are certain factors that allow us to understand why the natural habitat 共normally not very comfortable兲 with a different
radiation received by the city is less than in the surrounding coun- one more suited to the technical, cultural, and economic require-
tryside, as is illustrated in Table 1, some of these being ments of today’s man; the artificial realm has exceeded the bio-
• The long-wave radiation emitted by the urban surface; logical capacity of the city dweller, who is clamoring for a greater
• The radiation reemitted to the ground through the layer of balance with those elements, such as water, air, and nature, which
contamination; are the natural resources that can help to make the city dweller’s
• Surfaces in the city are impermeable and with fast runoff, life more comfortable.
meaning there is little consumption of evapotranspiration en- In the city, green spaces act as correctors of some climatic
ergy; characteristics, dampening or moderating these variables and pro-
• The heat generated by man, including heating, automobiles, viding conditions of greater comfort. It has been proved that these
factories, housing, etc.; green zones not only play roles of great interest to the towns-
• The role of the wind, which is generally weaker, so that the people, such as ornamental or landscaping functions, but also
loss of appreciable heat is less; and have other utilities in relation with the townspeople’s well-being
• The greater absorption of solar radiation, through what is cap- 共Werner and Sukopp 1982兲 and improve climatic conditions by
tured in the streets and buildings. acting as coolers and regulators of the air and temperature ex-
change. However, perhaps for the aforementioned reasons, one of
1 the most elementary functions that can be fulfilled by trees, above
Professor, Dept. of Architectonic Constructions, Architecture School,
all in hot regions, is the control of luminosity and radiation, pre-
Polytechnic Univ. of Valencia, Camino de Vera, s/n, 46022 Valencia,
Spain. E-mail: [email protected] venting this from reaching the paved surfaces with greater capac-
2
Assistant Professor, Dept. of Operative Investigation, Polytechnic ity for heat accumulation 共i.e., a lower albedo兲.
Univ. of Valencia, Camino de Vera, s/n, 46022 Valencia, Spain. E-mail: Max Sorre 共1934兲 was the first scientist to accurately tackle
[email protected] climatic comfort, relating this with the microclimate of cities and
3
Scholarship Student, Dept. of Architectonic Constructions, Architec- with the alterations made by man. An attempt has nevertheless
ture School, Polytechnic Univ. of Valencia, Camino de Vera, s/n, 46022 been made to make this subjective vision of comfort objective by
Valencia, Spain. E-mail: [email protected] different procedures and measurements; it is not a matter of find-
Note. Discussion open until November 1, 2004. Separate discussions ing out how cold or hot it is, but ‘‘how cold or hot one is,’’ i.e.,
must be submitted for individual papers. To extend the closing date by
what each person undergoes and how they react to this.
one month, a written request must be filed with the ASCE Managing
Editor. The manuscript for this paper was submitted for review and pos-
Attempting to quantify comfort means seeking the terms of a
sible publication on July 11, 2002; approved on January 2, 2003. This balance between man, whose vital constants are well defined by
paper is part of the Journal of Urban Planning and Development, Vol. the biological temperature of the body, and environmental vari-
130, No. 2, June 1, 2004. ©ASCE, ISSN 0733-9488/2004/2- ables, which turn out to be more problematic, because in practice,
94 –100/$18.00. all of these act together on the organism, each one modifying the

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J. Urban Plann. Dev., 2004, 130(2): 94-100

 Table 1. Characteristics of Urban Climate 3. Radiation, which is the main source of heat gain.
Comparison with rural areas Although the main studies of climatic well-being date back to
the 19th century, the most interesting formulations of heat com-
Element Characteristic Amount
fort have been made this century. The ultimate objective of these
Radiation Overall 10–20% less pieces of research, in the bioclimatological field, is to quantify the
Ultraviolet, winter 30% less heat sensations and establish scales that enable a person’s re-
Ultraviolet, summer 5% less sponses to be determined when faced with specific climatic con-
Duration of daylight 5–15% less ditions.
Temperature Annual average 0.5–1°C more For this work, the following indices have been used:
Winter minimum 1–2°C more ID⫽0.4共 Ts⫹Th 兲 ⫹4.8 (2)
Free of frost 10% more
Wind speed Annual average 20–30% less WBGT⫽0.7Th⫹0.2Tg⫹0.1Ts (3)
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No wind 5–20% less

PE⫽0.57V 0.42共 36.5⫺Ts 兲 36 (4)
Relative humidity Winter 2% less
Summer 8% less where ID⫽discomfort index 共Thom 1959兲; WBGT⫽wet-bulb
Rainfall Total 5–10% more globe temperature 共Watson and Labs 1983兲; PE⫽vinje’s cooling
Cloudiness Overcast 5–10% more power 共Landsberg 1972兲; Ts⫽dry bulb temperature 共°C兲;
Mist in winter 100% more Th⫽wet-bulb temperature 共°C兲; Tg⫽dark-bulb or globe tempera-
Mist in summer 20–30% more ture 共°C兲; and V⫽wind speed 共m/s兲.
Contamination Nuclei condensation 10–100 more First, an attempt was made to find the different values pre-
Gaseous mixtures 10–50 more sented by meteorological variables, which were then made to in-
tervene in the aforementioned indices. Second, the intention was
to check the operation of each index in the city of Valencia, for
effects of the others, and not independently, as reflected by con- which they were compared with a real characterization of this
ventional measurements. The concept of comfort will allow for city, which would make the indices exportable to any other in the
several definitions, but all of them start from criteria of the energy Mediterranean area. Third, following the criteria of authors who
balance between the human body and its environment. have formulated these indices as a function of other environmen-
The heat balance of the human body consists in maintaining a tal parameters 共Kwi-Gon-Kim 1989兲, we attempted to connect
temperature between 36.5 and 37°C, because if it goes any higher these with green zones, in order to find out their incidence in the
or lower, discomfort is caused; if it exceeds 40°C, there are cir- urban microclimate and thus on human comfort.
culation problems, and over 41– 42°C, it can reach a stage of It is in the bioclimatic characterization of the city that all pa-
coma or total collapse. To maintain this balance, the following rameters which may affect the specific climatic perception and the
equation has to be satisfied: values or ranges which can be marked out by our indices will be
assessed.
0⫽M ⫾R⫾C v ⫾Cd⫺E (1)
Basically, the comfort values were formulated on the comfort
where M⫽metabolic heat; R⫽heat exchange through radiation; zone of Olgyay’s 共1963兲 diagram, taking into account the modi-
C v ⫽heat exchange through convection; Cd⫽heat exchange fications made to the original by Asharae-Ksu 共Rholes 1980兲 and
through conduction; and E⫽loss of heat through evaporation. the ones made by the writers for the city of Valencia 共Gomez
The three climatic variables that intervene most in comfort are et al. 1999兲. The need to assess comfort as a function of green
1. Humidity, which regulates evaporation and plays an impor- zones finds support in the fact that it is today known that the
tant role in high temperatures in which sweating is the cool- presence of plant life in cities alters the energy balance of the
ing mechanism; climate on a local scale, causing variations in the solar radiation
2. Wind, which accelerates evaporation through convection; reaching the surface, the wind speed, the ambient temperature,
and and the air humidity. These effects, though limited, make a large

Fig. 1. Map of city of Valencia, indicating districts studied

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J. Urban Plann. Dev., 2004, 130(2): 94-100

 Table 2. Values of ‘‘Albedo’’ of Different Surfaces Table 4. District 2 Data of Summer 1997
Material Robinett Valencia Data locations Time Vv Tg Th Ts RH
Water 3 5.6 Glorieta gardens 共ficus兲 10:00 0.1 31.0 19.0 22.4 74
Urban areas 共pavement兲 10 22.5 Glorieta gardens 共recreations兲 10:15 0.1 31.8 19.2 22.8 71
Asphalt 16 17.0 Navarro Reverter Street 10:30 0.4 31.2 19.6 24.2 65
Brick 共depending on color兲 48 32.4 America Square 11:00 0.2 33.8 20.0 25.2 62
Lawns 25 24.1 Cirilo Amoros Street 11:15 0.2 34.6 20.2 25.2 63
Sand 共gravel兲 30 24.6 Grabador Esteve Street 11:30 0.4 35.6 19.8 24.8 62
Concrete 37 36.3 Gran Via Street 共pavement兲 11:45 0.9 34.0 20.8 26.2 61
Dry earth 25 32.2 Gran Via Street 共garden兲 12:00 0.6 34.8 20.2 25.2 63
Farm land 共market garden兲 22 17.5 Salamanca Street 12:15 0.1 36.2 21.0 26.6 60
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Ciscar Street 12:30 0.7 37.6 21.0 27.0 58

Joaquin Costa Street 12:45 0.4 39.8 21.4 26.8 62
contribution to improving the sensation of comfort in outdoor Burriana Street 1:00 0.5 37.2 20.4 27.0 55
urban space, as well as dampening the impact of climatic ele- Dña. Germana King Street 1:15 0.9 37.8 21.2 26.8 61
ments on buildings. Regne de Valencia Avenue 1:30 1.3 36.4 21.6 27.0 62
Different authors have studied the variations in the incidence Matias Perello Street 1:45 0.8 36.4 22.0 26.8 66
of solar radiation 共Oke 1990; Bansal et al. 1994兲. Other radiative Peris y Valero Street 2:00 1.2 37.8 21.4 27.2 60
properties of plant life include albedo and transmissivity 共Canton Jacinto Benavente Street 2:15 1.8 35.4 21.0 26.2 63
et al. 1994兲, as well as transmittance to visible light 共Brown and
Note: V v ⫽wind speed 共m/s兲; Tg⫽dark-bulb or globe temperature 共de-
Gillespie 1995兲, but above all, many studies have been made on
grees C兲; Th⫽wet-bulb temperature 共degrees C兲; Ts⫽dry-bulb tempera-
the effect of plant life on the variation of temperature and air ture; and RH⫽relative humidity 共%兲.
humidity 共Horbert et al. 1982; Robinett 1983; Oke 1990兲.
speed. The measurements for radiation retention, as well as al-
bedo, were taken with a Pyranometer Sensor 共LI-200SA兲 radiom-
Methodology
eter, with a response relative percentage curve between 400 and
1,100:m. Measurements were always taken in the same meteoro-
A variable area of eight districts in the city of Valencia was
logical conditions, with a totally clear sky. Temperature was mea-
sampled, these being chosen so as to be representative of the
sured with a conventional aspirosichrometer, for measuring dry
urban complex 共Fig. 1兲. Among the eight districts are the two
and damp air at the same time; relative humidity was obtained
most densely populated 共2 and 6兲 districts and those with urban
with the aid of the previous temperatures and psychrometric
and environmental peculiarities: outskirts 共4 and 10兲, market gar-
tables.
dens 共7, 17, and 19兲, and the sea front 共11兲.
Ambient temperature was taken with a ‘‘dark-bulb thermom-
The sample measurements that were taken included radiation,
eter’’; its measurement, after being left standing for ten minutes,
air temperature 共dry and humid兲, ambient temperature, and wind
records a temperature which is a combination of the air tempera-
ture, the direct radiation, and what is received from the surround-
ings by convection. In our case, this measurement was always
Table 3. Percentage of Species and Sun Retention
taken with direct exposure to sunlight. The other measurements
Retention were taken in the shade, attempting to prevent the influence of the
Species Percentage in city 共%兲 environment; two meters away from any facade and at least one
Acer Negundo 15.2 88.6 meter from ground level.
Catalpa Bignoinoides 1.5 85.8 Both thermometers were provided by Levante Zone Meteoro-
Celtis Australis 0.6 91.0 logical Service, in the city of Valencia.
Ceratonia Silicua 0.8 83.6 The wind speed was measured with a Clima Hies integrating
2.2 90.1
digital anemometer, with a range of measurements between 0.1
Cercis Siliquastrum
and 35 m/s, a reliability of ⫾0.2%, and an integration capacity for
Citrus Aurantium 4.5 87.0
periods between 1 and 10 s. The paddles of the anemometer were
Ficus Macrapholia 0.3 93.8
placed at a height of 1.8 –2 m from the ground, with the inte-
Gleditsia Triacanthos 0.9 89.0
grated measurement taken during the stationary time of the dark-
Ligustrum Japonicum 9.8 89.0 bulb thermometer.
Melia Azederach 12.6 89.1 The direct solar radiation in the urban complex takes on great
Mioporum Pictum 0.7 91.4 importance both in winter, when it reaches most of the surface of
Morus Alba 5.2 77.5 the streets 共heating these兲, and in summer, when streets are
Nerium Oleander 0.8 91.6 shaded by trees, reducing solar radiation and albedo. One must
Olea Europea 0.2 89.8
Phoenix Dactilifera 1.9 90.6
Table 5. Comfort Ranges of Each Index
Pinus Alepensis 1.2 85.8
Platanus Acerifolia 8.6 85.8 Range Cold Comfortable Hot
Populus Alba Bolleana 5.1 94.3 Discomofort index ⬍14.16 14.16 –26.4 ⬎26.4
Robinia Pseudoacacia 7.7 86.0 VINJE ⬎10 10–5 ⬍5
Sophora Japonica 3.4 93.2 Wet-bulb globe temperature ⬍58.86 58.86 – 88.31 ⬎88.31

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 Table 6. Results of Indices for District 2 bear in mind that, of the 100% of the direct solar energy received
Wet-bulb by a tree, it absorbs between 5 and 20% for photosynthesis, re-
Discomfort globe flects 5–20%, dissipates 20– 40% by evapotranspiration, emits
Data locations Time index VINJE temperature 10–15%, and transmits 5–30% 共Fukuoka 1997兲; all of this varies
according to the radiation emission spectrum and certain charac-
Glorieta gardens 共ficus兲 10.15 13.32 5.24 53.51
teristics of the tree, such as the branches, trunk, structure, shape,
Glorieta gardens 共recreations兲 10.30 13.4 5.2 54.62
distribution, and density of the foliage and the foliation charac-
Navarro Reverte Street 10.45 13.72 9.46 54.91 teristics of each species.
America Square 11.00 13.88 6.57 55.74 Another radiative property of plant life is the albedo, this term
Cirilo Amoros Street 11.15 14.84 5.54 57.14 expressing the percentage of reflectiveness both of direct solar
Grabadpr Esteve Street 11.30 14.4 4.85 56.58 radiation and diffuse radiation of the sky.
Gran Via Street 共pavement兲 11.45 14.84 6.89 57.97 For reasons that were mentioned in the Introduction, practi-
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Gran Via Street 共garden兲 12.00 14.88 7.95 58.17 cally the whole of the city admits and accumulates heat, and
Salamanca Street 12.15 15.04 6.74 58.1 because the air is heated only by contact with hot surfaces, rather
Ciscar Street 12.30 15.08 7.35 58.73 than by direct radiation, the city has a very efficient system for
Joaquin Costa Street 12.45 15.24 4.59 59.19 using the sun’s radiation and heating large areas.
Burriana Street 1.00 15.44 4.53 59.18
Dña. Germana King Street 1.15 15.6 4.44 59.43
Results
Regne de Valencia Avenue 1.30 15.84 6.91 60.58
Matias Perello Street 2.00 15.84 7.79 60.29 It has elsewhere been shown, and is found to be so in this work,
Peris y Valero Street 2.15 16.4 7.32 62.17 that the city albedo is very different from that of the country, and
Jacinto Benavente Street 2.30 16.56 6.11 61.09 in general, less 共Robinett 1980兲. In Valencia, the albedo of typical
Note: Using ranges described in Table 5, areas in plain text⫽cold; areas urban surfaces was measured, as shown in Table 2, and these
in italics⫽comfortable; areas in bold text⫽hot. values were compared with the values from Robinett.
The albedo values from Table 2 allow us to see that asphalt or
paved surfaces accumulate much more heat than natural ground, a
heat that they then return into the environment by radiation; for

Fig. 2. Grabador Esteve and Navarro Reverter Streets 共comfort values between 5 and 10; under 5⫽hot兲

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 Table 7. Discomfort Index 共ID兲 and Wet-Bulb Globe Temperature 共WBGT兲 Values per District and Adaptation with Density of Green Zones
Green zone area per total area in each district
Districts studied ID WBGT Comfort value 共%兲
Ensanche 共2兲 17.3 71.07 ID⫽14.6 –26.4; WBGT⫽58.86 – 88.31 31.6
Campanar 共4兲 17.9 71.83 14.1
Llano deReal 共6兲 14.9 67.83 108.3
Olivereta 共7兲 16.3 69.5 57.5
4 Carreras 共10兲 17.9 71.88 12.4
Maritimo 共11兲 17.5 72.3 27
Poblados N 共17兲 18.3 72.49 0.2
Poblados S 共19兲 18.3 72.48 0.2
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this reason, it is of interest to shade the streets and pavements as One must bear in mind that—while the roofs of buildings act
far as possible, apart from creating a shady microclimate for pe- as reflector labyrinths, absorbing part of the energy received and
destrian traffic. It has nevertheless been shown that the albedo is reflecting the rest to other surfaces that partly absorb this and also
high for this city of light tones, which does not mean a direct partly reflect this again—they accumulate as a whole a great
relationship with temperature, as other variables have an influence amount of heat, while in an area of woods or park, most of the
on these values, including wind 共the breezes in Valencia are heat is retained in the surfaces, reaching a penetration of at most
highly important and cool down the environment a great deal兲. 20– 40 cm. This is an enormous contrast with the behavior of
The direct radiation under each tree has also been measured 共in pavements, where the penetration reaches up to 80–100 cm.
W/m2兲, so that it was possible to calculate the retention 共in %兲 It has also been possible to show the role of green zones in the
which each species is able to provide in summer. The results are city’s heat profile 共Gómez et al. 1998兲, confirming its moderating
expressed in Table 3, along with the percentage of each species in and attenuating capacity in the city temperature.
the total of the city’s street-lining trees. The species mentioned in
Table 3 make up a very high percentage of those placed along the Comfort Indices
city streets. Prior to the use of comfort indices, the measurements of the en-
Direct solar radiation in the urban complex is of great impor- vironmental parameters pointed out in the Introduction were
tance both in the winter, when the best thing is for this to reach as made. These measurements were made at different points of each
great a surface area as possible 共heating this area up兲, and in district 共from 20 to 25兲, over a time range from 10:00 to 14:30.
summer, when the intention is to prevent overheating, for which The sampling points were chosen in such a way as to give
purpose streets and squares should be shaded. Street-lining trees, different responses as regards the texture of the surfaces, the en-
particularly if they are deciduous, allow this shade to be obtained closure of the site, etc.; above all, a contrast was made of parts of
at the same time as dampening the effect of wind, which tends to streets facing different ways, in areas with or without plant life,
be channelled along the streets. If this data is known it will be with soft or hard pavements, etc. The results of the application of
possible, by knowing the cover given by each species, to roughly all the indices allowed verification of the dilemma posed between
deduce the surface area in shade found in the ensemble of the city some streets and others, between the surroundings 共Market Gar-
streets, and thus, the square meters of surface area that are not den兲 and the city, or between ‘‘soft’’ and ‘‘hard’’ parts of one and
going to receive direct sunlight. the same urban space.

Fig. 3. Ratio of green space to environmental improvement 共Stühlpnagel 1987兲

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J. Urban Plann. Dev., 2004, 130(2): 94-100

 Table 8. Formulation of Wet-Bulb Globe Temperature 共WBGT兲 Table 9. Comparison between Coefficients of Determination
Index for Valencia Obtained in Seoul and Valencia
Season Formulation of radiant wet bulb temperature index for Coefficient of determination statistic Seoul Valencia
Valencia
Standard error 1.2130 1.1830
Autumn WBGT⫽38.29B⫹39.07D⫹1.81H (R 2 ⫽99.30) Coefficient of determination (R 2 ) 0.3500 0.9900
Spring WBGT⫽59.07B⫹58.99D⫹1.16H (R 2 ⫽99.70) F-value 0.0419 0.0023
Summer WBGT⫽67.98B⫹68.73D⫹1.03H (R 2 ⫽99.00)
Winter WBGT⫽36.66B⫹37.39D⫹1.73H (R 2 ⫽98.00)
Note: B⫽1 for soft zone; B⫽0 for hard zone; D⫽0 for soft zone; D surements were taken throughout the morning—that is, in a time
⫽1 for hard zone; H⫽h GMT⫹2 in spring and summer; H⫽h GMT zone from 10:00 to 14:30 in which the variation of radiation
⫹1 in autumn and winter. would naturally be considerable, and thus that of the air and en-
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vironment temperature too.

According to a statistical analysis, the number of data that It can be seen in Table 9 that the coefficients of determination
were needed for significant result in each observation point was we obtained for Valencia are considerably higher than the ones
ten. For this reason, it was decided to take measurements over 10 obtained in other pieces of research for Seoul 共Kwi-Gon-Kim
seasons 共1997–1998 and part of 1999兲 共Table 4兲. Afterwards, 1989兲. After obtaining this result, there were no further problems
using the acquired data, we applied the index for every station drawing up the definitive formulation of these indices for the city
and district. of Valencia. The sensation values, specifically adapted for the city
Table 6 shows an example of the data taken during the summer of Valencia, were also included in Table 10.
in district 2; as can be observed, the ‘‘soft’’ zones 共lawns, earth,
low bushes, streets properly orientated or with trees兲, above all in
summer, display a value closer to comfort than do the ‘‘hard’’ Conclusions
zones 共concrete or asphalt pavings, tiles, hard earth, badly orien-
tated streets or ones with no trees兲. The city of Valencia was the scenario for this research and is put
Values in Table 6 are set in plain, italic, and bold text, indicat- forward as a prototype of the Mediterranean city as regards its
ing whether these values lie under, between, or above the lower climatology, because, according to international literature, this re-
and higher ranges of the comfort zone. The comfort ranges used search is only valid if performed in situ and under very specific
are presented in Table 5 and are described as cold, comfortable, or conditions of urban space and environmental variables. The re-
hot, with the following meanings. sults of this research can be applied in other towns with similar
Normally, at the sampling points, of which Table 6 is an ex- climate, but the data have must be taken in situ for the specific
ample, very close values are found for the same urban space; this city and place.
is illustrated in Fig. 2, an aerial photograph of Valencia. At the A relatively high albedo was measured, which we put down to
different sampling points, it is recognized that this distinction the light color of the materials used in building the city and not to
between cold, comfortable, and hot points is highly connected the temperature pattern, these being moderated by breezes. Plant
with ‘‘soft’’ or ‘‘hard’’ spaces. For this reason and because authors life has been shown to play a highly important role in the city’s
共e.g., Salvador and Smith 1987兲 have already analyzed the con- energy control, affecting its albedo and the amount of radiation
cepts of comfort that we are using as a function of other environ- received by urban spaces. The cooling role of plant life has spe-
mental parameters, we consider that the value of these indices cifically been shown in the study on ‘‘heat islands.’’
obtained, above all ID and WBGT, can be compared and related The heat indices used have allowed us to confirm a positive
with green zones. This was done, and the results are shown in correlation between well-being, measured by the comfort indices
Table 7. used in the study, and green zones. This correlation can be sup-
Nevertheless, in this table it can be appreciated that there is no posed to be important and with many applications, as it consti-
clear correlation between the comfort value and the green zone of tutes a fact of great significance for urban development and those
each district, because the values closest to average comfort are in charge of city planning.
not the ones with the most green zones. This result could cast We think that the results of our investigation are better than
doubt on our working hypothesis and even the validity of certain those expressed for Seoul by Professor Kim because
research done in this field 共Kwi-Gon-Kim 1989兲. • For the same DI index, Kim uses 关 DI 共summer)⫽⫺1.19E
A study of the literature reveals a work in which reference is ⫺6⫻(green spaces)⫹72.84] which has a statistical determi-
made to the coordinates in which the relationship of the size of a nation coefficient (R 2 ) of 35%, and our 关DI 共summer兲
green space with environmental improvement must be dealt with ⫽68.3513⫺32.1545 共green spaces兲兴 has an R 2 of 68.27%.
共Stühlpnagel 1987兲. This can be seen in Fig. 3, which shows how
10 ha are necessary to get a heat drop of 1°C. We understood that,
in our case, the desired correlation had not been found because Table 10. Formulation of Wet-Bulb Globe Temperature 共WBGT兲
we were working with a very small proportion of green zone. We Index for Valencia
thought that one way to extend this concept was to go on to that Sensation Value of WBGTmodified
of the ‘‘soft zone’’ in the sense explained previously.
We analyzed the behavior of each index with this criterion, Oppressive ⬎125
and the response was completely positive; in 100% of the cases Hot 111.5–125
sampled, the zones that can be assimilated with ‘‘soft’’ areas were Comfortable 57.57–111.5
closer to comfort. We thus approached a formulation of the indi- Cold 35–57.57
ces used as a function of soft or hard zones, also bearing in mind Very cold ⬍35
the time of day 共Table 8兲; this was very important, as the mea- Note: WBGTMODIFIEDª1.05T G ⫹1.65T H ⫹0.5T S .

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 • In Seoul, only one index is used 共DI兲; however, in Valencia we Szokolay, ed., Brisbane, Australia, 807– 812.
used two more indexes 共WBGT and VINJE兲. WBGT is better Horbert, M., Blume, H. P., Elvers, H., and Sukopp, H. 共1982兲. ‘‘Ecologi-
than DI because it contemplates an environmental parameter, cal contributions to urban planning.’’ Urban ecology, Blackwell, Lon-
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cause the statistical determinations are higher, as is shown in areas; the case of Seoul, Mab-Unerso, University of Seoul, Seoul,
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