AP Chemistry Molecular & Ionic Compound Structure & Properties

Unit 2
Molecular & Ionic
Compound Structure &
Properties
2.1 Types of Chemical Bonds

Questions to Consider
• What is meant by the term “chemical bond”?

• Why do atoms bond with each other to form compounds?

• How do atoms bond with each other to form compounds?

Key Ideas in Bonding

• Ionic Bonding – electrons are transferred

• Metallic Bonding

• Covalent Bonding – electrons are shared equally by nuclei

• What about intermediate cases?

Polar Covalent Bond

• Unequal sharing of electrons between atoms in a molecule.

• Results in a charge separation in the bond (partial positive and partial negative charge).

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AP Chemistry Molecular & Ionic Compound Structure & Properties

Electronegativity
• The ability of an atom in a molecule to attract shared electrons to itself.
• For a molecule HX, the relative electronegativities of the H and X atoms are determined by comparing the
measured H–X bond energy with the “expected” H–X bond energy.
• On the periodic table, electronegativity generally increases across a period and decreases down a group.
• The range of electronegativity values is from 4.0 for fluorine (the most electronegative) to 0.7 for cesium
(the least electronegative).

1. If lithium and fluorine react, which has more attraction for an electron? Why?

2. In a bond between fluorine and iodine, which has more attraction for an electron? Why?

3. Arrange the following bonds from most to least polar:

a) N–F O–F C–F

b) C–F N–O Si–F

c) Cl–Cl B–Cl S–Cl

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AP Chemistry Molecular & Ionic Compound Structure & Properties

Dipole Moment
• Property of a molecule whose charge distribution can be represented by a center of positive
charge and a center of negative charge.

• Use an arrow to represent a dipole moment.

o Point to the negative charge center with the tail of the arrow indicating the positive center
of charge.

No Net Dipole Moment (Dipoles Cancel)

1. For each of the following, determine the orientation of the dipole moment (if any).
a. HI

b. N2

c. CCl2F2

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AP Chemistry Molecular & Ionic Compound Structure & Properties

2.2 Intramolecular Forces and Potential Energy

Potential Energy Diagram

Energy profile as a function of the distance between the nuclei of the hydrogen atoms. As the atoms approach
each other (right side of graph), the energy decreases until the distance reaches 0.074 nm (74 pm) and then begins
to increase again due to repulsions.

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AP Chemistry Molecular & Ionic Compound Structure & Properties

2.3 Structure of Ionic Solids

Ionic Bonding and Lattice Energy

• Any compound that conducts an electric current when
melted will be classified as ionic.
• Composed of elements with very large differences in
electronegativity.
• Usually made up of a metal and a non metal OR metal
and polyatomic.
• lattice energy – energy that is released when two ions of
an ionic compound come together to form a crystal.
• The change in energy that takes place when separated gaseous ions are packed together to form an ionic
solid.

Q Q 
Lattice energy = k  1 2 
 r 
k = proportionality constant
Q1 and Q2 = charges on the ions
r = shortest distance between the centers of the cations and anions

Ionic Crystalline Solids:

• Tend to have high melting and boiling points
• Are frequently soluble in water
• Can conduct electricity in the aqueous and molten states but not the solid state

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AP Chemistry Molecular & Ionic Compound Structure & Properties

4. Calculate the bond types based on the chart above, order the set from the most covalent to the most ionic
character.

a) Na-Cl

b) Li-H

c) H-Cl

d) H-F

e) Be-O

5. What class(es) of element(s) typically unite to form compounds that contain ionic bonds?

6. Explain the magnitudes of these lattice energies in terms of ion sizes and ionic charge.

Lattice Energies of Salts of K+ (kJ/mol)

F- Cl- Br- I-

K+ 821 715 682 649

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AP Chemistry Molecular & Ionic Compound Structure & Properties

2.4 Structure of Metals and Alloys

Metallic Solids:
• Tend to have very high melting and boiling points but can exhibit a wide range
• Are not soluble in water
• Can conduct electricity in solid and molten states

Bonding Models for Metals

• A regular array of cations in a “sea” of mobile valence electrons.

Bonding Models for Metals

• Substitutional Alloy – some of the host metal atoms are
replaced by other metal atoms of similar size.
BRASS

• Interstitial Alloy – some of the holes in the closest packed

metal structure are occupied by small atoms.
STEEL

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AP Chemistry Molecular & Ionic Compound Structure & Properties

2.5 Lewis Diagrams

Lewis Structures
• Shows how valence electrons are arranged among atoms in a molecule.
• Reflects central idea that stability of a compound relates to noble gas electron configuration.
• Used primarily in drawing of COVALENT compounds.
• Use the “needed, available, shared method” on structures that are NOT exceptions.
Duet Rule
• Hydrogen forms stable molecules where it shares two electrons.

Octet Rule
• Elements form stable molecules when surrounded by eight electrons.

Single Covalent Bond

• A covalent bond in which two atoms share one pair of electrons. H-H
Double Covalent Bond
• A covalent bond in which two atoms share two pairs of electrons. O=C=O
Triple Covalent Bond
• A covalent bond in which two atoms share three pairs of electrons. N≡N

Bond Energy
In a covalent bond the bon length is influenced by both the size of the atom’s core and the bond energy.
Bonds with higher order are shorter and have larger bond energies.

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AP Chemistry Molecular & Ionic Compound Structure & Properties

7. Draw a Lewis structure for each of the following molecules:

H2 F2 HF

NH3 CO2 CCl4

8. Draw a Lewis structure for each of the following ions:

NH4+ NO3-

EXCEPTIONS
• Boron tends to form compounds in which the boron atom has fewer than eight electrons around it (it does
not have a complete octet). BH3 = 6e–
• When it is necessary to exceed the octet rule for one of several third-row (or higher) elements, place the
extra electrons on the central atom.
Draw a Lewis structure for each of the following molecules:
BF3 PCl5 XeF4

9. Write the Lewis structure for C2H4.

10. Write the Lewis structure for HCN.

11. Write the Lewis structure for I3-.

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AP Chemistry Atomic Structure and Properties

2.6 Resonance and Formal Charge

Resonance Structures
• More than one valid Lewis structure can be written for a particular molecule. NO3– = 24e–

O O O O O O
N N N
O O O
• Actual structure is an average of the resonance structures.
• Electrons are really delocalized – they can move around the entire molecule.

12. Draw a Lewis structure for each of the following molecules:

CO2

CH3OH

OCN–

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AP Chemistry Atomic Structure and Properties

Formal Charge
• Used to evaluate nonequivalent Lewis structures.
• Atoms in molecules try to achieve formal charges as close to zero as possible.
• Any negative formal charges are expected to reside on the most electronegative atoms.

Formal charge = (# valence e– on free neutral atom) – (# valence e– assigned to the atom in the molecule)

• To calculate the formal charge on an atom:

> Take the sum of the lone pair electrons and one-half the shared electrons.
> Subtract the number of assigned electrons from the number of valence electrons on the free,
neutral atom.

Consider the Lewis structure for POCl3. Assign the formal charge for each atom in the molecule.

Cl
Cl P O
Cl
Rules Governing Formal Charge
• The sum of the formal charges of all atoms in a given molecule or ion must equal the overall charge on
that species.
• If nonequivalent Lewis structures exist for a species, those with formal charges closest to zero and with
any negative formal charges on the most electronegative atoms are considered to best describe the
bonding in the molecule or ion.

13. Assign formal charges to each atom in the two resonance structures of CO2.

O C O O C O

14. Write three different molecular arrangements for CNO- and using formal charge, determine most stable.

15. Draw all resonance structures and select the most stable one for SCN-

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AP Chemistry Atomic Structure and Properties

2.7 VSEPR and Bond Hybridization

VSEPR Worksheet (You need to know all by ♥! Sorry!)

Electronic Molecular Areas # of # of
Bond Molecular
Structure Structure of e- Bonded Lone Hybridization
Angles Polarity*
(Family) (Geometry) Density Areas Pairs
2 2 0

3 3 0

3 2 1

4 4 0

4 3 1

4 2 2

5 5 0 /

5 4 1 /

5 3 2

5 2 3

6 6 0

6 5 1

6 4 2
*Note: This chart is filled in based on the assumption that everything attached to the central atom is the same. A
molecule automatically becomes polar if more than one type of atom is attached to its center.
** Note: Another general rules is that if there are any lone pairs on the central atom, the molecular is polar. This
is an exception to that rule.

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AP Chemistry Atomic Structure and Properties

True or false:
A molecule that has polar bonds will always be polar.
-If true, explain why.
-If false, provide a counter-example.

Let’s think about it…

• Draw the Lewis structure for CO2.
• Does CO2 contain polar bonds?
• Is the molecule polar or nonpolar overall? Why?

Lone pairs make a molecule polar.

-If true, explain why.
-If false, provide a counter-example.

Let’s think about it…

• Draw the Lewis structure for XeF4.
• Does XeF4 contain lone pairs?
• Is the molecule polar or nonpolar overall? Why?

16. Determine the molecular geometry for each of the following molecules or ions. Also include bond angles and
molecular polarity.
a. SO3

b. SO32-

c. NO2-

d. I3-

e. ICl3

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Hybridization

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AP Chemistry Atomic Structure and Properties

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AP Chemistry Atomic Structure and Properties

Ethane

Ethene

Ethyne

17. Give the hybridization and predict the geometry of each of the central atoms in the following molecules or
ions.

a. IF2- c. SiF6

b. OSF4 d. HCCH

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AP Chemistry Atomic Structure and Properties

18. Consider the Lewis structure for glycine, the simplest amino acid:

a) What are the approximate bond angles about each of the two carbon atoms, and what are the
hybridizations of the orbitals on each of them?

b) What are the hybridization of the orbitals on the two oxygens and nitrogen atom, and what are the
approximate bond angles about the nitrogen?

c) What is the total number of s bonds in the entire molecule? ℼ bonds?

19. Indicate the hybridization and bond angle about each of the “central atoms” in the molecule shown below.

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