Secondary Course

212 - Science and Technology

Laboratory Manual

Course Coordinators
Ms. Neelam Gupta
Dr. Alok Kumar Gupta
Dr. Rajeev Prasad

Project Coordinator (AEP)

Ms. Asheema Singh

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF OPEN SCHOOLING

(An autonomous organisation under MHRD, Govt. of India)
A-24-25, Institutional Area, Sector-62, NOIDA-201309 (U.P.)
Website: www.nios.ac.in, Toll Free No. 18001809393
© National Institute of Open Schooling

August, 2012 (25,000 Copies)

Published by the Secretary, National Institute of Open Schooling, A-24-25, Institutional Area, Sector- 62,
Noida-201309 and printed at M/s Bengal Offset Works, 16/335, Khajur Road, (Joshi Rd.), Karolbagh,
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ADVISORY COMMITTEE
Dr. Sitansu S. Jena Dr. Kuldeep Agarwal Dr. Venkatesh Srinivasan
Chairman Director (Academic) Assistant Representative
NIOS, NOIDA (UP) NIOS, NOIDA (UP) UNFPA, New Delhi
Ms. Gopa Biswas Dr. Sonia Behl
Joint Director (Academic) Assistant Director (Academic)
NIOS, NOIDA (UP) NIOS, NOIDA (UP)

WRITING TEAM
Prof. R. D. Shukla Dr. Vijay Sarda Sri R. S. Dass
Professor & HEAD (Retd.) Associate Professor Vice Principal (Retd.)
DESM, NCERT Zakir Husain Delhi College BRMVB Sr. Sec. School
New Delhi Delhi University, Delhi Lajpat Nagar, New Delhi
Dr. M. K. Gandhi Dr. Ranjana Saxena Dr. D. K. Rao
Education Officer Associate Professor Deputy Director
CISCE Board Dayal Singh College DEC, IGNOU
New Delhi Delhi University, Delhi New Delhi

REVIEWING AND EDITING

Prof. R. D. Shukla Dr. Vijay Sarda Sri Kanhaiya Lal

Professor & HEAD (Retd.) Associate Professor Principal (Retd.)
DESM, NCERT Zakir Husain Delhi College Dir. of Education
New Delhi Delhi University, Delhi New Delhi
Sri R. S. Dass Dr. M. K. Gandhi Dr. P. K. Mukherjee
Vice Principal (Retd.) Education Officer Associate Professor
BRMVB Sr. Sec. School CISCE Board Deshbandhu College
Lajpat Nagar, New Delhi New Delhi Delhi University, Delhi
Dr. Bharti Sarkar Dr. Ranjana Saxena Mrs. Shivani Goswami
Reader (Retd.) Associate Professor PGT & HOD (Retd.)
Maitreyi College Dayal Singh College Mother International School
Delhi University, Delhi Delhi University, Delhi Aurovindo Marg, Delhi
Ms. Neelam Gupta Dr. Alok Kumar Gupta Dr. Rajeev Prasad
SEO Academic Officer Academic Officer
(EVS & Biology) (Physics) (Chemistry)
NIOS, NOIDA (U.P.) NIOS, NOIDA (U.P.) NIOS, NOIDA (U.P.)

LIFE SKILLS ADVISORY GROUP

Ms. Asheema Singh Dr. Jaya
Project Coordinator (AEP) National Programme Officer (UNFPA)
NIOS 55, Lodhi Estate
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COURSE COORDINATORS
Ms. Neelam Gupta Dr. Alok Kumar Gupta Dr. Rajeev Prasad
SEO Academic Officer Academic Officer
(EVS & Biology) (Physics) (Chemistry)
NIOS, NOIDA (U.P.) NIOS, NOIDA (U.P.) NIOS, NOIDA (U.P.)

GRAPHIC ARTISTS
Mr. Mahesh Sharma Ms. Madhavi Rawat Ms. Bakul Shroff
Graphic Artist Freelance Artist Freelance Artist
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Developed under MHRD-UNFPA Supported: Adolescence Education Programme

A Word With You

Dear Learner,
Hope you must be enjoying studying the Science and Technology books through the
self-learning material provided by NIOS. But as you might have understood by now,
the true spirit of science lies in experiments. The experiments are not only at the
root of growth and development of science but they are also essential for the learning
of science. What you learn by doing activities and experiments indeed becomes a
part and parcel of your personality. So, NIOS has kept laboratory work as an integral
part of your Science and Technology curriculum which is provided to you in the form
of a list of experiments at the end of that curriculum. You are expected to do most
of these experiments but a minimum of 15 experiments are required to be done
compulsorily. We know majority of you are resourceful enough to do most of the listed
experiments on your own. However, some of you may require some guidance or help.
So, keeping this in view, we have prepared this laboratory manual for you. Use it
and complete your laboratory work with the help of your Study Centre and resource
teacher. The laboratory manual is a part of NIOS self-learning material for Science
and Technology curriculum, apart from the two volumes of theory, which also contain
a lot of activities and experiments.
The major objectives of this laboratory manual are:
 to familiarize you with some of the apparatus, tools and techniques used by
scientists in their work.
 to develop in you a habit of taking minute observations, making plan for doing
a work, working systematically and thinking logically.
We are sure you will enjoy performing your experiments and mould yourself fully
in the culture of science. In case you have any doubt or difficulty, feel free to consult
your teacher or may even write to us.
Wishing you all success.

Ms. Neelam Gupta Dr. Alok Kumar Gupta Dr. Rajeev Prasad
SEO Academic Officer Academic Officer
(EVS & Biology) (Physics) (Chemistry)
NIOS, NOIDA (U.P.) NIOS, NOIDA (U.P.) NIOS, NOIDA (U.P.)
Email: [email protected] Email: [email protected] Email:[email protected]
 INTRODUCTION

Science and Technology is a subject which can be learnt better by doing. The experiments
inside or outside the laboratory give you an opportunity to understand the laws and
principles of science. In fact, the experiments form an integral part of science learning.
These help in developing scientific attitude and certain well-defined skills. While doing
the experiments in a science laboratory, you will get a chance to handle scientific
equipment and apparatus, chemicals etc. You will have to plan your work, make
observations and draw conclusions. This process will help you in developing scientific
attitude and habit of systematic work and logical thinking.
Let us first understand, what does an experiment mean? Is it just shaking test tubes or
mixing some solutions or something more? An experiment has mainly five different
components:
(i) Aim
(ii) Act or performance
(iii) Observations
(iv) Presentation of data
(v) Interpretation of data and drawing conclusion
With an aim in mind, we perform certain laboratory activities and make observations. On
the basis of known scientific principles, we interpret the data and draw conclusions. For
example, if you have to distinguish between ionic and covalent compounds, you perform
a set of laboratory activities (tests), record observations, present it in a tabular form and
finally draw the conclusions on the basis of observations.
The experiments designed for the Science and Technology course for the secondary stage
of NIOS are presented in the form of self-instructional sheets in the following format-
 Aim: It defines the scope of the experiment.
 Objectives: The objectives of an experiment give you an idea about the skills or the
knowledge that you are expected to develop after performing that experiment.
 What you should know: It highlights the importance of carrying out a particular
experiment and gives you a brief description of the concepts related to the experiment
which you are performing.
 Material required: It gives an exhaustive list of apparatus, chemicals, equipment and
other material required to perform the experiment.
 How to perform the experiment: The steps are given in a sequential manner for setting
up the apparatus and carrying out the experiment. The precautions, wherever necessary
are incorporated in describing various steps.
ii :: Science and Technology Laboratory Manual

 What to observe: A proper format of recording the observations is suggested in each

experiment.
 Conclusions: It is an outcome from the observations and supports the aim set in the
beginning.
 Check your understanding: At the end of each experiment, a few questions have been
incorporated to consolidate what has been done and to check your understanding.
Before starting any experiment, you are advised to go through the detailed instructions
given under it and plan your work accordingly. In case of any doubt, consult your teacher
and get the clarification needed. Then start the experiment, proceed systematically
according to the given instructions. Stop wherever you are in doubt and consult your
teacher again to proceed further. It is necessary to follow the general safety measures while
working in a science laboratory. This is essential for your own and safety and of others.
A list of general safety measures is given below:

SAFETY IN A SCIENCE LABORATORY

Science laboratory is an exclusive work place for sincere workers. Go there with a sense
of devotion and work honestly. A little carelessness can lead to accidents by which not
only you may harm yourself but your neighbours too. Proper handling of apparatus,
chemicals and other materials in the laboratory can prevent majority of accidents.
Remember the following points while working in a science laboratory.
 Use all chemicals carefully.
 Replace the reagent bottles in their proper position after use.
 Do not mix chemicals unless required.
 Do not taste chemicals.
 Before using a chemical make sure it is the right chemical.
 Put off the gas to extinguish the flame of burner. Do not use any solid or liquid for
this purpose.
 While pouring acids in the sink after use, do not forget to keep tap-water on so that
they are completely flushed out.
 Do not keep volatile liquids such as alcohol, ether, acetone, etc. near the flame as these
are highly inflammable.
 Do not throw broken glassware etc. in the sink. Such things should be thrown into
the waste-paper basket.
 Do not talk to other students in the laboratory while performing the experiment. In
case you have any difficulty, consult your teacher directly.
 Never point a test tube containing a reaction mixture or a mixture, which is being
heated, towards your neighbour or yourself.
 Never pour water into concentrated acids. Rather add acid slowly to water in a
container.
 Before leaving the laboratory wash your hands properly.
 Science and Technology Laboratory Manual :: iii

CUTS AND BURNS

 For wound caused by a broken glass or any sharp-edge object, remove the glass piece
from the wound and control the bleeding by pressing on it a clean cloth or handcurchief
or through a stern surgical dressing. Apply a little dettol spirit or burnol and cover
it with a bandage.
 For wounds due to acid burns, wash well with water and then with a 2% solution of
sodium bicarbonate. Then apply bumol on the wound.
 For wounds due to heat of the flame, put the burnt portion under cold water. Then
apply burnol.

RECORD BOOK
Now, you may be interested in knowing how to maintain the record book for the
experiments. While performing the experiment you would have undergone several steps
as given in this manual. But for writing the experiment in the record book, you need not
write the details of the procedure of performing the experiment. It should be in the format
having the following five sections only:
 Aim of the experiment.
 Material required for the experiment.
 Observations which you take during the experiment.
 Conclusion which is drawn on the basis of the observations.
 Precautions taken by you while performing the experiment.
The list of experiments is given in the content part of this manual, which is divided into
three sections. You are required to perform at least fifteen experiments in all, of which
at least three should be from each section.
In case you have any problem or doubt consult your science teacher or write to us without
any hesitation. We hope that will be able to perform all the experiments successfully.

MARKING SCHEME FOR PRACTICAL EXAMINATION

Time: 2½ Hrs. Max. Marks: 15

1. Two Experiments (2 × 4 = 8) 8
(Both the experiments should not be
from the same section)
2. Record Book 4
3. Viva-voce 3
Total 15
 CONTENTS

S.No. Name of Experiment Pages

Physics
1. To Determine the Density of the Material of a Given Solid Using 1
a Spring Balance and a Measuring Cylinder
2. To Find the Average Speed of an Individual, as One 6
Walks/Runs, To and Fro between Two Points
3. To Observe and Compare the Pressure Exerted by a Solid Iron 9
Cuboid Placed on Fine Sand/Wheat Flour while Resting on its
three different Faces and Calculate the Pressure Exerted in the
three different Cases
4. To Verify the Third Law of Motion Using Two Spring Balances 13
5. To Determine the Melting Point of Ice 16
6. To Study the Laws of Reflection of Light Using a Plane Mirror 18
7. To Study the Change in the Size, and Position of Image formed 22
by a Convex Lens by Changing the Position of an Object (Candle)
Placed in front of it
8. To Study the Change in Current through a Resistor by Changing 25
Potential Difference across it. Determine the Resistance of the
Resistor by Plotting a Graph between Potential Difference and
Current
9. To Assemble a Household Circuit Comprising Two Bulbs (3 Volt 30
each), Two Turn On-Off Switches, a Fuse and Two Dry Cells
as Source of Power
10. To Determine the Speed of a Pulse Propagated through a 33
Stretched String

Chemistry
11. To Prepare an Aqueous Solution of Common Salt of a Given 36
Composition
12. Separation of Mixtures 39
13. To Differentiate between a Chemical and Physical Change in a 44
Given Process
vi :: Science and Technology Laboratory Manual

14. To Test the Presence of Water Vapours in Air 47

15. To Test the Presence of Carbon Dioxide (CO2) in Air 50
16. To find out the Approximate Percentage of Oxygen in Air 52
17. To Test the Acidic/Basic Nature of a Solution with the help of 55
pH Paper
18. To find the pH of Fruit/Vegetables Juices with the help of pH 58
Paper
19. To Identify Washing Soda and Baking Soda out of the Samples 60
of two White Powers
20. To Carry out Chemical Reactions of Different Types 63

Biology
21(i) To Prepare a Temporary Stained Mount of (i) Onion Peel, 68
Observe Under the Microscope and Record Observations
21(ii) To Prepare a Temporary Stained Mount of Human Cheek Cells, 72
Observe under the microscope and Record Observations
22. To Study and Draw Different Types of Plant and Animal Tissues 74
with the Help of Permanent Slides : Plant tissues: Parenchyma and
Sclerenchyma; Animal tissues: Blood, Striped muscle fibres and
Nerve cells 74
23. To Study the Process of Osmosis through a Semipermeable 77
Membrane
24. To Test the Presence of Starch in Green Leaves Exposed to 81
Sunlight
25. To Observe that Oxygen is Released during the Process of 84
Photosynthesis
26. To Show that CO2 is Given Out During Respiration 87
27(i). To Test the Presence of Starch and Fat in Given Food Samples 90
27(ii). To Test the Presence of Adulterants in (a) Milk and (b) Metanil
Yellow in Pulse 92
28. To Estimate the Level of Pollution in Terms of Particulate Matter by
Comparing Leaf Samples Collected from Different Areas 95
29. To Observe Organisms from Given Pictures or Specimens or in the 98
Surroundings (e.g. Crop Field, a Garden, or A Nearby Pond),
Classify Them as Producers and Consumers, and Construct Their
Food Chains and Indicate their Trophic Levels
30. To Study External Structural Adaptations in Any Two 102
Organisms out of Cockroach, Fish, Frog, Lizard and Pigeon
 EXPERIMENT 1

To Determine the Density of the Material of a Given Solid Using a

Spring Balance and a Measuring Cylinder

OBJECTIVES
After performing this experiment you should be able to:
 use a spring balance to measure the weight of a body;
 measure the volume of a given quantity of a liquid using a measuring cylinder;
 show that on immersing in a liquid, a solid displaces liquid equal to its own volume;
 explain why some solids float on water where as some others sink; and
 determine the density of the material of a solid by measuring its mass and volume.

1.1 WHAT YOU SHOULD KNOW

(i) Quite often we compare materials on their heaviness, e.g., we say that iron is heavier
than wood. What do we mean by this statement? We mean that the mass of 1 c c
of iron will be more than the mass of 1 cc of wood. The mass of a unit volume of
a substance is called its density. The density is thus a measure of its heaviness; More
the density, heavier is the substance. If you have one block of iron and the other of
wood of the same size (volume) the former is heavier than the latter.
The density of a substance is mathematically given by
Mass of the body
Density =
Volume of that body
SI Unit of density is kg m–3. We also measure density in g/cm3.
(ii) We use spring balance for measuring weight, because, elongation in a suspended
spring is directly proportional to the load attached to its free end. Also the numerical
value of the weight of a body measured in gravitational unit (gram weight) is equal
to its mass (gram). Thus we can calibrate a spring balance to directly measure mass
in gram.
(iii) Solids and liquids have definite volumes. Solids are rigid and have definite shapes.
Liquids on the other hand acquire the shape of the containers. Different solids and
liquids differ in their densities. A solid which is denser than a liquid will sink in it
and if it is lighter than the liquid, it will float on it. If a solid sinks in a liquid, it
displaces the liquid equal to its own volume. This fact you will use while measuring
the volume of the given solid using a measuring cylinder.
2 :: Science and Technology Laboratory Manual

Material Required
The given solid of suitable size (a potato or a piece of stone/iron/aluminium or glass/plastic,
paper weight, etc.), a spring balance of suitable range (depending on the size of the solid
given), A measuring cylinder of suitable range, a thread, an iron stand (or a nail on the
wall), a suitable liquid (water) in a beaker.

1.2 HOW TO PERFORM THE EXPERIMENT

[A] To find the mass of the given Body (Solid)
1. Place the iron stand on a rigid, horizontal surface (table top) and hang the spring
balance on it vertically. (You can also hang the balance on a long nail put on the wall).
(Fig. 1.1)
(i) Generally the pointer of the spring balance coincides with the zero mark of its
scale. In case it is not so, adjust the pointer to zero position with the help of
the adjusting screw at the top of it. If there is no adjusting screw, note the position
of the pointer on the scale.
(ii) Find the least count of the spring balance (i.e. the value of mass between two
successive marks)
(iii) Tie a thread to the body and make a loop at the free end of the thread. Suspend
the solid from the hook of the spring balance.
(iv) Note the new position of the pointer. Substract the original reading of the spring
balance (in step (i)) from this. It will give you the mass of the solid.

1 1
2 2
W
3 3
4 4
5 5
Spring balance
6 6
7 7

Solid

Iron stand

Fig. 1.1: Determination of mass of solid using spring balance

 Science and Technology Laboratory Manual :: 3

[B] To find the volume of the body

(i) Place the measuring cylinder on a rigid horizontal surface (table top, say)
(ii) Find its least count (i. e. the minimum volume it can measure) by finding the value
of volume between two successive marks on it.
(iii) Take a non toxic, non-volatile liquid (e.g. water) at room temperature in which solid
sinks and which has no chemical reaction with its material (Note: if the given solid
has these properties then water is a suitable liquid)
(iv) Gently pour the liquid in the measuring cylinder, along its walls and fill nearly half
of it with the liquid.
(v) Note the initial level of the liquid in the measuring cylinder, keeping your eye on
the same level as the lower meniscus of the liquid. (Fig. 1.2). Let it be V1.
(vi) Gently, lower the solid in the cylinder with the help of a thread and read the level
of water again (Fig. 1.3). Let it be V2.
(vii) The difference between the observations taken in step (v) and (vi) above gives us the
volume of the given solid.

80 80
70 70
(V2)
60 60
E2
50 (V1) 50
E1 Solid
40 40
30 E3 30

20 Measuring Cylinder 20

10 Liqauid 10

Fig. 1.2: Reading level of liquid in Fig. 1.3: Level of liquid in a cylinder
a measuring cylinder after lowering solid in it

[C] Density of The Material of The Given Solid

Substituting the values of mass obtained from step (iv) in (A) and volume obtained from
step (vii) in (B), in the following formula, calculate the density of the material of the given
solid.
Mass
Density =
Volume
4 :: Science and Technology Laboratory Manual

1.3 WHAT TO OBSERVE

[A] Measurement of Mass

(i) Least count of the spring balance = ................. g
(ii) Initial reading of the pointer of spring balance (m1) = ................. g
(iii) Final reading of the pointer of the spring balance (m2) = ................. g
(iv) Mass of the given solid, (m) = (m2 – m1)g = ................. g

[B] Measurement of Volume of the solid

(i) Least count of the measuring cylinder = .................. cm3 (mL)
(ii) Initial level of the liquid in the measuring cylinder = (V1) = .................. cm3 (mL)
(iii) Final level of the liquid in the measuring cylinder after lowering the solid in it,
(V2) = .................. cm3 (mL)
(iv) Volume of the solid, (V) = (V2 – V1) cm3 = .................. cm3

[C] Calculation of Density of the material of the solid

m
d = = .................. g cm–3
V

1.4 CONCLUSIONS
(i) Mass of the given solid = .................. g
(ii) Volume ofthe given solid = .................. cm3
(iii) Density of the material of the given solid = .................. g cm–3

Improvising a Measuring Cylinder

In case you do not has an easy access to a measuring cylinder, you may improvise one
as follows:
You may have in your home (or obtain it from a crockery shop for use in your home)
a glass tumbler or bottle (like a jam bottle) having cylindrical shape i.e. the one having
the same diameter at its top and bottom. Measure its internal diameter with a scale. Paste
a vertical strip of graph paper on it (Fig. 1.4) to make it a measuring cylinder. The strip
has millimeter marks on it. Calculate the volume of 1 mm height of liquid filled in the
tumbler. This is the least count of your measuring cylinder. For example, if the internal
diameter of the tumbler is 6.0 cm, then the volume of 1 mm height of liquid in it is:

πr2h = 22 × 3.0 × 3.0 × 1 = 2.8 mL

7 10
 Science and Technology Laboratory Manual :: 5

Fig. 1.4: Improvising a measuring cylinder

1.5 CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING

(i) (a) Which is heavier l kg cotton or l kg iron?
..................................................................................................................................
(b) Which is denser lkg cotton or 1 kg iron? Explain.
..................................................................................................................................
(ii) Which would you prefer for measuring the volume of 4.6 mL, of milk, a measuring
cylinder of capacity 50 mL and least count 1 mL or a measuring cylinder of capacity
500 mL and least count 5 mL? Why?
..........................................................................................................................................
(iii) How many cc (cubic centimeters) make one litre?
..........................................................................................................................................
(iv) How will you modify the experiment to measure the density of wood?
..........................................................................................................................................
(v) Density of brass is more than the density of aluminium. If pieces of brass and
aluminium having equal masses be taken, which one will displace more water?
Explain.
..........................................................................................................................................

Science can purify religion from error and superstition.

Religion can purify science from idolatry and false absolutes.
– John Paul II, Pope (Karol Wojtyla)
 EXPERIMENT 2

To Find the Average Speed of an Individual, as One Walks/Runs,

To and Fro between Two Points

OBJECTIVES
After performing this experiment, you should be able to:
 measure the distance travelled by a moving body;
 use a stop watch to measure the time interval of an event; and
 measure average speed of a moving body during a given time interval.

2.1 WHAT YOU SHOULD KNOW

Speed is the physical quantity, which tells us how fast has a body moved between two
positions. Normally in moving long distances a body does not move equally fast all the
time. The average speed of a body over a given time interval is given by:

Total distance moved by the body (path length)

Average speed =
Total time taken

Material required
A metre scale and a stop watch

2.2 HOW TO PERFORM THE EXPERIMENT

1. Mark two fixed points A and B on the ground 20 metres or more apart.
2. Let your friend stand at one point (say A), instructed him/her to start walking/running
when you speak “Start” and then make 5 to 10 walks from A to B, then B to A, and
so on.
3. Say “Start” and simultaneously start the stop watch (OR, note the time with the help
of seconds - hand in your watch, in case a stop watch is not available). Simultaneously,
your friend starts walking (Fig. 2.1).
4. Keep on counting the number of times your friend has moved between the two points.
5. When he completes his last trip (AB or BA), say “STOP” and stop the watch at the
instant he reaches the marked point.
 Science and Technology Laboratory Manual :: 7

A B

Fig. 2.1: A person running on a straight path between points A and B.

6. Measure the length. AB with the help of a metre scale.

7. If your friend has covered length AB, n times, total distance moved by him is (n ×
AB).
8. Note the time by your stop watch and calculate average speed.
9. Repeat the experiment atleast three times. Are the three results equal? Find their mean.
10. Repeat the experiment, when your friend runs between the same two points.
(Note: You yourself can walk/run between the points A and B with the stop watch in your
hand and perform the experiment.)

2.3 WHAT TO OBSERVE

(A) Speed of a Person when the Person Walks

Distance between marked points AB = d = ......................... m

S.No. No. of times the Total distance travelled Time taken t Average
person moves the = n d (metre) (second) speed = nd/t
distance AB = (n) (ms–1)

1.

2.

3.

Mean value of the average speed of walking = ................. ms–1

8 :: Science and Technology Laboratory Manual

(B) Speed of the person when the person runs

S.No. No. of times the Total distance travelled Time taken t Average
person moves the = n d (metre) (second) speed = nd/t
distance AB = n (ms–1)

1.

2.

3.

Mean value of the-average speed of running = ................. ms–1

2.4 CONCLUSIONS
1. The person walked lengths AB (of .............. m) with an average speed of .............. ms–1.
2. The person ran lengths AB (of ................. m) with an average speed of ................. ms–1.

2.5 CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING

1. While moving to and fro between A and B, is your friend moving equally fast when
he is in the middle and when he is close to A or B? If no, where is he fastest?
..........................................................................................................................................
2. A person moves from A to B (a distance of 50 m) and returns back to A in 1 minute
40 second. What is the average speed of the person?
..........................................................................................................................................
3. The distance meter of a truck shows that it has travelled a distance of 60 km in one
hour. Will its speed-metre read 60 km h–1 for the whole journey?
..........................................................................................................................................
4. Convert 18 km h–1 into ms–1.
..........................................................................................................................................
5. How will you measure the average speed of walking if you do not have a stop watch
or your watch with a seconds-hand, but have a device which gives a signal after every
5 second?
..........................................................................................................................................
 EXPERIMENT 3

To Observe and Compare the Pressure Exerted by a Solid Iron Cuboid

Placed on Fine Sand/Wheat Flour while Resting on its three different
Faces and Calculate the Pressure Exerted in the three different Cases

OBJECTIVES
After performing the experiment, you should be able to:
 select a spring balance of suitable range and least count in accordance with the weight
of the body;
 measure weight of a body using a spring balance;
 demonstrate that pressure applied is more if the force is applied on a smaller area;
and
 Calculate the pressure exerted by a body on the surface of contact.

3.1 WHAT YOU SHOULD KNOW

 Thrust is defined as the force acting normally on a surface.

 Pressure is defined as thrust per unit area i.e. Pressue = Thrust .

Area
 When a body is placed on a surface, its weight exerts thrust on the surface.
 The weight of a body of mass m is given by W = mg newton, where g is acceleration
due to gravity at the place.
 A cuboid has six faces with three pairs of opposite faces having different surface area.

Material Required
A tray having fine wheat flour (or sand). A metallic cuboid (approximate mass 1 kg), a
spring balance, a thread and a half metre scale.

3.2 HOW TO PERFORM THE EXPERIMENT

1. Place the tray of wheat flour on the table and level the top surface of the flour. Do
not press it to decrease volume (Fig. 3.1).
10 :: Science and Technology Laboratory Manual

Fig. 3.1: Tray having wheat flour

2. Select a suitable spring balance which has range more

than the weight of the cuboid. Hang the spring balance
vertically on a nail put in the wall.
3. Tie a thread in the middle of the metallic cuboid and 1 1
2 2
make a loop in the thread and hang it on the spring 3 3

balance and measure its weight (Fig. 3.2). 4 4

5 5
4. With the help of metre scale measure the length l, 6 6

breadth b and height h of the cuboid. For this place the 7 7

cuboid along the scale and measure the length keeping

your eye normal to the mark at each side (Fig. 3.3). The
distance between the positions of point P and Q gives
us the length of the cuboid. Similarly breadth and height Fig. 3.2: The cuboid suspended
may also be determined. on the hook of spring balance
to measure its weight

T W

A V
U
h
C
B R
S
Q b
P
l

U V
P Q

Fig. 3.3: Positioning the cuboid along the scale

5. Now, gently place the cuboid with face PQRS (or UVWT) on the wheat flour and see
how much height of it gets submerged in the flour.
6. Repeat step 5 with face PQVU and then with face QRWV on the flour.
 Science and Technology Laboratory Manual :: 11

3.3 WHAT TO OBSERVE

A. Determination of weight of the cuboid

1. Range of the spring balance = 0 ............ gwt = (0 N .............)
2. Least count of spring balance = ............ gwt = ......... N
3. Weight of the cuboid, mg = ............ gwt = ......... N

B. Measurement of length, breadth and height of the cuboid

1. Length of the cuboid = ................... cm = ...................... × 10–2 m
2. Breadth of the cuboid = ................... cm = ...................... × 10–2 m
3. Height of the cuboid = ................... cm = ...................... × 10–2 m

C. Depth of the cuboid immersed in the flour

1. Depth is maximum when the face ................... is placed in the flour
2. Depth is minimum when the face ................... is placed on the flour.

3.4 CALCULATIONS
1. Area of face PQRS, A1 = l × b = ......... cm × ......... cm = ......... cm2 = ......... m2
2. Area of face QRWV, A2 = b × h = ......... cm × ......... cm = ......... cm2 = ......... m2
3. Area of face PQVU, A3 = l × h = ......... cm × ......... cm = ......... cm2 = ......... m2

mg
4. Pressure on flour when cuboid is placed on face PQRS = = .......... Nm–2
A1

mg
5. Pressure on flour when cuboid is placed on face QRWV = A = .......... Nm–2
2

mg
6. Pressure on flour when cuboid is placed on face PQVU = A = .......... Nm–2
3

3.5 CONCLUSIONS
1. Area of face PQRS, i.e. A1 is maximum and hence the pressure on flour when the
cuboid is placed on this face is minimum, that is why it immerses the least in the flour.
You will find that this is in conformity with the observation.
2. Area of face QRWU i.e., A2 is least and hence pressure on flour with this position
of cuboid is maximum and it immerses through maximum depth in the flour. You will
find that this is in conformity with the observation.
12 :: Science and Technology Laboratory Manual

3.6 CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING

1. The mass of a cuboid is 100 g, what is its weight in newtons?
Ans. 1 N
2. Express the area of a rectangle of length 10 cm and breadth 5 cm in m2.
Ans. 5 × 10–3 m2.
3. What is the mass of 1 L of water?
Ans. 1 kg.
4. The area of base of a beaker of capacity 500 mL is 100 cm2. What is the pressure
of water contained in it at its base if the water is filled in it upto the brim?

0.5 × 10
Ans. P = = 500 Nm–2
100 × 10−4

5. What is the other name for the unit Nm–2?

Ans. Pascal (Pa)
6. Will it make any difference if we use wet sand in place of dry sand? Why?
Ans. In wet sand the block will penetrate lesser depth as compared to the depth it will
immerse into dry sand. However, marking the depth for comparison would become
easier, because, the sand particles come closer together and separation between them
becomes almost fixed.
 EXPERIMENT 4

To Verify the Third Law of Motion Using Two Spring Balances

OBJECTIVES
After performing the experiment, you should be able to:
 demonstrate that the extension in the spring of a spring balance is directly proportional
to the force applied on it;
 entangle two spring balances in such a way that force applied on one may act on the
other; and
 verify third law of motion.

4.1 WHAT YOU SHOULD KNOW

 A spring balance is used for measuring force.
 The principle of working of a spring balance is “stretch in a uniformly wound spring
is directly proportional to the stretching force”.
 Even if the spring balance is calibrated in the unit of mass (g or kg), the readings may
be converted into the unit of force (i.e. N) by multiplying mass with acceleration due
to gravity at the place.
 Force is a result of interaction between two bodies, the force that one body applies
on the other body is called action and the force that the second body applies on the
first body is called reaction.
 According to Newtons third law of motion, “action and reaction are equal in magnitude,
opposite in direction and act on two different bodies.”

Material Required
Two identical spring balances (0-5 N), weight box, a frictionless pulley, a hanger of 1 N
(= 100 gwt) and 3-4 slotted weights each of 1 N to be placed on the hanger, an inextensible,
torsionless, massless string and a heavy wooden block with a hook.

4.2 HOW TO PERFORM THE EXPERIMENT

1. Take two identical spring balances each of range 0-5 N.
2. Find the least count of the two spring balances.
14 :: Science and Technology Laboratory Manual

3. Hold the two spring balances vertically and see whether their pointers are at zero mark
or not. Adjust the pointers at zero mark if need be.
4. Fix the wooden block at one edge of the table and pulley at its opposite edge keeping
the two in a straight line. Attach balance B with the block, entangle the hooks of spring
balances A and B and tieing thread with A pass it over the pulley and attach hanger
weight to its free end as shown in Fig. 4.1. In this arrangement the spring balances
rest on the table top, the thread remains parallel to it and the thread and weight on
the other side of the pulley hang freely and do not touch the table.
B A P

Fig. 4.1: Experimental set-up

5. Note readings in the two spring balances.

6. Add at least 3 more weights in steps of 1 N on the hanger and note readings in the
two spring balances each time.

4.3 WHAT TO OBSERVE

1. Range of spring balance A = Range of spring balance B = 0 to ...... g wt = 0 to ...... N
2. Least count of spring balance A = Least count of spring balance B ...... g wt ........ N
3. Acceleration due to gravity at your place, g = ............. ms–2
4. Weight of the hanger w = ............. g wt = ............... N.
5. Table for action and reaction

S.No. Additonal Total force Reading in Reading in FA – FB

weight on applied to spring balance spring balance
the hanger the balance (A) (B)
W (N) W + W (N) FA (N) FB (N)

1. 0 1N

2. 1 2N

3. 2 3N

4 3 4N

5 4 5N
 Science and Technology Laboratory Manual :: 15

4.4 CONCLUSIONS
1. FA – FB = 0 ⇒ FA = FB, i.e., action of balance A on B is equal to reaction of balance
B on A. Thus action and reaction are equal and opposite and act on two different bodies.
The third law of motion stands verified.
2. If FA – FB ≠ 0, there is error in the experiment and the sources of errors are to be
discussed.

4.5 CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING

1. When a load of 1 N is applied on a spring it gets stretched by 1 cm, how much load
will pull its to stretch by 3 cm.
Ans. 3 N
2. Will a coupled system move due to mutual force of action and reaction?
Ans. No.
3. How to explain this?
Ans. Because, forces of action and reaction are equal and opposite, they will cancel
each other.
4. In a tug of war what are the action and reaction forces?
Ans. Action of one team on the rope – action, tension in the rope – reaction.
5. What happens when the rope is snapped?
Ans. The two teams fall backward in opposite direction.
6. How to explain this?
Ans. Because, each team is applying force on the rope in opposite direction. When
the rope snaps tension in the rope goes and the teams fall backwards because of the
imbalanced forces acting on them.
 EXPERIMENT 5

To Determine the Melting Point of Ice

OBJECTIVES
After performing the experiment, you should be able to:

 use a laboratory thermometer;

 set up apparatus to determine melting point of ice; and
 show that melting point is a characteristic constant temperatures for a given solid.

5.1 WHAT YOU SHOULD KNOW

 A solid changes into its corresponding liquid state at a fixed, characteristic temperature,
called its melting point.
 Melting point and freezing point for a given substance have same value.
 When a solid starts melting at its melting point its temperature remains constant till
whole of the solid is converted into liquid state.

Material Required
A big funnel (15 cm dia at top), a thermometer, a beaker, an iron stand with funnel holder
and clamp.

5.2 HOW TO PERFORM THE EXPERIMENT

1. Arrange the funnel, beaker and thermometer on the iron stand as shown in Fig. 5.1.
See that the funnel and the thermometer are securely clamped in the iron stand making
thermometer vertical.
2. Fill the funnel with broken pieces of ice burying the bulb of the thermometer in the
ice from all sides.
3. Keep on noting the reading of the thermometer after every thirty seconds.
4. Note the temperature which becomes constant and does not change with time. This
is melting point of ice.
 Science and Technology Laboratory Manual :: 17

Thermometer

Funnel

Beaker
Iron stand

Fig. 5.1: Experimental set up for finding melting point of ice

5.3 WHAT TO OBSERVE

S.No. Time (min) Temperature (°C)

1. ½
2 1
3 1½
4 2
5 2½
. .
. .
. .

5.4 CONCLUSION
Melting point of ice = ........... °C

5.5 CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING

1. Melting point of ice as mentioned in tables of constants is 0°C. Your value is not 0°C.
What may be the reason?
Ans. 0°C is the melting points of pure ice at atmosphere. If atmospheric pressure is
changed or ice is not made of pure water then its melting point may not be 0°C.
2. How does the melting point of ice change on adding impurities.
Ans. Melting point of ice decreases with addition of impurities
3. How does the melting point of ice change with increase in pressure?
Ans. Melting point of ice decreases with increase in pressure.
 EXPERIMENT 6

To Study the Laws of Reflection of Light Using a Plane Mirror

OBJECTIVES
After performing this experiment, you should be able to:
 draw the reflected rays on a plane mirror strip for given incident rays;
 Measure the angle of incidence and the angle of reflection; and
 Varify the laws of reflection of light.

6.1 WHAT YOU SHOULD KNOW

As you know the light incident on a smooth surface is reflected back into the same medium
in accordance with two laws. These are known as laws of reflection, and are given below:
1st law of reflection : The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal to the reflecting
surface at the point of incidence, lie in the same plane.
2nd law of reflection : The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection
i.e. ∠i = ∠r.

Point of incidence

r
i
Re
y
ra

fle
nt

cte
ide

dn
Inc

ra

Normal
y

Fig. 6.1: Reflection of light

 Science and Technology Laboratory Manual :: 19

Material Required
A plane mirror strip about 2.5 cm wide and 10 cm long with wooden support to hold it
vertical. 4 pins, drawing board, a sheet of paper, pencil, eraser and 30 cm scale, 4 drawing
pins to fix the sheet of paper on the drawing board, a small weight to fix the pins on the
sheet of the board; a protractor.

6.2 HOW TO PERFORM THE EXPERIMENT

(i) Place the drawing board on a table. Spread the drawing paper on the drawing-board
and pin it up at the four corners with four drawing-pins.
(ii) Draw a line M1, M2 on the drawing paper. Now fix the plane mirror strip in wooden
stands to hold it vertically. Stand the mirror strip on the drawing paper with its
reflecting surface (rear surface) coinciding with M1, M2 as shown in Fig. 6.2.

A¢1

Wooden stand A¢2

Plane Mirror Strip

M1 M2
O

A2 B1

A1 B2
N
Eye

Fig. 6.2 : Plane mirror strip fixed vertically in a wooden stand

(iii) Draw an oblique line A1, A2 on the drawing paper.

(iv) Fix two pins A1 and A2 vertically on this oblique line at least 6 cm apart, as shown
in Fig. 6.2. The pins should stand vertical on the horizontal drawing board.
(v) Now bring your eyes in horizontal plane slightly above the drawing paper on the other
side of the normal ON and to look at the images of the pins into the mirror strip.
Look slightly obliquely at the opposite inclination to the normal of the plane mirror.
(vi) Adjust your eye to see the images A′1 and A′2 of the pins Al and A2 in a line.
(vii) Now fix the third pin B1 in line with the images A′1, and A′2 so that it covers the
images of both the pins.
20 :: Science and Technology Laboratory Manual

(viii) Take another pin and fix it in position B2 in line with the pin B1 and images A′1
and A′2. Take care that the lower ends (bottom) of the newly fixed pins B1 and
B2 are exactly in line with the lower ends of the images A¢1 and A¢2 of the pins
A1 and A2 in the mirror strip
(ix) Now remove all the pins A1, A2, B1 and B2 which leave behind the pin hole marks
on the drawing paper.
(x) Draw a straight line B1B2 using pencil and scale passing through the marks of pins
B1 and B2 on the drawing paper and extend it to the base line M1M2 of the mirror
strip M.
(xi) Also extend the line, A1 A2 to meet the line B1 B2 at O. O is the point of incidence.
If point O is not on the base line M1 M2 draw a line. M1 M2 parallel to M1 M2
passing through O.
(xi) Now A2 A1O is the incident ray and O B1B2 is the reflected ray.
(xiii) Draw a line ON at right angles to line M1M2 at the point O. This line ON is therefore,
the normal at the point of incidence O of the mirror.
(xiv) Measure the angle of incidence and the angle of reflection with the help of protractor.
(Provided in your geometry box.)
(xv) Repeat the experiment for at least three different values of angle of incidence.
(xvi) Record the values of the angle of incidence and the corresponding angle of reflection
in the following table.

6.3 WHAT TO OBSERVE

(i) Because mirror stands perpendicular to plane of paper, normal to mirror lies in the
plane of paper. It is the line ON on the drawing-paper. Also incident ray A2, A1O
and reflected ray OB1B2 are in the plane of paper. Hence, all the three i.e., incident
ray, reflected ray and normal at the point of incidence lie in the same plane.
(ii) Table 6.1:
S.No Angle of incidence Angle of reflection Difference between
∠ i)
(∠ ∠ r)
(∠ ∠i and ∠r i.e. (∠
(∠r – ∠i)
1.
2.
3.

6.4 CONCLUSION
(i) Observation (i) verifies the first law of reflection.
(ii) As seen from the Table 6.1 the angle of incidence is found to be equal to the angle
of reflection within the limits of experimental error, therefore, the second law of
reflection is verified.
 Science and Technology Laboratory Manual :: 21

6.6 CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING

(i) What is the angle of incidence when the direction of incident ray A1A2O coincides
with that of the normal NO in Fig. 6.2.
(ii) What should be the angle of reflection when the incident ray falls normally on the
surface of the mirror strip?
(iii) If you join A1 with A′1 by a straight line, then in what ratio the line M1M2 divides
the line A′1A1?
(iv) If the incident ray makes an angle of 30° with the plane of mirror, i.e. with M1M2,
then what will be the angle of reflection?
(v) If a pin is fixed at a distance of 4 cm in front of a plane mirror where and at what
distance will the image be formed?
(vi) You are advised to take a thin mirror strip to verify the laws of reflection. why?

“The scientific method,” Thomas Henry Huxley once wrote,

“is nothing but the normal working of the human mind.”
That is to say, when the mind is working; that is to say
further, when it is engaged in correcting its mistakes.
– Postman, Neil
 EXPERIMENT 7

To Study the Change in the Size, and Position of Image formed by a Convex
Lens by Changing the Position of an Object (Candle) Placed in front of it

OBJECTIVES
After performing this experiment, you should be able to:

 adjust the positions of the object (candle) and the convex lens along a metre scale;
 focus the image properly;
 observe the dependence of the size, nature and position of image on the position of
the object; and
 estimate the focal length of the convex lens.

7.1 WHAT YOU SHOULD KNOW

A convex lens has the property of converging a parallel beam of light to a point. This
point is called its focus. Distance of this point from the lens is its focal length. Due to
this property, the lens can form an image of any luminous object on a screen placed at
the right distance from the lens. Size of image and its distance from the lens depends on
the location of the object.

Material Required
A candle with stand, a convex lens (diameter 5 cm, f = 15 cm), a ground glass screen/
white card board piece mounted in a frame with a handle, three uprights to mount the
candle the lens and the screen, lens holder, a meter scale, a match box and adhesive tape.

7.2 HOW TO SETUP THE EXPERIMENT

The stands for lens and ground glass screen must be so designed that the height of the
centres of convex lens, ground glass and candle flame above the table top be equal. In
case of candle, length of candle may be reduced by cutting it by a blade from below.

Fix the metre scale on table by adhesive tape. The three stands can slide along it. Put the
candle near one end of the scale, lens in the middle and screen behind the lens (Fig. 7.1)
 Science and Technology Laboratory Manual :: 23

Image of Candle

O L
Convex lens
I

Candle
Screen

Meter Scale

Fig. 7.1: Setting of the experiment for convex lens.

For the lens to make a real image of the candle at the centre of the screen, the centres
of O, L and I must lie in a straight line, i.e, they should be at equal heights above the
table as also at the same horizontal distance from the scale.

7.3 HOW TO PERFORM THE EXPERIMENT

(i) Find rough focal length of the lens by focussing the image of the Sun or of any
other distant object out side the window of the laboratory on your screen. The
distance between the image and the lens is the roughly estimated focal length of
the lens. Measure it with a metre scare.
(ii) Put the lens, L, at a distance slightly greater than its focal length from the candle
O.
(iii) Move the screen forwards/backwards along the scale so that a sharp image of the
candle flame is formed on the screen. To identify position of sharpest image observe
the vertical boundary of the flame, which is a fairly sharp boundary.
(iv) By the marks already existing on the three stands, read the positions of O, L, and
I on the metre scale, and record them.
(v) Observe and record whether the image is real/virtual, inverted/erect and smaller/
larger than object.
(vi) Compute the object distance OL and the image distance LI.
(vii) Repeat the steps (ii) to (vi) three more times by moving the object (i.e. the candle)
a little away from the lens thereby increasing the object distance gradually and get
a sharp image of the candle on the screen in each case.
(viii) Place the candle at a distance less than the rough focal length of the lens and note
the size and nature of the image formed. Try to form the image on the screen.
24 :: Science and Technology Laboratory Manual

7.4 WHAT TO OBSERVE

Rough focal length of the convex lens = ............... cm.
A. Table: Measurement of distance of the object and the image
S.No. Position of Object Image Size of the Nature of the
distance distance image image (real/
(Magnified/ virtual, Erect/
O L I OL LI diminished/ inverted)
(cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) same size)

1.

2.
3.
4.
B. When the candle is placed between focus and optical centre the image seen is enlarged
but it can not be taken on screen

7.5 CONCLUSIONS
(i) For any object distance more than f, the image is .................., ................. .
(ii) As object distance decreases, but is more than the f of the lens, the image distance
goes on ...................... and the size of real image goes on ..................... .
(iii) When image distance is greater than the object distance, image is ...................... and
when image distance is less than the object distance, image is ..................... .
(iv) When the object distance is less than the rough focal length of the lens, the image
is ..................... . (virtual/real, erect/inverted, magnified/diminished)

7.6 CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING

(i) At what position of the object with respect to the focal length of the lens, the image
size seems to be equal to the object size?
..........................................................................................................................................
(ii) Can you do a similar experiment with a concave lens? Give one reason.
..........................................................................................................................................
(iii) Will the size of the image depend upon the size (or diameter) of the convex lens
if the object distance is same in each case?
..........................................................................................................................................
 EXPERIMENT 8

To Study the Change in Current through a Resistor by Changing

Potential Difference across it. Determine the Resistance of the Resistor
by Plotting a Graph between Potential Difference and Current

OBJECTIVES
After performing this experiment, you should be able to:
 determine the least count of an ammeter and a voltmeter;
 make connections in accordance with given circuit diagram;
 recognize the sources of error in the electric circuits;
 draw a graph between V and I;
 interpret the graph and compute the electric resistance of the given resistor and
 recognise a relation that the potential of the cells connected in series is the sum of
the potential difference of individual cells.

8.1 WHAT YOU SHOULD KNOW

Electricity has become an integral part of our life. In your day to day life you might have
seen different sources of electricity and different type of electrical circuits. Every electrical
circuit possesses some resistance which depends upon the nature of material, length, and
area of cross-section of the resistor and its physical conditions like temperature and
pressure.
You know that according to Ohm’s law, if the potential difference across a resistor
increases, the electric current passing through it also increases in the same proportion. It
can be concluded that the ratio of potential difference across a conductor and the electric
current through it remains constant provided the temperature remains constant i.e.

V
= R (a constant)
I

Where R is known as the resistance of the resistor.

Now, if potential difference across the ends of a resistor of resistance R changes, the
corresponding electric current through it also changes and the ratio of potential difference
and current remains constant.
26 :: Science and Technology Laboratory Manual

Material Required
Four fresh cells each of emf 1.5 V, a wire of certain length and area of cross-section
(resistor), an ammeter, a voltmeter, connecting wire, a new key and a piece of sand paper.

8.2 HOW TO PERFORM THE EXPERIMENT

(i) Note the range of the given ammeter and the voltmeter.
(ii) Find the least count of the ammeter and the voltmeter.
(iii) Make the connections as shown in Fig 8.1 Keep the key, K, open while making
connections, so that a large current may not pass in the circuit on completing the
connections. The ends of connecting wires should be cleaned with the help of sand
paper.
(iv) Connect the voltmeter across the given resistor in parallel, Positive terminal of the
voltmeter should be connected to the end A of the resistor which is connected with
the positive terminal of the cell (Fig.8.1). The resistance of the resistor should not
be very large or very small.

Dry cell Plug key

+ –
V

A B
R

A ( K)
– + + –

Fig. 8.1: (a) Experimental setup Fig. 8.1: (b) The circuit diagram

(v) Check that the pointer of the ammeter is at its zero mark when the key K is opened.
If the pointer does not coincide with zero when no current is flowing, adjust it with
the help of the screw provided in it for this purpose. While making this adjustment
gently tap the instrument so that pointer may not stick to any position due to friction
in its bearings. Check also that the terminal of ammeter marked (+) is connected
to the positive terminal of the cell.
(vi) Observe the reading of ammeter using circuit shown in Fig. 8.2 (a) for single cell
marked with 1.5 V, Remember that the cells should be fresh having its maximum
voltage nearly 1.5V.
(vii) Observe the reading of ammeter using circuit showing in Fig. 8.2 (b) and (c) for two
cells and three cells respectively in series, all the cells being identical having emf
1.5 volt.
 Science and Technology Laboratory Manual :: 27

Fig. 8.2 (a) Circuit Diagram with single cell

Fig. 8.2 (b) Circuit Diagram with two cells

Fig. 8.2 (c) Circuit Diagram with three cells

8.3 WHAT TO OBSERVE

Range of the voltmeter = ................ to .................. V
Least count of the voltmeter = .............. V
Range of the ammeter = ................... A to .................. A
Least count of the ammeter = ...................... A.
Table 8.1: Values of current and voltage
S.No. Voltage in volt (V) Current in ampere (I) V/I
1 1.5
2. 3.0
3. 4.5

Mean value of resistance R of the resistor = ............... Ω

28 :: Science and Technology Laboratory Manual

8.4 ANALYSIS OF DATA

For each observation calculate V/I and record in the table. Plot a graph between V and
I taking V on X-axis and I on Y-axis, as shown in Fig. 8.3.

Fig. 8.3: Graph between V and I

The graph will be found to be a straight line. Find the slope of this straight-line graph
by choosing two points A and B on it

BC
slope =
AC

The reciprocal of the slope of this graph gives the value of the resistance of the conductor.
Extend the straight-line graph backward and check whether it passes through origin (O)
or not.

8.5 CONCLUSION
(i) The value of resistance of the conductor = ...................... ohm.

(ii) The straight line graph indicates that the ratio of V/I is constant and circuit obey Ohm’s
law.

8.6 CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING

(i) An ammeter and a resistor were connected in series with a combination of three cells
connected in series. Now, in this system if out of three cells one cell is connected
wrongly then what will happen to the reading of ammeter?
(ii) If the reading of ammeter connected in series with a resistor and a cell be I, what
change will occur to the reading of ammeter; when one more cell is connected in
parallel to the first cell?
(iii) Calculate the resistance of the resistor A and B from the following graphs. Fig. 8.4
(a and b).
 Science and Technology Laboratory Manual :: 29

Fig. 8.4 (a) Fig. 8.4 (b)

(iv) You are advised to take out the key from the plug when the observation are not being
taken. Why?
(v) Why are you advised to clean the ends of the connecting wires before connecting
them?

Errors like straws upon the surface flow: He who would

search for pearls must dive below.
– John Dryden
 EXPERIMENT 9

To Assemble a Household Circuit Comprising Two Bulbs (3 Volt each),

Two Turn On-Off Switches, a Fuse and Two Dry Cells as Source of Power

OBJECTIVES
After performing this experiment, you should be able to:
 identify the component of a circuit bulbs, switches, fuse, cell etc;
 make connections in accordance with the circuit diagram;
 differentiate between series and parallel combinations; and
 understand that in parallel combination each device/appliance works independently,
and at the same voltage.

9.1 WHAT YOU SHOULD KNOW

If electric potential applied across a bulb is V, the current it draws from the source is given
by
P
I=
V

where P is in watt, V in volt and I in ampere.

If P1, P2, P3 .... be the power consumed by different electrical devices connected in a circuit
the total power consumption P at any instant is given by
P = P1 + P2 + P3 ....
An electric cell is a device in which a constant potential difference is maintained between
its two electrodes immersed in an electrolyte by a chemical reaction. A battery is a
combination of more than one cell. Electric fuse is a safety device used in live wire in
an electric circuit to prevent from overheating due to overloading or short circuiting. It
is a wire of tin-lead alloy of low melting point.
Overloading is the process of overheating of a wire due to excessive current drawn by
the appliances connected in a circuit.
An electric circuit is a closed path formed by connecting a battery, a plug key/switch, fuse,
a bulb etc through metallic wires for flow of charges.
A switch is an ON-OFF device for current in an electric circuit.
 Science and Technology Laboratory Manual :: 31

Material Required
Two 3V bulbs with hoders, two (On/OFF) switches, a fuse of connecting wires, a piece
of sand paper, four dry cells with a holder to connect four cells in series or battery
eliminator providing voltage in steps of 1.5V.

9.2 HOW TO PERFORM THE EXPERIMENT

(i) Observe the circuit diagram 9.1 carefully.

B1 S1

S2
B2

+ –
Fuse (F)
Battery

Fig. 9.1 Circuit diagram for household circuit

(ii) Observe every component carefully, you will observe every appliance/device has
two terminals.
(iii) Take two bulbs B1 and B2 and switches S1 and S2. Connect bulb B1 and switch S1
in series. Similarly connect bulb B2 and switch S2.
(iv) Connect bulb B1 alongwith switch S1 and bulb B2 alongwith switch S2 in parallel
with each other as shown in figure.
(v) Connect fuse F of appropriate rating in series with the set up. Connect other terminal
of fuse F to the positive terminal of battery/power supply.
(vi) Negative terminal of battery/power supply connect to the second terminal switches
S1 and S2.
(vii) Press the switches S1 and S2 one by one and observe. Record your observation.
(viii) Press both the switches S1 and S2 simultaneously and observe. Record your
observation.
Table 9.1 Function of switches

S.No. Switch ON/OFF Bulb B1 Bulb B2

1. S1 ON ON OFF
2. S2 ON OFF ON
3. S1 and S2 ON ON ON
32 :: Science and Technology Laboratory Manual

9.3 CONCLUSION
Household circuit assembly is completed and both the bulbs B1 and B2 can function
independently

9.4 CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING

(i) If two identical bulbs are connected in series, will they operate independently? Explain
..........................................................................................................................................
(ii) Why do we connect two bulbs in parallel in an electric circuit?
..........................................................................................................................................

(iii) If two identical bulbs are connected in series across a potential difference of 12 V
(a) will they operate at their rated voltage? why.
.................................................................................................................................
(b) If one bulb fuses, will the other bulb glow?
.................................................................................................................................
(c) If one identical bulb is connected in series with the two bulbs, what will be the
effect on voltage applied across each bulb and current flowing through each
bulb?
.................................................................................................................................
 EXPERIMENT 10

To Determine the Speed of a Pulse Propagated through a Stretched String

OBJECTIVES
After performing this experiment you should be able to:
 create a pulse to travel along the length of a stretched string by giving it transverse
jerks;
 differentiate between a wave pulse and a periodic wave;
 explain propagation of a transverse pulse and a transverse wave; and
 differentiate between a transverse wave and a longitudinal wave.

10.1 WHAT YOU SHOULD KNOW

Wave is a disturbance and wave motion is the motion of the disturbance produced in one
part of space travelling up to another part without transfer of any material with the
disturbance. Thus, wave motion is a means of transferring energy and momentum from one
point to another without any actual transportation of matter between these points. Such waves
which can be produced/propagated only in a material medium are called elastic waves or
mechanical waves e.g. waves on strings, waves on a slinky, sound waves etc. Another kind
of waves which do not require any material medium i.e. the wave which can pass even
through vacuum are called non-mechanical electro-magnetic waves e.g. Radiowaves, X-rays,
microwaves, ultraviolet rays, visible light, infra red radiation, γ-rays etc.
Wave motion depending upon the direction of motion of the particles of the medium can
be classified into two types viz. (i) a transverse wave and (ii) a longitudinal wave.
Transverse wave is a wave in which the particles of the medium move to and fro about
their mean position perpendicular to the direction of motion of the wave e.g. wave on a
string/slinky, light waves, movement of string of a sitar, violin, movement of membrane
of a tabla, dholak etc.
Longitudinal wave is a wave in which the particles of the medium move back and forth
along the direction of motion of the wave e.g. sound wave travelling through air, vibrations
of air column in organ pipes etc.
A wave pulse is a small disturbance in a medium which usually lasts for a short duration
e.g., motion of a pulse on a long stretched string or in a stretched slinky. A wave pulse
34 :: Science and Technology Laboratory Manual

can also be classified as a transverse pulse and a longitudinal pulse according to the
direction in which it creates disturbance in the medium.
A transverse pulse is a small disturbance that moves in the medium perpendicular to the
direction of motion of the pulse.
A longitudinal pulse is a small disturbance that moves along the direction of motion of
the pulse.
To determine the speed of a pulse take a long stretched string with one end fixed and the
other end held in your hand. If you snap your hand a little up and down creating a hump
in the string near your hand, a sudden pulse created at the end held in hand moves towards
the other end along the string with constant speed.

Speed of the pulse along the string is given by V = l

T

where l is the length of the string along which transverse pulse travels and T is the time
taken by it to travel through length of the string l.

Materials Required
A eight metre long tightly knitted cotton string about half centimeter in diameter, a meter
scale or a measuring tape, a stop clock or a stop watch.

10.2 HOW TO PERFORM THE EXPERIMENT

1. Take a tightly knit about eight metre long string. Fix one end of the string to a hook
on a wall or to a window grill. Hold a known length of the string (say l1) firmly with
your hand. The string might sag in the centre due to its own weight which will be
necessary in creating pulse.
2. Ask your friend to get ready with the stop clock/watch.
3. Give a small transverse horizontal jerk to the string at the end in your hand, to create
a transverse pulse. This transverse pulse will travel along the string. Observe the pulse
travelling along the string.
4. As the jerk is given to the stretched string to create a pulse, ask your friend to start
the stop clock/stop watch to measure the time taken by the pulse to make x number
of journeys along the total length of the string between its two ends. Count the number
of journeys along the total length of the string carefully.
5. Repeat the experiment with two different lengths of the same string.

10.3 WHAT TO OBSERVE

Least count of the stop clock/stopwatch ................
Least count of given metre scale = ............... cm
 Science and Technology Laboratory Manual :: 35

S.No. Length of the Time taken by the Time taken by the Speed of the
string between pulse in making pulse for one pulse

t l
two ends l (cm) x journeys t (s) journey T = (s) V=
x T

1. l1 = ...... m t1 = ......... s T1 = ......... s V1 = ......... ms–1

2. l2 = ...... m t2 = ......... s T2 = ......... s V2 = ......... ms–1
3. l3 = ...... m t3 = ......... s T3 = ......... s V3 = ......... ms–1

10.4 RESULT
The speed of a transverse pulse propagated through a stretched string
V1 = ............. ms–1
V2 = ............. ms–1
V3 = ............. ms–1

10.5 CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING

1. Why should the string not be placed on a rigid surface?
...........................................................................................................................................
2. Why should the amplitude of pulse be appreciably high?
...........................................................................................................................................
3. State the factors which affect the speed of a transverse pulse.
...........................................................................................................................................
4. Why does the speed of pulse change for different string lengths?
...........................................................................................................................................
5. Why is it preferred to take a long string in this experiment?
...........................................................................................................................................
 EXPERIMENT 11

To Prepare an Aqueous Solution of Common Salt of a Given Composition

OBJECTIVES
After performing this experiment, you should be able to:
 prepare a solution of known concentration by weighing the solute with a physical
balance;
 calculate the percentage (%) composition of solutions of known masses of solute and
solvent;
 calculate the amount of solute to be dissolved in the given quantity of a solvent to
prepare a solution of desired percentage composition; and
 show the homogeneous nature of solutions.

11.1 WHAT YOU SHOULD KNOW

Water is known as a universal solvent because it can dissolve many substances. The
substances that dissolve in water are called water soluble substances and their solution
in water is known as aqueous solution. A solution is defined as a homogeneous mixture
of two or more substances. The dissolved substance is called a solute and the water as
a solvent in case of aqueous solutions. At a given temperature different amounts of different
substances can be dissolved in a given amount of water. By dissolving different amounts
of a solute in a definite amount of water you can prepare solutions of different percentage
composition. The relationship of mass of solute, solvent and percentage composition can
be expressed as given below:

Mass of Solute Dissolved in gram

Percentage (%) composition of a solution = ×100
Mass of Solution in gram

Material Required
Beaker or glass tumbler (250 mL), common salt, water, glass rod, measuring cylinder,
spatula or spoon, physical balance, weight box, patri dish, glazed paper.
 Science and Technology Laboratory Manual :: 37

11.2 HOW TO PERFORM THE EXPERIMENT

(i) Take a clean dry beaker or glass tumbler.
(ii) Weigh 5 g common salt on a glazed paper.
(iii) Pour the substance (solid) into a beaker or tumbler and make sure that no solid particle
is left on the glazed paper.
(iv) Measure 45 mL water with the help of a measuring cylinder.
(v) Pour the water into the beaker containing the solid substance.
(vi) Stir the contents of the beaker till all the solid substance gets dissolved. Fig. 11.1.

Common Salt
Glass
Rod

Homogeneous
Water
Mixture of
common salt
and water

Fig. 11.1: Making a aqueous solution

(vii) The required solution (50 mL of 10%) is ready.

(viii) Repeat the experiment by preparing solution of different concentrations.
Table 11.1: Mass of solute and solvent (water) for preparing
solutions of different concentration.
Mass of for 10% solution for 15% solution for 20% solution

solution (g) Mass of Mass of Mass of Mass of Mass of Mass of

solute (g) water(g) solute (g) water (g) solute (g) water (g)

50 5 45 7.5 42.5 10 40

100 10 90 15 85 20 80

150 15 135 22.5 127.5 30 120

For ready reference 1 mL water =1 g water because density of water is I g/mL

11.3 CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING

(i) Name the solute and solvent in an aqueous solution of common salt.
..........................................................................................................................................
38 :: Science and Technology Laboratory Manual

(ii) Why is water called a universal solvent?

..........................................................................................................................................
(iii) Define a solution.
..........................................................................................................................................
(iv) Calculate the percentage composition of an aqueous solution if 150 mL, of it contains
15 g solute dissolved in it.
..........................................................................................................................................
 EXPERIMENT 12

Separation of Mixtures

OBJECTIVES
After performing these experiments, you should be able to:
 choose and employ the evaporation, crystallization and sublimation as techniques for
separating mixtures;
 separate the components of a given mixture by employing appropriate techniques;
 display the laboratory skills for the purification of substances; and
 to identify the components of mixtures after separating them.

12.1 WHAT YOU SHOULD KNOW

Mixtures are formed by mixing two or more substances in any ratio. Based on the nature
and properties of mixing substances, mixtures are classified as homogenous and
heterogenous. A mixture of common salt or copper sulphate and water is homogeneous
in which the dissolved substance is uniformly dispersed throughout the body of the water.
The homogeneous mixture of two or more substances is known as solution. On the other
hand a mixture of a common salt or naphthalene and sand is a heterogeneous mixture as
the substances are non-uniformly dispersed into each other and their particles are distinctly
visible. Different techniques like, evaporation, filtrations, crystallization and sublimation
are employed for separating the components of mixtures by considering the properties of
the components. For example a mixture of salt and water (homogeneous mixture) can be
separated by the evaporation of water, copper sulphate can be separated from water by
crystallization and a mixture of naphthalene and sand can be separated by sublimation
because naphthalene sublimes on heating. Sublimation is a process in which a solid is
directly converted to gaseous state from solid state without passing through the liquid
phase.

(A) Separation of common salt from water – by evaporation

Material Required
Solution of common salt and water, china dish, burner or spirit lamp, tripod stand, wire
gauze, glass rod
40 :: Science and Technology Laboratory Manual

12.2a HOW TO PERFORM THE EXPERIMENT

(i) Take about 25 mL salt solution in a china dish. (Fig. 12.1)
(ii) Place the china dish on a wire gauze which is kept on top of a tripod stand.
(iii) Heat the solution gently.
(iv) Keep on heating till all the water has evaporated.

12.3a WHAT TO OBSERVE

Do you find any residue in the chinadish? You will find white salt left behind in the china
dish.

12.4a CONCLUSION
Common salt was separated from salt solution by evaporating water.

(B) Separation of copper sulphate from its aqueous solution by crystallization

Material Required
A solution of copper sulphate in water, beaker, burner or spirit lamp, tripod stand, wire
gauze, glass rod

China dish
White solid impurity
(common salt)

Flame Wire gauze

Tripod stand

Burner

Fig. 12.1 Evaporation

12.2b HOW TO PERFORM THE EXPERIMENT

(i) Take about 50 ml, solution of copper sulphate in water in a 250 ml, beaker. It is better-
to take a concentrated solution of copper sulphate.
(ii) Place the beaker on a wire gauze kept on the tripod stand.
 Science and Technology Laboratory Manual :: 41

(iii) Heat the solution gently till the crystallization point is reached (Fig. 12.2)
(iv) Check the crystallization point by dipping one end of the glass rod in the solution
and blowing air over it as shown in Fig. 12.3. If any solid deposits at the end of the
glass rod it is an indication that crystallization point of the solution has been reached.
(v) Stop heating the solution and allow the Tripod stand contents of the beaker to cool
at room temperature by keeping it undisturbed for 4-5 hours Fig. 12.4) copper sulphate
will crystallize out slowly.

Glass rod

Copper sulphate Beaker

solution

Flame Wire gauze

Tripod stand

Burner

Fig. 12.2 : Concentration of the solution by heating

(vi) The crystals are separated from the mother liquor by decantation as shown in Fig. 12.5.

12.3b CONCLUSION
Copper Sulphate was separated from its aqueous solution by crystallization.

Glass rod Mother liquid

Blowing

Solid crystal Copper sulphate

crystal
Cold water
Beaker

Fig. 12.3 : Testing of crystallization point Fig. 12.4: Cooling the concentrated solution
undisturbed for 4-5 hrs to obtain crystals
42 :: Science and Technology Laboratory Manual

Glass rod

Beaker
Copper sulphate
crystal

Mother liquid
Beaker

Fig. 12.5 : Decanting off the mother liquor

(C) Separation of the Mixture of Sand and Naphthalene by Sublimation

Material Required
Mixture of naphthalene and sand, burner or spirit lamp tripod stand, wire gauze, clay pipe
triangle, china dish, cotton

12.2c HOW TO PERFORM THE EXPERIMENT

(i) Take about 5-10 g mixture of sand and naphthalene in a china dish.
(ii) Place the china dish on a clay pipe triangle already fixed on the tripod stand.
(iii) Place glass funnel of appropriate size over the dish in an inverted position.
(iv) Use a cotton plug to close the stem of the funnel from the top.
(v) Heat the mixture gently by using the flame of bunsen burner of lamp. (Fig. 12.6)

Cotton plug

Inverted funnel

Naphthalene
solidified
Naphthalene
vapours Mixture of naphthalene
and sand
China dish

Tripod stand Flame Wire gauze

Burner

Fig. 12.6 : Sublimation

 Science and Technology Laboratory Manual :: 43

(vi) Naphthalene will sublime (changes solid to gaseous state) and deposit on the cooler
walls of the funnel in the form of solid.
(vii) Sand will be left behind in the dish.
(viii) The pure naphthalene can be recovered by scratching it from the walls of the funnel.

12.3c CONCLUSION
Pure naphthalene was separated from a mixture of sand and naphthalene by sublimation.

12.4 CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING

1. Which of the following substances are mixtures, one or two rupee coin, air, copper
sulphate, common salt, gold ornaments, stainless steel.
..........................................................................................................................................
2. Which of the two: (i) muddy water and (ii) rose water is a solution? and why?
..........................................................................................................................................
3. Classify the following into homogeneous and heterogeneous mixtures.
(i) sea water
(ii) sand and sodium chloride
(iii) gold ornaments
(iv) sugar syrup
(v) mixture obtained by passing CO2 through lime water
(vi) mixed vegetables
4. Give an example of sublimation process.

Common sense is the collection of prejudices acquired by

age 18.
– Albert Einstein
The ill and unfit choice of words wonderfully obstructs the
understanding.
– Francis Bacon
 EXPERIMENT 13

To Differentiate between a Chemical and Physical Change in a Given

Process

OBJECTIVES
After performing this experiment, you should be able to:

 state the characteristics of physical and chemical changes;

 differentiate between physical and chemical changes; and
 classify the givern changes as physical or chemical changes.

13.1 WHAT YOU SHOULD KNOW

A change in which a new substance of different composition and different chemical
properties is formed is known as a chemical change. On the other hand physical changes
are the changes in which no new substance is formed but only the physical properties of
the substance are changed. For example; burning of fuels (like; LPG, kerosene oil, petrol,
wood etc.) and making of curd from milk are chemical changes whereas, melting of ice,
evaporation of alcohol, water, petrol and other liquids, breaking of glass, etc. are physical
changes. All the processes may be classified in terms of chemical and physical changes.

Material Required
Candle, match box, glass slide, chine dish, glass rod.

13.2 HOW TO PERFORM THE EXPERIMENT

(i) Hold a candle horizontally. Light it with a burning match stick.
(ii) Collect the falling drops of wax in a china dish and observe what happens to the molten
wax in china dish. (Fig. 13.1 (a) )
(iii) Scratch the solidified wax from china dish with the help of a glass rod. Take a small
portion of it and compare it with the wax of original candle by rubbing, and observing
its colour.
(iv) Note your observation in the table regarding the type of change.
 Science and Technology Laboratory Manual :: 45

(v) Bring a glass slide at least 5 cm. above the flame of a burning candle for 2- 3 minutes.
(Fig. 13.1(b))

Glass Slide
Black deposit
Flame

Candle

Solidified wax

Fig. 13.1 : (a) Physical change (b) chemical change

(vi) Put off the candle and examine the black deposit on the slide by comparing it with
properties of wax of original candle by rubbing, dissolving in water and observing
colour.
(vii) Record your conclusions in the table regarding the type of change.

13.3 WHAT TO OBSERVE

Table 13.1: Change in the properties of substance (wax)

S.No Process Whether new substance(s) Type of change

is formed or not
1. Melting of wax
2. Burning of wax

13.4 CONCLUSION
Melting of wax is a ............................. change, and burning of wax is a ..........................
change.

13.5 CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING

(i) Why is melting of wax considered as a physical change?
..........................................................................................................................................
(ii) Why is burning of wax classified as a chemical change?
..........................................................................................................................................
46 :: Science and Technology Laboratory Manual

(iii) Classify the following changes as chemical and physical changes.

(a) freezing of water .............................................................................
(b) burning of agarbatti ............................................................................ .
(c) rusting of iron .............................................................................
(d) glowing of bulb .............................................................................
(e) formation of curd from milk .............................................................................
(f) vaporization of alcohol .............................................................................
(iv) What is meant by (a) a physical change and (b) a Chemical change?
 EXPERIMENT 14

To Test the Presence of Water Vapours in Air

OBJECTIVES
After performing this experiment, you should be able to:
 explain that air is mixture; and
 detect the presence of water vapours in air.

14.1 WHAT YOU SHOULD KNOW

Water vapour is condensed into liquid droplets on cooling.
H2O (vapour) ⎯⎯⎯⎯ cooling
→ H2O (liquid)
Air is a mixture. It contains nitrogen and oxygen as major components. Some other gases
are also present in air such as CO2, water vapours and noble gases. The % of CO2 and
water vapour vary from place to place.
Certain crystalline substances contain water molecules associated with their chemical
composition. These water molecules are called water of crystallization and can be removed
by heating. Example
CuSO4. 5H2O ⎯⎯⎯heat
→ CuSO4 + 5H2O
Blue Grayish white
It water is added to grayish white CuSO4, it change to grayish white blue colour
CuSO4 + 5H2O ⎯→ CuSO4.5H2O

(A) Condensation of water vapours

Material Required
A clean glass tumbler, ice cubes, dry cloth

14.2a HOW TO PERFORM THE EXPERIMENT

1. Take a clean glass tumbler.
2. Wipe out the glass tumbler from outside with a dry cloth to ensure that no water is
sticking on its outer surface.
3. Place the ice cubes in the tumbler and keep it for 10 min.
48 :: Science and Technology Laboratory Manual

14.3a WHAT TO OBSERVE

You will observe tiny droplets of water appearing on the outer surface of the tumbler
(Fig. 14.1)

Glass tumbler
Ice cubes

Water droplets

Fig. 14.1: Showing presence of water in air

14.4a CONCLUSION
Why do droplets of water appear? It is because water vapours present in air condensed
on the cooler parts of glass tumbler. It indicates that the water vapour is present in air.

(B) To confirm the presence of water vapour in air chemically

Material Required
CuSO4.5H2O, water, test tube, burner/spirit lamp, test tube holder.

14.2b HOW TO PERFORM THE EXPERIMENT

(i) Take 2-3g CuSO4.5H2O (blue) in a test tube.

(ii) Heat the test tube.

(iii) The water vapour comes out and condenses at the upper part of the test tube. The
CuSO4.5H2O present in the test tube has changed to grayish white powder
(anhydrous CuSO4 is formed). Fig. 14.2

(iv) Take a small portion of anhydrous CuSO4 on watch glass and wait for some time.
It turns blue because anhydrous CuSO4 absorbs water from air.

(v) Add few droplets collected on the glass tumbler to the remaining anhydrous CuSO4
in test tube. It also changes to blue colour.
 Science and Technology Laboratory Manual :: 49

Water
droplet
Tongs
Hard glass
Blue coloured test tube
crystal of copper
sulphate Flame
(CuSO4.5H2O)
Burner

Gray white crystal

of copper sulphate
(CuSO4)
Before After heating

Fig. 14.2 Heating of CuSO4.5H2O

14.3b CONCLUSION
The blue colour of CuSO4 is due to the water of crystallization. Since anhydrous copper
sulphate turns blue when exposed to air; water must be present in the atmosphere. Also
the liquid droplets collected on the outer walls of the tumbler which turn the anhydrous
copper sulphate blue are also water droplets formed by condensation of water vapour in
air.

14.4 CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING

1. Why are tiny droplets of water collected on outer surface of tumbler containing ice
cubes?
..........................................................................................................................................
2. Name the chemical compound you can use to detect the presence of water vapour
in air.
..........................................................................................................................................
3. Anhydrous copper sulphate greyish white if kept in open in the month of July, changes
to the blue colour, why?
..........................................................................................................................................
4. What is meant by water of crystallization.
..........................................................................................................................................
 EXPERIMENT 15

To Test the Presence of Carbon Dioxide (CO2) in Air

OBJECTIVES
After performing this experiment, you should be able to:
 detect the presence of CO2 in air; and
 explain why lime water turns milky when left exposed to air.

15.1 WHAT YOU SHOULD KNOW

When carbon dioxide is passed through freshly prepared lime water it turns milky, due
to formation of calcium carbonate.
Ca(OH)2 + CO2 ⎯→ CaCO3 (s) + H2O
lime water carbon dioxide calcium carbonate water
(Insoluable in water)
If CO2 is passed for a longer time through lime water, the milky solution becomes clear
due to formation of calcium hydrogen carbonate
CaCO3 + H2O + CO2 ⎯→ Ca(HCO3)2
Insoluble in water Calcium bi-carbonate
(soluble in water)

Material Required
A bottle, freshly prepared lime water, a cork with two holes, two glass tubes bent at right
angles one long and short (delivery tubes)

15.2 HOW TO PERFORM THE EXPERIMENT

1. Take lime water (freshly prepared) in a boiling tube.
2. Fix a cork (having two holes) in the mouth of bottle.
3. Introduce a long bent glass tube through one hole so that its lower end dips in the
lime water.
4. Introduce a small bent glass tube through the other hole.
 Science and Technology Laboratory Manual :: 51

Air

Cork

Bottle
Air bubbles
Lime water

Fig. 15.1 : Testing presence of CO2 in air

5. Suck the air slowly through small delivery tube with the help of your mouth as shown
in Fig. 15.1 Due to suction the pressure of the air within the boiling tube is reduced
and the fresh air from outside bubbles into the lime water through the long tube dipped
in lime water.

15.3 WHAT TO OBSERVE

You will see as air bubbles through the lime water, it turns milky.

15.4 CONCLUSION
Why does lime water turns milky? CO2 present in air reacts with lime water to form
calcium carbonate, it turns lime water milky.
From this observation it is concluded that carbon dioxide is present in air.

15.5 CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING

1. Write down the name of calcium compound present in lime water.
..........................................................................................................................................
2. Why does the lime water turn milky when air is passed through it?
..........................................................................................................................................
3. How is lime water prepared?
..........................................................................................................................................
4. What would happen if excess of CO2 is passed through lime water?
 EXPERIMENT 16

To find out the Approximate Percentage of Oxygen in Air

OBJECTIVES
After performing this experiment, you should be able to:

 show that only particular component of air supports combustion or burning; and

 show that air contains oxygen which is about 1/5th of the total volume of air.

16.1 WHAT YOU SHOULD KNOW

Air is a mixture of gases such as oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide and argon etc. The
oxygen and nitrogen constitute 95% of the air and thus are major components. The ratio
of oxygen to nitrogen is 1 : 4 in the air. Oxygen is about 20% or 1/5th of the volume
of air. Oxygen is the only gas in air which supports combustion.

Material Required
A trough, candle (5-7 cm long), match box, water, ruler, cylindrical tumbler or gas jar.

16.2 HOW TO PERFORM THE EXPERIMENT

(i) Fix the candle in the centre of the plate or trough.

(ii) Take some water upto 1 cm height in the or trough.

(iii) Put some colouring agent such as ink or potassium permanaganate to colour the water.

(iv) Light the candle with the help of burning match stick.

(v) Put the cylindrical tumbler or gas jar in an inverted position while covering the
burning candle.

(vi) Keep observing what happens to the flame in couple of seconds.

(vii) Also observe the rise of water in the tumbler or gas jar when the flame of the candle
goes off.
 Science and Technology Laboratory Manual :: 53

(viii)Measure the height of water column in the tumbler or gas jar by using the ruler.

(ix) Compare the height of water column with that of the air column in the tumbler or
gas jar and record your observations.

Gas jar
Gas jar
Water Water
Flame

Trough Trough

(a) (b)

Fig. 16.1 : Showing presence of oxygen in air(a) Before (b) After

16.3 WHAT TO OBSERVE

1. The height of water column in the tumbler/gas jar when the flame goes off = ...............
cm.

2. The height of air column in the tumbler/gas jar when the flame goes off = ...............
cm.

3. Ratio between observation 1 and observation 2.

16.4 CONCLUSION
The candle flame goes off after consuming whole of oxygen available in the air inside
the container covering the flame. The level of water in tumbler/gas jar rises to fill the gap
created by the consumed oxygen. The remaining air which is 4/5th of the volume of the
container does not support combustion. The portion of the air which was consumed in
burning of candle is approximately 1/5th i.e. 20% of the total volume of the container.

16.5 CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING

1. Is air a mixture or a compound?
..........................................................................................................................................
2. What are two major components of air and what is their ratio?
..........................................................................................................................................
54 :: Science and Technology Laboratory Manual

3. How much is the percentage of oxygen in air?

..........................................................................................................................................

4. Name two gaseous components of air which do not support combustion or burning.

..........................................................................................................................................

When even the brightest mind in our world has been trained
up from childhood in a superstition of any kind, it will never
be possible for that mind, in its maturity, to examine
sincerely, dispassionately and conscientiously any evidence
or any circumstance which shall seem to cast a doubt upon
the validity of that superstition. I doubt if I could do it myself.

– Mark Twain
 EXPERIMENT 17

To Test the Acidic/Basic Nature of a Solution with the help of pH Paper

OBJECTIVES
After performing this experiment, you should be able to:

 identify acidic and basic solutions out of the samples supplied to you; and
 relate the pH of the solution with acidic/basic character of the solution.

17.1 WHAT YOU SHOULD KNOW

An aqueous solution contains both H+ and OH– ions. The products of their concentrations
is always constant. It is equal to 1 × 10–14 mol2 L–2 at 25°C.

[H+] [OH–] = 1 × 10–14 mol2 L–2

In a neutral solution , the concentration of H+ ions is equal to that of OH– ions, i.e.,

[H+] = [OH–] = –7 2 –1
1× 10−14 = 1 × 10 mol L

If the concentration of H+ ions in the solution is greater than 1 × 10–7, the concentration
of OH– ions is correspondingly reduced and the solution becomes acidic. On the other
hand if the concentration of H+ ions in the solution is less than 10–7, the concentration
of OH– ions is correspondingly increased and the solution becomes basic.

In 1909, Sorensen introduced the concept of pH for measuring H+ ions concentration in

aqueous solution. pH is defined as the negative logarithms to the base 10 of the
hydrogen ion concentration.

pH = –log [H+]

A pH of 7 indicates a neutral solution. pH less than 7, that is, 6, 5, 4, .... etc. indicates
acidic solution. pH greater than 7, that is, 8, 9, 10, ... etc., indicates basic solution.

Material Required
Aqueous solutions of sodium hydroxide, ammonium hydroxide, hydrochloric acid, acetic
acid pH paper.
56 :: Science and Technology Laboratory Manual

17.2 HOW TO PERFORM THE EXPERIMENT

(i) Take a small amount of aqueous solution of sodium hydroxide in a test tube. Take
a pH paper and dip it in the solution.

pH value 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

Colour

(a) pH Scale

(b)

Fig. 17.1: pH Paper strips

(ii) Match the colour developed on the pH paper with the chart given in Fig. 17.1 or
provided with pH paper strips and determine the pH of the solution.
(iii) Similarly repeat the above procedure with aqueous solutions of ammonium hydroxide,
acetic acid and hydrochloric acid and record your observations.

17.3 WHAT TO OBSERVE

Aqueous Colour developed pH of the solution Acidic/Basic

solution on the pH paper

Sodium hydroxide .......................... .......................... ..........................

Ammonium hydroxide .......................... .......................... ..........................

Acetic acid .......................... .......................... ..........................

Hydrochloric acid .......................... .......................... ..........................

 Science and Technology Laboratory Manual :: 57

17.4 CONCLUSION
It was found that the aqueous solution of
(i) sodium hydroxide is
(ii) ammonium hydroxide is
(iii) acetic acid is
(iv) hydrochloric acid is .

17.5 CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING

1. Which ofthe following solutions will have hydrogen ion concentration 1 × 10–7 mol
L–1?
(a) a neutral solution
(b) an acidic solution
(c) a basic solution
...........................................................................................................................................

2. What is meant by pH of a solution? Arrange the following solutions in increasing value

of pH;
(a) aheutral solution
(b) an acidic solution
(c) a basic solution
...........................................................................................................................................

3. The concentration of H+ ions in a solution is 10–6 mol L–1. What is the concentration
of OH–ions in it?
...........................................................................................................................................

4. Two acids A and B have pH values 1 and 5 respectively. Which is a stronger acid,
A or B?
...........................................................................................................................................
 EXPERIMENT 18

To find the pH of Fruit/Vegetables Juices with the help of pH Paper

OBJECTIVES
After performing this experiment, you should be able to:
 identify if the fruit juice is acidic, basic or neutral; and
 name the fruits which are acidic.

18.1 WHAT YOU SHOULD KNOW

Same as in Experiment No. 17 (17.1).

Materials Required
Apple, orange, carrot, tomato etc., pH paper

18.2 HOW TO PERFORM THE EXPERIMENT

(i) Take an apple and extract its juice by crushing it and then filtering it. Dip a pH paper
in the juice. Observe the colour and compare it with the chart provided in Fig. 17.1
or with the pH paper strtips of the previous experiment and determine the pH of the
juice.
(ii) Similarly repeat the procedure with other fruits and vegetables juices. Record your
observation.

18.3 WHAT TO OBSERVE

Juice Colour developed pH of the Juice Nature
on pH paper Acidic/Basic
Apple ........................... .......................... ..........................
Orange .......................... .......................... ..........................
Carrot .......................... .......................... ..........................
Tomato .......................... .......................... ..........................
 Science and Technology Laboratory Manual :: 59

18.4 CONCLUSION
The pH of the juices was found an follows:
Apple juice ..........................
Orange juice ..........................
Carrotjuice ..........................
Tomato juice ..........................

18.5 CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING

1. Name two fruits which are acidic in nature.
...........................................................................................................................................
2. Name the vegetables which are basic in nature.
...........................................................................................................................................
3. How does the pH of a mango change when it ripens?
...........................................................................................................................................

Things should be made as simple as possible, but not any

simpler.
– Albert Einstein.
The most erroneous stories are those we think we know best
- and therefore never scrutinize or question.
– Stephen Jay Gould
I can live with doubt and uncertainty and not knowing. I
think it is much more interesting to live not knowing than
to have answers that might be wrong.
– Richard Feynman
 EXPERIMENT 19

To Identify Washing Soda and Baking Soda out of the two Samples of
White Powers

OBJECTIVES
After performing this experiment, you should be able to: ,

 show the effect of heating on washing Soda and baking soda;

 observe the difference in basic nature of washing soda and baking soda; and
 observe the action of acetic acid (a vinegar) on washing soda and baking soda.

19.1 WHAT YOU SHOULD KNOW

An aqueous solution of washing soda is highly basic whereas an aqueous solution of baking
soda is mildly basic. On heating washing soda does not decompose however baking soda
decom-poses and evolve carbon dioxide. If this gas is passed through lime water, it turns
milky.

Heat
Na2CO3 ⎯⎯⎯ → no action

Sodium carbonate
(washing soda)

Heat
2NaHCO3 ⎯⎯⎯ → Na2CO3 + CO2 + H2O

Sodium bicarbonate
(baking soda)

Ca(OH)2 + CO2 ⎯→ CaCO3 + H2O

Calcium hydroxide (Milky white)

(lime water)

Material Required
Boiling tubes, test tubes, washing soda, baking soda, acetic acid, phenolphthalein, pH
paper, burner, delivery tube, lime water test tube holder.
 Science and Technology Laboratory Manual :: 61

19.2 HOW TO PERFORM THE EXPERIMENT

(i) Dissolve the given samples in water separately in two test tubes, mark them as A
and B.
(ii) Take a small portion of an aqueous solution of both the sample in two test tubes and
add few drops phenolphthalein and observe the colour change.
(iii) Take another portion of each solution in test tubes and then add few drops of acetic
acid (or vinegar). Note down observation in which case the gas is evolved at a faster
rate.
(iv) Dip the pH paper in an aqueous solution of each sample. Note down which is more
basic by observing and comparing the colour change of the pH paper with the chart
given in Fig. 17.1 or the one provided with pH paper strips.
(v) Take small sample of both the solids in two boiling tubes separately. Heat and pass
the evolved gas in lime water one by one. Note down observation in which case the
gas evolved turns the lime water milky (Fig. 19.1)

Delivery tube
Stand
Clamp Cork
Lime water
Test tube
Water

NaHCO3

Bubbles of CO2
Flame
Burner Lime water

White Precipitate
of CaCO3

(a) (b)
Fig. 19.1: (a) Heating of baking soda and passing the CO2 produced through lime water
(b) Formaiton of white ppt. of CaCO3

19.3 WHAT TO OBSERVE

Sample Phenolphthalein acetic acid pH paper Heating effect Inference

B
62 :: Science and Technology Laboratory Manual

19.4 CONCLUSION
Aqueous solution of washing soda (sodium carbonate) is stronger base than baking soda
(sodium bicarbonate). Sodium bicarbonate evolves CO2 on heating.

19.5 CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING

1. Write the chemical formula of (i) washing soda and (ii) baking soda.
..........................................................................................................................................
2. Out of the aqueous solutions of washing soda and baking soda, which one would turn
phenolphthalein indicator pink?
..........................................................................................................................................
3. Out of washing soda and baking soda, pH of whose aqueous solution is higher?
..........................................................................................................................................
4. Which one of washing soda and baking soda would decompose on heating? Give the
reaction involved.
..........................................................................................................................................
 EXPERIMENT 20

To Carry out Chemical Reactions of Different Types

OBJECTIVES
After performing this experiment you should be able to:

 define what are displacement reaction;

 define what are reactions;
 define what are (i) decomposition and (ii) displacement reactions;
 write equations for the reactions carried out; and
 give other examples of decomposition and displacement reactions.

20.1 WHAT YOU SHOULD KNOW

Chemical reactions can be classified into various types. Combinations reactions are those
in which two or more substances combine to form a new substance. In a decomposition
reaction, one substance decomposes to from two or more substances. In displacement
reaction, one element present in a compound as displaced by another element and in a
double displacement reaction, two ionic compounds exchange their ions.

A. Carrying out Combination Reaction

Material Required
Magnesium ribbon, pair of tongs, china dish, burner or spirit lamp

20.2(a) HOW TO PERFORM THE EXPERIMENT

(i) Take small piece of magnesium ribbon (about 4.5 cm long)
(ii) Hold the magnesium wire with a pair of tongs and
(iii) Heat the magnesium wire in the blue part of the flame of burner or spirit lam while
keeping a china dish below it. Fig. 20.1
(iv) Collect the white poser formed in the china dish
64 :: Science and Technology Laboratory Manual

Tongs

Burning
Magnesium ribbon

Prticles of MgO

China dish

White powder of MgO

Fig. 20.1 Burning of magnesium ribbon

20.3(a) WHAT TO OBSERVE

The magnesium wire burns with a dazzling flame and a white powder is formed.

20.4(a) CONCLUSION
On heating magnesium combines with oxygen in the air and forms magnesium oxide.

B. Carrying out Decomposition Reaction

Material Required
Reddish Brown
Lead nitrate crystals, test tube, pari of vapours of NO2 gas
tongs, burner or spirit lamp

20.2(b) HOW TO PERFORM

THE EXPERIMENT
Tongs
(i) Take about 0.5 g of lead nitrate crystal Hard glass
in a dry test tube test tube
White crystals
(ii) Hold the test tube with a pair of tongs of lead nitrate Flame
and heat it strongly in the blue flame Burner
of burner or spirit lamp (Fig. 20.2).

20.3(b) WHAT TO OBSERVE

Do you find any vapors rising in the test
tube? Fig. 20.2 Heating of lead nitrate
 Science and Technology Laboratory Manual :: 65

20.4(b) CONCLUSION
On heating lead nitrate decomposes and reddish brown vapours of NO2 gas are formed.

C. Carrying out Displacement Reaction

Material Required
Iron nail, aqueous solution of copper sulphate, test tube, test tube stand, sand paper

20.2(c) HOW TO PERFORM THE EXPERIMENT

(i) Take about 3-4 mL of aqueous solution of copper sulphate
(ii) Take an iron nail and clean its surface with a piece of sand paper
(iii) Put the cleaned iron nail in the copper sulphate solution. (Fig. 20.3)
(iv) Keep the test tube in a test tube stand.

Fresh iron Nail Nail after the Reaction

Test tube

Clean iron nail

CuSO4 solution

Fig. 20.3 Displacement reaction between iron and CuSO4 Solution

20.3(c) WHAT TO OBSERVE

Observe the iron nail dipped in copper sulphate solution.

20.4(c) CONCLUSION
The surface of the iron nail becomes brownish. It is due to displacement of copper from
copper sulphate by iron. The liberated copper is deposited on the surface of the nail.
66 :: Science and Technology Laboratory Manual

D. Carrying out Double Displacement Reaction

Material Required
Aqueous solution of barium chloride and sodium sulphate and two test tube

20.2(d) HOW TO PERFORM THE EXPERIMENT

(i) Take about 2 mL sodium sulphate solution in one test tube
(ii) Take about 2 ml barium chloride solution in the other test tube
(iii) Add sodium sulphate solution to the test tube containing barium chloride solution.
(Fig. 20.4)

Na2SO4 solution

BaCl2 Na2SO4
solution solution
BaSO4
BaCl2 solution Precipitate

Fig. 20.4 Double displacement reaction between BaCl2 and Na2SO4

20.3(d) WHAT TO OBSERVE

The appearance of the barium chloride solution when sodium sulphate is added to it.

20.4(d)CONCLUSION
When barium chloride and sodium sulphate solutions are mixed, a milky white precipitate
of barium sulphate is formed due to double displacement reaction between them.

20.5 CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING

1. Name the compound formed when magnesium burns in air.
2. Write the chemical reaction involved in burning of magnesium.
3. Give an example of combination reaction.
4. Write the chemical equation for the reaction that takes place when lead nitrate is heated
 Science and Technology Laboratory Manual :: 67

5. Which gas is evolved as brown gas when lead nitrate is heated

6. What is chemical nature of brown deposit formed on iron nail dipped in a solution
of copper sulphate?
7. Write balance chemical equation for the reaction that takes place when iron reacts
with copper sulphate
8. Identify among the following types to which the reaction between iron and copper
sulphate belongs
(a) combination reaction
(b) Decomposition reaction
(c) Displacement reaction
(d) Double displacement reaction
(e) Redox reaction
9. What is a precipitate?
10. Name the compound which is formed as white precipitate when barium chloride reacts
with sodium sulphate
11. Write the balanced chemical equation for the reaction between barium chloride and
sodium sulphate
12. Give two example each of
(a) Combination reactions
(b) Decomposition reaction
(c) Displacement reaction
(d) Double displacement reactions
 EXPERIMENT 21(i)

To Prepare a Temporary Stained Mount of (i) Onion Peel, Observe Under

the Microscope and Record Observations

OBJECTIVES
After performing this experiment, you should be able to:
 acquire the skill of removing thin outer layers from plant material;
 prepare a temporary stained mount without trapping air bubbles;
 learn to handle and use the microscope such that its light is adjusted and material
focused to clarity under low power;
 observe a typical plant cell and tally with your theoretical knowledge about the cell
and its components; and
 distinguish between some components of a plant cell such as the cell wall, cytoplasm,
nucleus and vacuole.

21(i).1 WHAT YOU SHOULD KNOW

1. A tissue such as that of the onion peel is made of many cells.
2. A cell has many components, some of which like the cell wall, cell membrane,
cytoplasm and nucleus can be seen under the compound microscope.

Materials Required
(i) Onion bulbs (ii) Paper toweling/Blotting paper (iii) Dropper (iv) Glycerine
(v) Paint brush (vi) Saffranin solution (for staining) (vii) Petridish

21(i).2 HOW TO PERFORM THE EXPERIMENT

(i) Select an onion bulb, discard the brown dry
outer scales.
 Science and Technology Laboratory Manual :: 69

(ii) Cut the onion into four pieces (quarters)

vertically. (See Fig. 21(i).1.1). Remove one
fleshy scale.

Fig. 21(i).1.1

(iii) Bend the outer (convex) surface of the fleshy

scale towards you with your right hand to break
it. (Fig. 21(i).1.2)

Fig. 21(i).1.2

(iv) It forms a neat break yet it remains attached to

the other end of the scale that you are holding
with your left hand (See Fig. 21(i).1.3).

Fig. 21(i).1.3

(v) Gently pull the broken end. You will find that
from other half of the scale held in your left
hand, a thin transparent layer of epidermis is
peeling off easily (See Fig. 21(i).1.4). This is
the onion peel. Place it in water in a petridish.

(vi) If the peel is large, use a fine pair of scissors

Fig. 21(i).1.4
or a blade to cut a small piece of about 2 mm.
To do this, place the peel in a drop of water on
a clean slide and trim it. Dropper

(vii) If there are any wrinkles in the peel, stretch it Slide

with the help of dissecting needle or take
another piece of the onion peel.
(viii) Place this neatly cut peel in the centre of a clean
slide in a fresh drop of water (Fig. 21(i).1.5)
and blot out excess water.
Fig. 21(i).1.5
70 :: Science and Technology Laboratory Manual

(ix) Examine the slide under low power (marked 10x on the objective lens) of the
microscope (fill up observation 1).

Staining
(i) When you are able to see the epidermal cells clearly in your peel, remove the slide
from the microscope.
(ii) Drain off water and then add a drop of Saffranin to the peel on the slide and leave
the material in the stain for about two minutes.
(iii) Observe the stained peel under the microscope to check extent of staining. It should
neither be too dark nor too light. If it is light, leave in the stain for some more time.
(iv) Pick up the stained material from the slide with a brush, wash it and place it in a
drop of glycerine on a fresh slide or carefully wash off extra stain with the help of
a dropper or a trickle from the tap. Add a drop of glycerine to the stained peel
preparation and gently place the cover slip.
(v) Hold the cover slip with your left hand at 45° (as shown in the diagram 21(i).1.6)
on the slide in such a way that the lower edge of the coverslip touches the glycerine.
Now using the needle, gradually lower the cover slip so that no air bubble gets
trapped in the material. Excess glycerine should be removed with the help of a
blotting paper.
Nucleus
Cell wall

Forceps

Coverslip

Vacuole
Cytoplasm

Fig. 21(i).1.6 Placing the coverslip Fig. 21(i).1.7 Epidermal cells in onion peel

The onion peel mounted on the slide is now ready for further observation (fill up
observation 2).
(vi) Observe under the microscope and compare the diagram provided (Fig. 21(i).1.7)
with the slide preparation as seen under the microscope.

PRECAUTIONS
1. Do not leave the peel too long in air, otherwise it will dry and show air bubbles in
the slide.
 Science and Technology Laboratory Manual :: 71

2. The peel should be mounted in the centre of the slide.

3. Always use a brush (not a needle) to transfer the peel from the petridish to the slide
or from one slide to another. Otherwise, the peel will tear off.
4. Avoid the entry of any air-bubbles in the mount.
5. Use clean slides and cover slips for mounting.

21(i).1.3 RECORDING OF OBSERVATION

Observation 1
Under low power of the microscope
(i) What can you see? (Long rows of rectangular cells in the unstained onion peel)
........................................................................................................................................
(ii) Which structures of the cell can you see? Do you see the cell wall, the nucleus and
a large vacuole contained in the cytoplasm?
........................................................................................................................................
Observation 2
After staining the onion peel
(i) Do you see large number of cells in the peel or only one? What is the general shape
of these cells (rectangular, circular, triangular, polygonal etc)?
........................................................................................................................................
(ii) What is the darkly stained body in each cell?
........................................................................................................................................
(iii) Can you see any vacuole in the cell cytoplasm?
........................................................................................................................................
(iv) Does the nucleus become more conspicuous after staining?
........................................................................................................................................
(v) What is the position of the cytoplasm in the cell? (central or peripheral)
........................................................................................................................................
(vi) What is the shape of the nucleus? (spherical, oval, irregular etc.)
........................................................................................................................................
(vii) Sketch the onion peel cell as seen under the microscope. Label the parts such as the
cell wall, cytoplasm, vacuole and nucleus.
........................................................................................................................................
(viii) Draw the cell and record the procedure, observations etc, in your record book as per
format given in your practical manual in the beginning.
 EXPERIMENT 21(ii)

To Prepare a Temporary Stained Mount of Human Cheek Cells, Observe

under the microscope and Record Observations

OBJECTIVES
After performing this experiment, you should be able to:
 acquire the skill of removing few human cheek cells;
 prepare a uniform smear; and
 observe the special features of squamous epithelium.

21(ii).1 WHAT YOU SHOULD KNOW

1. Animal cell lacks cell wall and the large vacuole seen in a plant cell.
2. Epithelial tissue forms covering of organs and is of various types, one of which is
squamous epithelium.
3. Inner lining of the cheek is made of squamous epithelium. These cells are
(a) flat (b) closely packed and (c) each cell has a a central nucleus.

Materials Required
(i) Slides (ii) Cover slips (iii) Filter-papers (iv) Needles
(iv) Needles (v) Methylene blue (vi) Paintbrush (vii) Tooth pick.

21(ii).2 HOW TO PERFORM THE EXPERIMENT

(i) Take a washed tooth pick and gently slide its tip over the inner lining of your cheek.
Its tip would collect some viscous transparent substance. Smear this substance on
a slide. (Instead of tooth pick, you can use the uncoated end of a matchstick).
(ii) Add a drop of water to the smear and also a drop of Methylene Blue stain.
(iii) Leave for about one minute.
(iv) Tilt the slide to let the extra stain drain off. Wash the slide by gently allowing the
water to trickle down the slide.
(v) Put a cover slip gently over the material with the help of a needle avoiding entry
of any air bubbles.
 Science and Technology Laboratory Manual :: 73

(vi) Press it gently with a needle to make the cells

under the cover slip spread out uniformly.
(vii) Soak away extra stain by placing the slide
within a folded filter paper, taking care not to
move the cover slip.
(viii) Observe under a microscope and find out the
structural details of squamaous epithelium
Fig. 21(ii).1.1 Cheek cell
(Fig. 21(ii).1.1)

PRECAUTIONS
1. Scrape the inner surface of the cheek gently to avoid any damage or bleeding.
2. See that you do not break the cover slip.
3. While removing the extra stain, make sure you do not move the cover slip and disturb
the material under it.

21(ii).3 RECORDING OF OBSERVATION

Observations
Observe the cheek cells under the microscope:
(i) Draw a few cells in your record book as you see them.
........................................................................................................................................
(ii) What is the shape of cheek cells?
........................................................................................................................................
(iii) What is the location of nucleus in a cheek cell?
........................................................................................................................................
(iv) List the differences between the cells you see in this exercise (cheek cells) and the
cells you saw in onion peel with respect to the following:
(a) Presence or absence of cell wall:
................................................................................................................................
(b) Presence or absence of large vacuole:
................................................................................................................................
(c) Difference in shape:
................................................................................................................................
(v) Is there any cell wall in the cheek cells? Why or why not?
........................................................................................................................................
(vi) Cheek cells are epithelial cells. What is the name of this kind of epithelium?
........................................................................................................................................
 EXPERIMENT 22

To Study and Draw Different Types of Plant and Animal Tissues with the
Help of Permanent Slides : Plant tissues: Parenchyma and Sclerenchyma;
Animal tissues: Blood, Striped muscle fibres and Nerve cells

OBJECTIVES
After performing this experiment, you should be able to:
 identify and differentiate between different kinds of plant and animal tissues on the
bases of their size, shape and some structural details; and
 differentiate between different types of blood cells.

22.1 WHAT YOU SHOULD KNOW

 Plants and animals have different types of tissues which perform specific functions
 Each tissue has special features suited to its function

22.2 HOW TO PROCEED

 Gently wipe the permanent slide with a soft tissue paper in order to clean the dust
particles, if any, on the slide.
 First examine the slide under the low power of the microscope.
 Move the slide to get a general view of the entire slide.
 Change to high power, if required, by using fine adjustment only.
 Draw and record your observations. Repeat the
same procedure for all the slides.
1. To study the plant tissues from permanent
slides
Cytoplasm
(a) PARENCHYMA Vacuole

 Parenchyma cells are relatively large, thin walled Nucleus

Air space
and globular with prominent nuclei.
 The cells are arranged loosely so that there are
intercellular spaces among them. These spaces Main
chloroplast
improve the gas-exchange capacity of tissue for
photosynthesis.
Fig. 22.1 Parenchyma
 Science and Technology Laboratory Manual :: 75

 Parenchyma tissue is composed of cells of only one type, hence is called a simple
tissue.
Thickened walls

(b) SCLERENCHYMA Simple pit

 Sclerenchyma cells have thick, lignified

secondary walls which make sclerenchyma
tissues hard, rigid, and somewhat brittle.
 Sclerenchyma cells are dead cells with no
intercellular air spaces.
Lignified secondary
Note: The distinction between parenchyma and wall thickness
variable
sclerenchyma is largely based on the wall structure.
Parenchyma cell walls are usually thin and primary Fig. 22.2 Sclerenchyma
while in sclerenchyma a secondary wall is formed
on the inner side of the primary wall. Secondary walls are those, which develop after the
cells have ceased to enlarge.

2. To study the animal tissues from permanent slides

(a) Blood:
On examining the slide of blood under the microscope the following structures will be
observed:
 A large number of circular concave disc like structure, which have no nuclei. These
are red blood cells (RBCs).

Fig. 22.3 White blood corpuscles

76 :: Science and Technology Laboratory Manual

 Fewer number of stained larger cells (larger than RBC), irregular in shape, with a
nucleus of various shapes. These are white blood cells (WBCs). There are five types
of white blood cells. The different WBC that you see are neutrophils, monocytes,
lymphocytes, basophils and eosinophils.
(b) Striped muscle fibres are also known as skeletal muscle or striated muscle fibres:
 These are elongated, cylindrical fibres. Muscle Cell
Nucleus
 Nuclei are peripheral and cells multinucleated.
 They have alternating bands perpendicular to the Cell membrane

long axis of the cell. These cells function in Cytoplasm

conjunction with the skeletal system for voluntary

muscle movements. The bands are areas of actin Fig. 22.4 Muscle fibre
and myosin proteins.
(c) Nerve cells:
Nucleus
 The cell body of a nerve cell (also called
soma) is basically a nucleus surrounded
by cytoplasm. Dendrites

 Extending out from each nerve cell body Nissl body

are long cytoplasmic processes, one axon Axon
and several dendrites. Medullary sheath

 Nuclei of nerve cells are large and round.

Node of Ranvier
 Cytoplasm of nerve cell bodies is
abundantly supplied with masses of rough
endoplasmic reticulum (called Nissl
body).

Axon ending

Fig. 22.5 Nerve cell

 EXPERIMENT 23

To Study the Process of Osmosis through a Semipermeable Membrane

OBJECTIVES
After performing this exercise, you should be able to:
 learn to prepare a concentrated solution of salt/sugar;
 identify the properties of a semi permeable membrane; as opposed to a permeable
membrane, a semipermeable membrane permits only certain substances to pass
through it);
 conclude that the cellophane paper has invisible pores and is not impervious to water; and
 conclude that living cells such as fresh potato cells are semipermeable.

23.1 WHAT YOU SHOULD KNOW

All living cells contain water. It is essential for all activities of the cell. Each cell is
surrounded by a cell membrane, which is selectively permeable. It allows water and some
selective substances to move across it. The water in the living cells has some salts dissolved
in it.
In all living cells, water moves across the cell membrane from the region of its higher
concentration to the region of its lower concentration. This process is called osmosis.
No energy is consumed during osmosis.

Material Required
(a) Thistle funnel method: one thistle funnel, two beakers, glass rod for stirring, retort
stand, dropper, thread, cellophane paper/parchment paper as a Semipermeable
membrane, common salt/sugar, water.
(b) Using a potato or carrot: one raw potato or carrot, one beaker, one trough, glass
rod for stirring, dropper, common salt/sugar, cork borer and water.

23.2 HOW TO PERFORM THE EXPERIMENT

(a) By thistle funnel method
(i) Add 1-2 teaspoonfuls of sugar/salt to about 50 mL water in a beaker. Stir well with
the help of a glass rod until the sugar or salt gets dissolved in water. Keep adding
sugar/salt until no more gets dissolved in it. A saturated solution is ready.
78 :: Science and Technology Laboratory Manual

(ii) Cover the mouth of the thistle funnel with a piece of cellophane paper. Fix the
cellophane on to the mouth of thistle funnel firmly with the help of a thread. Make
sure that it is air-tight.
(iii) Half-fill a beaker with water.
(iv) Dip the mouth of the thistle funnel in the beaker filled with water.
(v) Clamp the stem of thistle funnel on the retort stand. Adjust the position of the thistle
funnel so that it does not touch the bottom of the beaker. Use some padding of cotton
wool or paper for firm clamping of the thistle funnel to the stand. This is to avoid
breakage of the stem of the thistle funnel.
(vi) Gently pour the concentrated solution into the thistle funnel through the small
opening at the end of its stem. The solution should completely fill the thistle funnel
and some part of its stem. In case of difficulty in pouring, you may use a dropper.
(vii) Mark the initial level of the concentrated solution in the stem of the thistle funnel
with the help of a marker pen.
(viii) See figure 23.1 to check if your apparatus is set properly.

Retort stand

Thistle funnel
Initial level

Concentrated
sugar/salt solution
Water
Beaker

Fig. 23.1: Set-up to study osmosis by the thistle funnel method

(ix) Leave the apparatus undisturbed for 1 hour.

(b) By using a potato/carrot
(i) Peel the skin of a raw potato or carrot with a scalpel.
(ii) Slice a thin piece from one end (bottom) of the potato or carrot so that a flat base
is formed for the potato or carrot to balance and stay up.
(iii) Using a cork borer, make a pit in the centre of the potato or carrot from the top.
Take care not to make a hole but a pit.
(iv) Place the potato or carrot in a petridish or a glass trough containing water such that the potato
or carrot is only half-immersed. Take care that the open mouth of pit faces up.
 Science and Technology Laboratory Manual :: 79

(v) Prepare a concentrated sugar solution in another beaker as in step (i) of thistle furinel
method.
(vi) Half-fill the potato pit with sugar solution and mark the level with a ball point pen.

Strong sugar solution

(Intial reading) Sugar solution increased
Raw potato
Raw potato

Water water in Water

Glass trough
Glass trough
Start of experiment After experiment

Fig. 23.2: Set-up to study osmosis using a potato

(vii) See figure 23.2 to check if your apparatus is set correctly.

(viii) Leave the set-up undisturbed for 1 hour.
This is called the Potato Osmometer.

23.3 WHAT TO OBSERVE

(i) Initial level of the solution in the stem of thistle funnel (or in the potato or carrot
pit) ..................................................................................................................................
(ii) Observe the level of the solution in the stem of the thistle funnel (or in the potato
or carrot pit) one hour after setting up of the apparatus. Do you observe any change?
(iii) Has the level of the solution gone up?
If yes, record it.............................................................................................................
If not, wait for some more time (about 30-45 minutes) and repeat your observation.
(iv) If yes, can you explain your observation?
(v) Where is the region of higher concentration of water, in the beaker of water or sugar
solution? So which way should water move from that in beaker into the sugar solution
or from sugar solution in the potato pit to the beaker?
Hint: Read the definition of osmosis given under “What you should know” and answer
the above question.

23.4 INFERENCE/CONCLUSION
After one hour, the level of solution in the thistle funnel (or the pit) rises up. Since
cellophane paper (or the cells lining the pit) acts as a semi-permeable membrane, it shows
that water has moved from the beaker (region of lower sugar/salt concentration into the
thistle funnel or the pit (region of higher sugar/salt concentration or lower water
concentration). In other words, osmosis has taken place.
80 :: Science and Technology Laboratory Manual

23.5 CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING

(i) If you take concentrated solution in the beaker and water in the thistle funnel, (or
in the potato or carrot pit) what would you observe?
........................................................................................................................................
(ii) What would happen if the beaker contained a less concentrated solution (say half
teaspoonful sugar/salt in 100 ml water) and the thistle funnel (or the pit) contained
more concentrated solution (say two teaspoonful sugar/salt in 100 ml water)? Will
the level of solution in the thistle funnel (or the pit) lower, or higher or the same?
........................................................................................................................................
(iii) Suppose you tied muslin cloth at the mouth of the thistle funnel instead of the
cellophane paper and performed the same experiment. What would have been the
result?
........................................................................................................................................
(iv) What will happen to the level of water in the thistle funnel if you use polythene sheet
instead of cellophane paper?
........................................................................................................................................
(v) You must have observed that when a pinch of salt is sprinkled on some freshly cut
vegetables, water oozes out of them. What is the reason?
........................................................................................................................................
(vi) Give two examples of Osmosis from your day-to-day life, other than those discussed
here.
........................................................................................................................................
 EXPERIMENT 24

To Test the Presence of Starch in Green Leaves Exposed to Sunlight

OBJECTIVES
After performing this experiment, you should be able to:
 understand that sunlight is necessary for photosynthesis;
 test the presence of starch in leaves as a product of photosynthesis; and
 handle apparatus and chemicals in the laboratory with care.

24.1 WHAT YOU SHOULD KNOW

Green plants manufacture their food by using CO2 and H20 in the presence of sunlight.
This process is known as photosynthesis. One of the end products formed during this
process is stored in the storage tissue of plants in the form of starch.

Material Required
(i) Beaker 500 ml capacity (ii) Test tube (iii) Forceps
(iv) Tripod stand (v) Wire gauge (vi) White ceramic tile
(vii) Dropper (viii) Ethanol (alcohol) (ix) Iodine solution
(x) Water
(xi) Two potted plants – one kept in the dark for two days and other in sunlight

24.2 HOW TO PERFORM THE EXPERIMENT

(i) Take a leaf from a potted plant which has been kept in the sunlight for a few hours.
(ii) Take a beaker and half fill it with water.
(iii) Place the beaker on a tripod stand which is fitted with wire gauge.
(iv) Light the burner and allow the water to boil.
(v) Put the leaf in the boiling water for about 1-2 min.
(vi) Half-fill a test tube with ethanol. Ethanol is highly inflammable so do not take it
near the flame.
(vii) With the help of forceps take the boiled leaf out of water and transfer it to the test
tube containing ethanol.
(viii) Place this tube in the beaker containing boiled water.
82 :: Science and Technology Laboratory Manual

(ix) Now keep this apparatus on the tripod stand and boil the water again. This forms
a water bath. Soon ethanol in the tube also starts boiling. Put off the burner.
Chlorophyll gets extracted by ethanol. If chlorophyll is not extracted before
performing starch test, then because of its green colour it would be difficult to see
that starch turns Iodine blue black.

Boiling alcohol

Leaf

Leaf

Boiling water Boiling water

Wire gauze Wire gauze

Bunsen burner Bunsen burner

Tripod stand Tripod stand

(a) (b)

Dropper

Iodine solution

(c)

Fig. 24.1 Set up to test the presence of starch in a leaf

(x) Take the leaf out of the ethanol with the help of a pair of forceps and dip it in hot
water to soften it.
(xi) Spread the leaf on a white tile and cover it with iodine solution with the help of
a dropper and observe.
(xii) Now take a leaf from the similar plant kept in the dark for a least 24-48 hours and
repeat the steps (ii) to (xi) and observe.
 Science and Technology Laboratory Manual :: 83

PRECUATIONS
1. Destarch the plant by keeping the plant in darkness, in the experiment to show that
sunlight is necessary for photosynthesis.
2. Chlorophyll must be extracted before testing for starch with iodine.
3. Ethanol being volatile and inflammable, test tube containing alcohol should be heated
on water bath.

24.3 WHAT TO OBSERVE

Observe the blue black colour of iodine solution on the boiled leaf. This confirms the
presence of starch in green leaves of plants, as starch is known to turn Iodine blue-black.

24.4 CONCLUSION
Presence of starch in the leaf from the plant kept in sunlight and no starch formation in
plant kept in darkness indicates that photosynthesis has occurred and starch is formed only
in the presence of sunlight.

24.5 CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING

(i) Why is it essential to boil the leaf in water first and then in ethanol?
........................................................................................................................................
(ii) Why is it necessary to boil the ethanol tube in the water bath?
........................................................................................................................................
(iii) Write a word equation and then complete chemical equation of photosynthesis.
........................................................................................................................................
(iv) At what time of the day does photosynthesis occur in a plant cell?
........................................................................................................................................
(v) Which conditions are necessary for photosynthesis?
........................................................................................................................................
 EXPERIMENT 25

To Observe that Oxygen is Released during the Process of Photosynthesis

OBJECTIVES
After performing this experiment, you should be able to:
 show that oxygen is released during the process of photosynthesis; and
 give the chemical equation for photosynthesis.

25.1 WHAT YOU SHOULD KNOW

All green plants synthesize their own food, in the form of sugar in presence of sunlight
using water and CO2. This process is known as photosynthesis.
The chemical equation for photosynthesis is shown below:

Sunlight
6CO2 + 12H2O ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
Chlorophyll
→ C6H12O6 + 6H2O + 6O2

Oxygen (O2) is a by-product of photosynthesis. All living organisms use this oxygen for
respiration.

Material Required
(i) A beaker (ii) A funnel (iii) A match box
(iv) A test tube, (i)twigs of an aquatic plant (Hydrilla/Wolffia/Vallisneria) or any other
plant whose leaves remain submerged in water.

25.2 HOW TO PERFORM THE EXPERIMENT

(i) Take a beaker and fiIl it with pond water or tap water. Add a pinch of baking soda
(Sodium-bi-carbonate) to it.
(ii) Take some twigs of water plants such as Hydrilla/Wolffia/Vallisneria etc. tied
together at their cut ends with a thread.
(iii) Insert these twigs into the wide mouth of the funnel. Align the twigs such that the
cut ends face the neck of the funnel. Place the funnel inside the beaker with its wide
mouth facing downward. Ensure that the ‘funnel is fully submerged under the water.
 Science and Technology Laboratory Manual :: 85

(iv) Fill a test tube up to the brim with water and invert it over the stem of the funnel.
While inverting, close the mouth of the test tube with your thumb to ensure that no
air bubbles enter the test tube.
(v) See figure 25.1 to check if your apparatus is correctly set.
(vi) Place the apparatus in sunlight or in front of a table lamp for about 30-40 minutes.

Oxygen produced

Sunlight
Beaker filled with water

Cut end of aquatic plant

Funnel (submerged in water)
Aquatic plant

Fig. 25.1: Set-up to observe that oxygen is liberated during the process of photosynthesis

25.3 WHAT TO OBSERVE

(i) Observe the water in the test tube inverted on the stem of the funnel. Do you observe
any bubbles rising up?
(ii) Count the number of bubbles rising up per minute. Record your observations in the
table given below.
Table: To record the number of bubbles liberated after different time period

S. No. Time No. of bubbles liberated No. of bubbles liberated per

minute = Total no. of bubbles
liberated ÷ Time (min) taken
1 1st min
2 2nd min
3 3rd min
4 4th min
The average number of bubbles liberated per minute .............................
(iii) What happens to the level of water in the test tube after 5 minutes? .............................
(iv) Gently remove the test tube closing it by thumb. Invert the test tube and bring a
burning matchstick near the mouth of the test tube immediately after removing your
thumb.
86 :: Science and Technology Laboratory Manual

What do you observe? .............................

Did the matchstick glow brighter or did the flame fade away? .............................
This is because of the oxygen gas present in the test tube. Oxygen helps in burning
of substances.

25.4 INFERENCE/CONCLUSION
Oxygen is produced during photosynthesis.

25.5 CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING

1. What will happen if you place the apparatus in the dark?
...........................................................................................................................................
2. If no bubbles are evolved, what does it indicate?
...........................................................................................................................................
4. Where do you think the plant obtained carbon-dioxide from?
...........................................................................................................................................

PRECAUTIONS
1. Clean the glass apparatus before setting up the experiment.
2. Fully submerge the funnel into water.
3. Ensure that there are no air bubbles in the test tube.
 EXPERIMENT 26

To Show that CO2 is Given Out During Respiration

OBJECTIVES
After performing this experiment, you should be able to:

 understand that CO2 is given out during respiration;

 reason out why germinating seeds and not dry seeds are selected; and
 explain that the rate of respiration is higher in germinating seeds than in non-
germinating ones

26.1 WHAT YOU SHOULD KNOW

 All living beings respire whether it is a developing baby plant (germinating seeds) or
a developing human foetus, or a single cell or a fully developed individual. During
respiration oxygen is taken in while carbon dioxide is given out.
 O2 taken in is used for oxidation of food to release energy

Materials Required
(i) Conical flask-250 ml, capacity (ii) Beaker (iii) Thread
(iv) One holed rubber cork (v) Glass-tube bent twice at right angles
(vi) Small bottle (4 cm × 3/4 cm) (vii) Gram seeds/Moong seeds/Wheat grains
(viii) KOH-pellets (caustic or potassium hydroxide)

26.2 HOW TO PERFORM THE EXPERIMENT

(i) Take about 25 g of gram seeds and soak them overnight in 1/2 a beaker of water.
(ii) Next day decant the water and wrap the seeds in a wet cloth.
(iii) After one or two days, open the cloth and look at the seeds.
(iv) The seeds would have sprouted or germinated (that is the radicle and plumule appear)
(v) You may use the same method to germinate moong seeds and wheat grains and use
them in place of gram seeds.
Material is now ready to proceed further.
88 :: Science and Technology Laboratory Manual

(vi) Take a dry conical flask and put sufficient number of germinated seeds into it, so
as to cover the base of the flask. (Two to three layers of germinated seeds).
(vii) Insert a one-holed rubber cork in the mouth of the conical flask.
(viii) Take a small test-tube and put 5 to 6 pellets of KOH (Potassium hydroxide).
Tie this small test-tube with a piece of thread and hang it as shown in the figure.

Cork

Thread

KOH
Coloured water
Germinated
seeds
Fig. 26.1 Experimental set-up

(x) Introduce one end of the bent glass tube into the conical flask through the cork.
(xi) The end of the tube must be slightly away from the seeds.
(xii) Dip the other end into a beaker of water coloured with a drop of saffranin.
(xiii) Mark the initial level of water inside the tube.
Your experimental set-up is now ready for observation
(xiv) Leave your set-up and observe the level of the water after every half an hour.
You will find that water level in the bent glass tube rises. This is because
CO2 released is absorbed by the KOH, and a vacuum is created in the flask. As a
result atmospheric air exerts pressure and coloured water rises up in the tube.
Now turn to your work-sheet and fill in observations 1.

PRECAUTIONS
(i) The cork of the flask should be air tight.
(ii) The KOH pellets should not come in contact with the germinating seeds.

26.3 RECORDING OF OBSERVATION

Observations
(i) Why do we take germinating seeds for this experiment and not the dry seeds?
........................................................................................................................................
 Science and Technology Laboratory Manual :: 89

(ii) Can we take young floral buds instead of germinating seeds? Yes/No
........................................................................................................................................
(iii) If your answer is ‘Yes’, then what precaution needs to be taken?
........................................................................................................................................
(iv) Why do we take KOH pellets inside the conical flask?
........................................................................................................................................
(v) Why is the other end of the tube dipped in a beaker of coloured water?
........................................................................................................................................
(vi) Does the level of water in the tube (a) remain same, (b) rise or (c) fall?
........................................................................................................................................
(vii) State a suitable reason for your answer in Q. No. (vi)
........................................................................................................................................
(ix) Can you perform the experiment with boiled seeds? If not why not?
........................................................................................................................................
 EXPERIMENT 27(i)

To Test the Presence of Starch and Fat in Given Food Samples

OBJECTIVES
After performing this experiment, you should be able to:

 demonstrate the presence of starch in potato and some other starchy food; and
 check if any given food sample contains fat.

27(i).1 WHAT YOU SHOULD KNOW

All living beings need food for their survival. Our food consists of the following food
constituents - carbohydrates, proteins, fats, minerals, vitamins and water.

Starch is a complex carbohydrate present in the most commonly eaten foods such as rice,
wheat and potato. Starch gives a dark blue-black colour with iodine.

Fats are the richest source of energy in our food. Besides providing energy, fats also form
a part of the cell membrane of our cells. A food sample containing fats leaves a greasy
transparent spot when rubbed on paper.

Material Required
(i) Test tubes (ii) Test tube stand (iii) Test tube holder (iv) Spirit lamp
(v) Iodine solution (blue tincture solution) (vi) Filter paper (vii) Funnel
(viii) Food samples (potato, grapes or any sweet fruit, groundnuts).

27(i).2 HOW TO PERFORM THE EXPERIMENT

(a) Test for starch

Cut a fresh potato into pieces. Boil these pieces in about 10 ml of water in a test tube.
Cool the solution and filter it using a filter paper or a piece of muslin cloth and a funnel.
The potato solution is ready. Label this test tube as A. In another test tube take distilled
water and label it as B.
 Science and Technology Laboratory Manual :: 91

Experimental Observations Inference

Procedure

Take about 2-3 ml of A dark blue-black Solution A contains

solutions A and B in colour appears in starch (a complex form of
two different test tubes. - Solution A only. carbohydrate) in it.
Add 2-4 drops of iodine
solution in each test tube.
Can you tell why solution B does not show any colour change?
(b) Test for fats
Take a food sample, such as groundnut, walnut (akhrot), cashew nut, dry coconut or a
piece of butter to test the presence of fats.
Experiment procedure Observation Inference or conclusion
Crush a few pieces of The paper shows The food sample tested
groundnut, walnut, greasy spots on it. contains fat.
cashew nut, a piece of
dry coconut or butter
between the folds of a
piece of paper. Now
apply some pressure on
it with the help of your
thumb.

27(i).3 CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING

1. What will you observe if you put a drop of iodine solution on an unpeeled potato?
...........................................................................................................................................
2. Why does the colour of potato solution change on contact with iodine solution?
...........................................................................................................................................
3. If we test a solution of wheat flour with iodine, will there be any change in colour?
...........................................................................................................................................
4. In the test for fat, what will you observe if you take a drop of kerosene instead of
ground-nuts?
...........................................................................................................................................
5. If you roast the groundnut before testing for fat, will the test for fats be positive?
...........................................................................................................................................
 EXPERIMENT 27(ii)

To Test the Presence of Adulterants in (a) Milk and (b) Metanil Yellow
in Pulse

OBJECTIVES
After performing this experiment, you should be able to:
 understand what is adulteration;
 detect the adulteration in some common food stuff;
 explain the chemical and physical basis of detection of adulterants; and
 become aware of the health hazards caused by common adulterants.

27.(ii).1 WHAT YOU SHOULD KNOW

Most of the food articles which we consume, like grains, pulses, spices, fruits and
vegetables etc. are given to us by nature. Many of us buy these from the market. Sometimes
some other low quality, cheap, non-edible material is mixed-up in these food articles by
vendors. Addition of other substances to a pure substances is known as adulteration. Such
added material degrades the quality of food and is called adulterant. An adulterant may
be a natural or a man made material. For example in tea leaves used tea leaves, outer coat
of pulses or some colour may be added to make more profit. An adulterated food affects
our health slowly and its effects can be seen after days, months or even after years. Hence,
it is necessary that all of us are aware of the quality of food that we are buying. For this,
we should know the common adulterants, simple tests to detect them and their harmful
effects on our health.

Material Required
(i) Test tubes (ii) Test tube holder (iii) Test tube stand (iv) Spirit lamp
(v) Milk (vi) Pulses like green peas/dal, (vii) Iodine solution,
(viii) Rectified sprit (95% Ethyl Alcohol) (ix) Concentrated hydrochloric acid and
(x) Nitric acid.

27(ii).2 HOW TO PERFORM THE EXPERIMENT

Take some milk, dal and peas from your kitchen
Perform the test given below to check for presence of adulterant like metanil yellow in
pulses and arrowroot or blotting paper in milk.
 Science and Technology Laboratory Manual :: 93

1. Pulses/ Dal/ adulterated with Metanil yellow

Take two spoon fulls of Arhar Dal and soak in lukewarm water for 15 minutes. Any added
colour gets extracted. Similarly extract colour from adulterated turmeric by shaking in
lukewarm water in a test tube. Add a few drops of concentrated hydrochloric acid to the
test tube with soaked dal or turmeric. Magenta colour appears if metanil yellow is present
as an adulterant. Magenta color persists even when diluted with water. You can do a control
experiment by taking arhar dal or turmeric from your home and repeat the procedure given
above. No colour will be seen in the unadulterated sample.
Principle: Metanil yellow is a water soluble acid based dye. On adding HCl, there is a
change in pH, magenta colour appears which presists even when diluted with water.
Harmful effect: consumption of food adulterant with Metanil yellow leads to degeneration
of reproductive organs.
2. Milk adulterated with arrowroot or blotting paper
Boil 3 ml of milk in which arrowroot or blotting paper is added in a test tube. Cool it
and add 2-3 drops of Iodine solution. The colour in the test tube changes to blue black
due to the presence of starch which is present in blotting paper or arrowroot. You can do
a control experiment by taking 3 ml. of milk from your home and repeat the procedure
given above. Iodine does not turn blue black.
Given below is a table. Write some simple tests for detecting different adulterants in various
food items. You could perform them yourself.
Table 27(ii).1 Simple tests for detecting adulterants.

S.No. Food Adulterant Method of detection

1 Tea Leaves Iron filings Easily separated using a magnet over
surface of tea spread out on a sheet of
paper.
2 Tea Artificial colour Put the tea leaves on a moistened
blotting paper. Artificially dyed tea will
impart colour to the moistened blotting
paper immediately.
3 Honey Sugar solution A cotton wick dipped in pure honey
when lighted burns smoothly. If water
is present it will not allow the honey to
burn. Even if it does, a cracking sound
is produced. (the test is for water which
is there in the sugar solution added as
an adulterant to honey). Also if such
honey is refrigerated, sugar crystals
precipitate out indicating adulteration.
94 :: Science and Technology Laboratory Manual

4 Ghee Vanaspati Take one tea spoon-full of completely

melted sample in test-tube and add 5 ml
concentrated hydrochloric acid. Shake
for 5 minutes; add a pinch of sugar and
one drop of furfural. Appearance of
pink colour in the acid layer indicates
added vanaspati.
5 Sugar Starch Mix sample in the test tube with water,
add a few drops of iodine solution.
Blue colour indicates the presence of
starch.
6 Sugar Chalk Powder Take some sugar in a test tube and add
dilute hydrochloric acid. Effervescence
indicates the presence of a carbonate.
7 Turmeric Metanil yellow Extract colour from turmeric sample by
(arficial colour) shaking it with lukewarm water in a
test tube and add a few drops of
concentrated hydrochloric acid. A
magenta colour indicates the presence
of metanil yellow.

27(ii).3 CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING

1. What is an adulterant?
...........................................................................................................................................
2. If grains of a cheap variety of pulses are mixed with costly pulse grains, would you
call it adulteration? Give reason for your answer.
...........................................................................................................................................
3. How can you help your mother to test the presence of coloured dye in dal.
...........................................................................................................................................
4. Name the agency that provides certificates of reliability to food manufacturers?
(Answer: Bureau of Indian Standards)
...........................................................................................................................................
 EXPERIMENT 28

To Estimate the Level of Pollution in Terms of Particulate Matter by

Comparing Leaf Samples Collected from Different Areas

OBJECTIVES
After performing this experiment, you should be able to:
 compare the level of particulate matter in the air in any two (or more) areas;
 identify the source of a particular pollutant like carbon soot in the surroundings; and
 conclude that CNG is a clean fuel.

28.1 WHAT YOU SHOULD KNOW

Air pollution may be caused due to gaseous or particulate pollutants. Any fine fibres of
hay, wool, cotton and particles of dust, asbestos, cement etc are examples of particulate
pollutants. Entry of particulate matter in the environment above a certain level is harmful
to both animals and plants. Particulate pollutants in human beings lead to respiratory
problems such as allergic reactions, asthma and bronchitis. They settle down on plant
leaves, block the stomatal openings and retard plant growth.
Particulate matter may be released from a number of sources. Carbon soot is added by
burning of wood and leaves, from the exhaust of diesel engine etc.

A. To compare the level of carbon soot in air in different areas/localities

Material required
(i) Leaf samples collected from different areas/localities such as a residential area away
from vehicular traffic
(ii) A well maintained park (iii) A busy road crossing (iv) A construction site
(v) A cement or asbestos based industry or from any other suitable area
(vi) Old white cotton cloth of the size of a handkerchief.

28.2 HOW TO PERFORM THE EXPERIMENT

(i) Carefully collect leaf samples from different areas.
(ii) Spread the cloth on a flat surface.
(iii) Place each leaf facing downwards (dark green side facing the cloth).
96 :: Science and Technology Laboratory Manual

(iv) Gently press the leaf against the cloth with an outward movement of fingers.
(v) Observe and compare the imprints of various leaves.

WHAT TO OBSERVE
Compare the different leaf imprints on the cloth. Are all of them of the same shade? Does
any one of them appear to be darker than the other? Do they give an idea of the level
of particulate pollutants of that area? Note your observations in the table given below.
Table 28.1
Sample No. Area of leaf collection Shade of imprint/degree of
dark coloration.

CONCLUSION
Leaves in areas that are highly polluted with carbon soot (emitted by the automobile
exhaust) have more deposition of the pollutant.
B. To compare the level of emission of particulate matter from the exhaust of
different automobiles

Material required
Filter paper or any coarse paper or light coloured pieces of cotton cloth (4"×4"), vaseline,
petroleum jelly or grease used by motor mechanics, and long thread.

28.3 HOW TO PERFORM THE EXPERIMENT

(i) Cut and keep a piece of the material you propose to use. It will serve as the control.
(ii) Smear a thin layer of vaseline (or petroleum jelly) on the pieces of cloth or filter
paper or any coarse paper..
(ii) Tie these pieces with the help of thread at the end of the exhaust pipes of a diesel
truck, a diesel bus, a well-serviced and maintained car, a CNG bus, a tempo or
transport carrier, an auto-rickshaw, a scooter or a motorcycle. Take permission of
the owner or concerned person and let them remain tied for the whole day on any
four busy vehicles.
(iii) Remove these cloth pieces/filter paper/coarse paper and observe after 24 hours.
Stick small pieces of these in your record book and write your observations and
conclusions.
 Science and Technology Laboratory Manual :: 97

28.4 WHAT TO OBSERVE

Do these pieces look different from what was tied to the exhaust pipes 24 hours ago?
.................................................................................................................................................
What has deposited on the greasy area of the cloth/filter paper/coarse paper?
.................................................................................................................................................
Do these pieces look different from each other on the basis of particulate matter deposited?
.................................................................................................................................................
Are there any samples that do not have any deposition? What does that indicate?
...................................................................................................................................................
Which vehicle does not emit any particulate pollutant? As per your observation, which
fuel is the cleanest one - petrol, diesel or CNG?
...................................................................................................................................................

28.5 CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING

1. Which particulate pollutant is released by automobile exhaust?
....................................................................................................................................
2. Will the deposition of carbon soot on leaves of plants affect the level of oxygen in
air?
....................................................................................................................................
3. How is it harmful to
(a) Plants ..........................................................................................................................
(b) Animals and human beings .......................................................................................
4. Why was a thin layer of vaseline or petroleum jelly applied to the cloth tied to the
exhaust pipes of vehicles?
....................................................................................................................................
5. What would happen if we applied water instead of vaseline or petroleum jelly?
....................................................................................................................................
 EXPERIMENT 29

To Observe Organisms from Given Pictures or Specimens or in the

Surroundings (e.g. Crop Field, a Garden, or A Nearby Pond), Classify
Them as Producers and Consumers, and Construct Their Food Chains
and Indicate their Trophic Levels

OBJECTIVES
After performing this experiment, you should be able to:

 explain the inter-relationship between living organisms in an ecosystem;

 differentiate between producers and consumers;
 identify that the transfer of energy in the form of food occurs unidirectionaly;
 argue that food chain cannot begin without the green plants;
 conclude that top consumers are found at the end of food chains and maintain a balance
in nature; and
 describe the inter-relationship between living organisms in an ecosystem which
represents a definite pattern of eating and being eaten using the terms - producers,
herbivores, carnivores, and decomposers.

29.1 WHAT YOU SHOULD KNOW

 Green plants are the producers as synthesize food through photosynthesis for
themselves and others.
 There are animals like the cattle and deer (herbivores) which feed exclusively on
producers. These are called first order or primary consumers in the food chain
 Some other animals like the tiger and lion that feed on herbivores, are called
carnivores. They are ranked as the second order (secondary) consumers. There can
be food chains with three or even four orders of consumers.
 Fungi and bacteria, are the last members of a food chain. They grow on dead bodies
of plants and animals, and are called decomposers.
This chain of relationships based on eating and getting eaten and represented by a producer,
primary consumer, secondary consumer and a decomposer is called a food chain.
 Science and Technology Laboratory Manual :: 99

Some examples of food chains are given below:

Grass → Grasshopper → Frog → Snake → Hawk
Maize grain → Mouse → Snake → Hawk
Each step in a food chain is called a tropic level (food level). The organism in a particular
tropic level may belong to different species in different food chains. e.g. grasshopper, cattle
and grain eating birds and other herbivores represent primary consumers and occur at
the second trophic level as all of them feed on plants only.

29.2 HOW TO PERFORM THE EXERCISE

A. To classify organisms as producers and consumers
Depending upon the availability of the facilities, field or laboratory procedures may be
tried.
a. Field procedure
 Crop Field
(i) Look around a crop field, a garden or a forest area.
(ii) Identify the producers that are normally the green plants (grass, maize, pea, bhindi,
etc.)
(iii) Spot some animals that feed upon these plants or their specific parts or products.
These animals are the primary consumers.
(iv) Look out for some carnivorous animals that can feed upon the primary consumers.
List these.
(v) Is there a possibility of these carnivores being eaten by higher carnivores which will
be called the secondary consumers such as the lion, peacock, hawk etc.? List these
organisms.
 Pond
(i) Visit a pond or a lake.
(ii) Observe and note the various forms of life present inside and around the water bodies.
The most common organisms present there may include algae, protozoa, small fish,
big fish, frogs, ducks and perhaps some other water birds.
(iii) Arrange their names on the basis of what they are eating or by whom they are being
eaten.
b. Laboratory procedure
(i) Your laboratory may have separate pictures of a variety of animals and plants. As
an alternative you can buy the locally available picture charts of animals and plants
from a bookshop and cut out individual animals/plants. These may include all or some
of the following and many others:
Grass, hawk, snake, mice, frog, grasshopper, grain-yielding plants, algae, etc.
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(ii) Arrange the organisms/pictures of the organisms into three groups: (i) Plants (grass,
any trees, etc.), (ii) Plant eaters (Herbivore animals – Cow, deer, etc.) (iii) Flesh-
eaters (Carnivorous animals – lion, tiger, cat, etc.)
B. To construct a food chain
See figure 29.1 to help you construct the food chain.
(i) Select any one plant, place it at a spot on a large sheet of paper. Draw an arrow
towards the right side of the picture/specimen
(ii) Select one animal from group two, which feeds on the plant selected. Place it next
to the arrow and draw another arrow to the right side of this animal
(iii) Select one animal from group three which feeds on the animal selected above and
place it on the right of the second arrow.
(iv) Try to make a food chain with four trophic levels as shown in Fig. 29.1 below
(v) Make as many food chains from the pictures /specimens as possible.

First food chain

Plant Rat Snake Hawk

Second food chain

Plant Grasshopper Frog Snake

Fig. 29.1: Some examples of food chains

What was the maximum number of trophic levels in the food chain shown above?

29.3 CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING

1. Name the proper trophic levels (1st, 2nd, 3rd etc.) to which organisms in the following
food chains belong:
(a) Grass → Grasshopper → Frog → Snake → Hawk
(b) Maize → Mouse → Snake → Hawk
.....................................................................................................................................
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2. Name any top consumer found in your area.

.....................................................................................................................................
3. What may happen if all the top consumers from your area are destroyed?
.....................................................................................................................................
4. Arrange the organisms found in your surroundings in the form of a food chain.
.....................................................................................................................................
5. Based on their food preference, which group of animals belong to the first trophic
level?
..........................................................................................................................................
 EXPERIMENT 30

To Study External Structural Adaptations in Any Two Organisms

out of Cockroach, Fish, Frog, Lizard and Pigeon

OBJECTIVES
After performing this experiment, you should be able to:
 interpret that the shape of an organism is suited to the environment it inhabits;
 relate the kind of locomotor- organs (legs, etc.) to the medium in which the organism
moves about; and
 explain that the nature of skin is also an adaptation to the kind of life led by the
organism.

30.1 WHAT YOU SHOULD KNOW

 Every organism is well adapted to the conditions of the environment in which it lives.
 Some of the adaptations include the shape of the body, the type of locomotory organs
(legs, etc.), the respiratory organs (whether suited to respire in water or in air), the
nature of food and the kind of mouth parts (suited to nature of food preferred).

Materials required
1 Specimens
(i) Cockroach ( freshly chloroformed or dried pinned specimen or a wet preserved
specimen)
(ii) Fish (wet preserved specimen) or a fresh one from the market or in an aquarium.
(iii) Frog (wet preserved specimen)
(iv) Lizard (common house lizard - wet preserved specimen)
(v) Bird (house sparrow, pigeon or any other common bird - dry specimen)
(vi) Hand lens

30.2 HOW TO PERFORM THE EXERCISE

A. Cockroach
 Cockroaches are mostly found in sewers, manholes, kitchens, food stores, etc.
 They hide in crevices and avoid light.
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 When disturbed they run very fast and escape into any hiding place.
 Mature (adult) cockroaches have wings. The immature ones (nymphs) have no wings.
 Look at the specimen carefully from all sides-upper (dorsal), lower (ventral), anterior
side and posterior side. Note down your observations in your record book and draw
a neat diagram.

Head
Antenna
Prothorax
Antenna
Prothorax Compound eye
Mesothorax
Mesothorax Foreleg
Metathorax Metathorax
Wings Middle leg
Abdomen
Walking leg Wing
Spiracles Cercus
Terga Hind leg
Anal cirucs Anal style
Anal style
Ventral view (Male)

Fig. 30.1 External features of a cockroach

(i) Body shape

– Long, broad, slightly narrow towards the front and the back.
– Flattend body. This shape helps in easy creeping into holes and crevices
(ii) Body colour Reddish brown in colour. This makes the cockroach less visible in dark
places, thus escaping notice of the enemy.
(iii) Body regions
Head somewhat triangular, and bent downward. It bears a pair of antennae (feelers)
and a pair of compound eyes.
Thorax is the middle region which carries three pairs of legs and two pair of wings.
Abdomen is the longest region and is normally covered by the folded wings
(iv) Body parts
Locate the following parts and their special adaptive features:
 Antennae (also called feelers): These are a pair of long thread-like structures
arising at the upper margin of the head. These are the sense organs of touch, as well
as smell.
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 Legs: There are three pairs of legs each arising from the three segments of the thorax.
Each leg is a long organ formed of several joints. Fore (front) leg is relatively short,
the middle leg slightly longer and the hind leg is longest. The slender long legs
facilitate fast running.
Examine the end of each leg with a hand lens. It bears a pair of pointed claws. The
claws provide a firm hold on the surface while walking/running.
 Wings: There are two pairs of wings. The first pair is borne on the middle thoracic
segment and the second pair on the third thoracic segment.
If the specimen provided to you is a fresh one, gently stretch both the wings of one
side (left or right) sidewards and compare their width and texture. The front wing is
relatively narrower, thicker and darker. The hind wing is broader and thinner. In normal
resting condition it remains folded over the abdomen and overlapped by the fore wings
from above.
 Abdomen: It is composed of 10 somewhat flattened segments. The segments become
narrower towards the hind end. The abdomen is soft and flexible, it helps in easy
movements in the is hiding places.
 Cerci (sing. cercus): Look at the end of the abdomen. All cockroaches (male and
female) bear a pair of short processes projecting out from the sides of the 9th segment.
The cerci (literally meaning “tail”) serve as touch perceiving organs.
 Anal Style (sing. stylus): In a male specimen, a pair of short rod-like processes project
backward from the lower (ventral) surface of the 9th segment. These are called anal
styles. Females have no anal style, but the underside of their seventh abdominal
segment becomes broad boat-shaped for passing out the cocoon containing eggs.
Draw diagrams of the following:
1. Dorsal view of cockroach, wings of one side (preferably right) stretched out
2. One complete leg showing joints and the claws
3. Tip of the abdomen showing anal cerci and anal styles (of male).
B. Fish
There may be a variety of fish in your study centre e.g. Rohu, Hilsa, Catla, Dogfish (a
kind of shark), etc: The common Rohu can be a good example.

Terminal mouth
Eye
Operculum
Dorsal fin

Scales
Caudal fin

Anal fin
Pelvic fin
Pectoral fin

Fig. 30.2: External features of a fish

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All fish live in water and swim about actively. Their external features are adapted to aquatic
life.
Look at the specimen carefully. Observe the front end, the middle part and the hind end.
 Body shape: The body is long. It is very prominently narrow at both ends and wide
at the middle. Such a shape is called stream-lined. It is most suited for movement
through water, and offers least resistance.
 Body covering (scales): Look at the surface of the body. The skin is covered by
‘scales’. The scales slightly overlap each other and face backward. The scales are free
at their hind end and lodged in the skin at the front. The primary function of scales
is to provide protection against injury and attack by the germs. (Sharks have
microscopic scales embedded in the skin)
 Body regions: The head merges into the trunk which in turn merges into the tail. There
is no neck. Overall, the entire body is compact. There are no distinct body regions.
This compactness facilitates movement through water.
 Fins (paired, and unpaired)
Paired fins: Observe the fish carefully. Do you find any legs in the fish? No. Instead
there are paired pectoral fin (corresponding to front legs) and the pelvic fins
(corresponding to hind legs). Each fin is a thin sheet supported by hardened rod-like
fin-rays. These fins contribute toward swimming, especially when changing direction.
Unpaired or Median fins: Look at the tail end. It carries the large vertically flattened
tail (caudal) fin. In actual life the tail fin moves sidewards contributing towards
providing a forward push to the fish. The tail fin is one of the median fins.
Two other very prominent median fins are the dorsal median fin and the ventral median
fin (also called anal fin). Both these arise respectively from the dorsal median line
at the back and the ventral median line at the belly side.
The median fins helps in stabilizing the body during swimming.
 Operculum (gill cover) and gills : Look at the sides of the head shortly behind the
eyes, there is an oval flap called operculum which covers the gills. The operculum
is a movable cover. The fish gulps water through the mouth and forces it out through
the space under the gill cover. The water flowing over the gills provide respiratory
gases to the fish.
In case you are able to handle a fresh fish, lift its gill cover and observe the gills.
Draw diagrams of the following:
1. Side view of the fish showing all possible parts which you have examined.
2. Close-up view of any one fin showing the supporting fin-rays.
C. Frog
Frog is an amphibian (Amphi = both, bios = life). It leads life in water as well as on land.
Thus it is adapted for life in both these environments. .
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Look at the specimen carefully.

Nictitating membrane
Nostril
Cloacal aperture Snout
Hump Mouth opening
Tympanum

Dermal plicae

Forelimb
Finger

Web
Foot
Hind limb

Fig. 30.3: External features of a frog

 Body shape: The body is rather short, pointed at the front end but somewhat blunt
and broad at the back. There is no tail.

 The skin: Observe the surface of the skin. Are there any scales, hair or any other
projecting structures on skin? No, Frog’s skin is smooth. It is slimy to reduce friction
while swimming in water. On land, the skin serves for diffusion of respiratory gases
(skin respiration).

 Body regions: How many regions do you find in the body? There is a head with the
snout pointing in the front. The pointed snout facilitates dashing through the water.
Is there any neck? [No, any flexible neck would hinder sharp progression in water.]

 Limbs: Observe the front and the hind legs. Which legs are longer? Hind legs. How
does the frog hold its two pairs of legs during sitting posture? The front legs are short
and not much folded. They simply support the body. The hind legs are long and much
folded in sitting posture. When suddenly stretched from the sitting posture, the hind
legs give an upward and forward thrust. Thus, the hind legs are adapted for jumping
and the front legs are adapted for providing support when the jumping frog alights
on the ground.

Observe the fingers in the fore and hind legs. There are four short fingers in the fore
leg and five long toes in the foot. The toes are interconnected by a stretch of skin called
web. The stretched toes and the webs in between act as oars for swimming.

 Eyes
Examine the eyes and note that they are bulging outward. The bulging eyes give a
better perception of binocular (3 dimensional) vision to facilitate capture of prey.
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 Ear
Does the frog have any projecting ears? No. Observe the area just behind the eyes.
There is a somewhat thicker oval patch of skin. This is the ear drum (tympanic
membrane).
D. Lizard (House lizard)
House lizard is a reptile. It is fully terrestrial (living on land). Look at the specimen
carefully and note the following characteristic features.

Fore limb
Tail
Eye
Head
Nostril

Tympanum
Digits
Trunk
Hind limb

Claws

Fig. 30.4: External features of a house lizard

 Body shape
The body is long and slender with two pairs of limbs (front and hind legs) and long
tapering tail.
 Body covering (skin)
The body is covered by a rigid dry skin. It is covered by minute scales. This kind of
skin prevents evaporation of water.
 Body regions
Head is clearly marked from the rest of the body. It is triangular in shape and bears
a pair of large eyes, and a pair of external nostrils (to breathe air).
At the sides of the head, behind the eyes, there are pair of openings leading into a
deep pit. These are the ears.
Neck is very prominent and is quite flexible. The mobility of the neck is very useful
to the lizard as it can easily turn its head sidewards to locate its prey or the enemy.
 Legs
Examine the legs. Note the number of digits in each leg. Do the fingers and toes end
in claws? The claws in most lizards help in holding on to the objects.
Examine the underside of the feet in the house lizards. Is it a uniform surface or broken
into plates? The house lizard has overlapping that bear very tiny hooks or pads which
provide vacuum for sticking to rough surface of the walls and roofs.
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E. Bird (Pigeon/Sparrow)
Note any two features by which you can say that pigeon is a bird. It has feathers on skin
and has wings for flying.

Head
Eye

Beak

Wing (Fore limb)

Abdomen
Feathers
Legs (hind limbs)

Clawed toes

Tail feathers

Fig. 30.5: External features of a bird (pigeon)

 Body shape
Observe the body shape from the head up to the tail. Body is narrow in front, broad
at the middle and again narrow at the back. Such a body shape is called streamlined.
It helps in smooth movement while the bird flies in the air.
 Feathers
Observe the structures covering the skin on the head, neck and the rest of the body.
These are feathers. Are all feathers similar in size and shape? Note that the feathers
on the head, neck and belly etc. are short, whereas those on the wings are long and
broad. Can you think of the special functions of the feathers?
Feathers covering the general body surface
– provide the colour pattern to the bird.
– provide an insulating layer to keep warm.
– Feathers on the wings and long feathers of the tail.
– provide an increased striking surface during flight.
– help in steering and braking during flight.
 Head:
Observe the beak and the eyes. The beak is pointed. It has the upper and lower parts
corresponding to the jaws. There are no teeth. Absence of teeth is a kind of adaptation
for making the body light. Crushing of swallowed food takes place inside the food
canal.
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 Wings: If there is any such specimen in your laboratory, in which a wing is stretched
out, see its details. The main long part of the wing is narrow, and the long flight feathers
are arranged almost in a row. [Wings are the modified front legs or fore limbs].
 Legs: Observe the two legs. They are short and slender.
Note the number of toes in each of these legs - three are pointing forward and one
pointing backward. How is this arrangement of toes helpful to the pigeon? It supports
the weight of the body easily.
Look at the tip of each toe. It has a strong sharp claw. The claws help in holding on
to the resting surface, especially while sitting on the twigs. Claws also help to grasp
the prey.

30.3 CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING

1. Mention the special body features of frog for the following activities:
(i) Resting (sitting) on land.......................................................................................
(ii) Swimming in water...............................................................................................
(iii) Respiration in water..............................................................................................
2. What are the adaptive external characteristics of the house lizard-for the following.
(i) to prevent evaporation; (ii) for moving about; (iii) for sticking to the walls.
3. How do the following serve as adaptations to flight in the bird?
(i) Shape of the body.................................................................................................
(ii) Feathers on body...................................................................................................
(iii) Feathers on wing and tail.....................................................................................
(iv) The toes and claws................................................................................................
NOTES