Onsite Sanitation

Dr. Eugene Appiah-Effah

Prof. Sampson Oduro-Kwarteng
Department of Civil Engineering, KNUST

1
 Outline-Onsite Sanitation
• Introduction to Onsite Sanitation Technologies
• Sanitation
• F-Diagram
• Sanitation overview
• Classification of Sanitation Technologies
• Wet Systems
• Dry Systems
• Onsite Systems
• Off site Systems
• Onsite Sanitation Technologies
• Faecal Sludge Management
• Design of Dry onsite systems (VIP)
• Design of wet onsite systems (Septic Tanks)
2
 Sanitation
• Environmental Sanitation is the collection and sanitary
disposal of wastes to protect public health and the
environment from contamination
 The components of sanitation according to the Policy include:
 Liquid waste management,
 Excreta management,
 Solid waste management,
 Industrial waste management
 Hazardous waste management,
 Health care,
 Street cleansing,
 Food hygiene,
 Environmental sanitation education

3
Sanitation
Sanitation as defined by WHO refers to the provision of facilities and
services for the safe management of human excreta from the toilet to
containment and storage and treatment onsite or conveyance,
treatment and eventual safe end use or disposal.
Definition by WHO
• Sanitation is the safe removal of excreta, proper handling and disposal of
excreta and ensuring good hygienic practice
• It involves providing barriers against diseases transmission to ensure safe
public health,
• Sanitation improves health and quality of life
• Sanitation protects the environment
 Relevance of sanitation

• Prevent excreta contact to food and water

• Prevent fly contact to excreta,
• Prevent diarrhoea diseases,
• One household to a toilet is considered hygienic and improved
sanitation if it is covered,
• Sanitation should provide privacy, security and good hygienic
conditions

5
Faecal Oral Transmission Route- F-DIAGRAM
Overview of Sanitation-Global
 In 2015, 39% of the global population (2.9 billion people) used a safely
managed sanitation service
 27% of the global population (1.9 billion people) used private sanitation
facilities connected to sewers
 13% of the global population (0.9 billion people) used toilets or latrines
where excreta were disposed of in situ
 68% of the world’s population (5.0 billion people) used at least a basic
sanitation service
 2.3 billion people still do not have basic sanitation facilities such as toilets
or latrines
 Of these, 892 million still defecate in the open
Overview of Sanitation-Ghana

According to GSS (MICS), (2018), only 21% of Sanitation Coverage

Ghanaians have access to basic sanitation; 120

with rural and urban coverages of 17% and

25% respectively. Over million Ghanaians
100
11
22
representing 56.7% use limited.
8 31
80

About 22% of Ghanaians do not have access

Percentage Coverage
13

to toilets at all and defecate in the open. OD 60

58
18

is more rampant in rural Ghana (31%) 45

compared to urban Ghana (11%).

40
35

The use of unimproved toilet facilities is also 20

wide spread with 10.2% of the population 21 25

17

using such facilities. 0

Natioanal Urban Rural

Basic Service Limited Unimproved Open Defecation

 REGIONAL SANITATION COVERAGE (SAFELY DISPOSED / BASIC SANITATION)
Region Sewer Safe disposal in situ of excreta from Open Defecation
Connection (%) on-site sanitation facilities (%) (%)

National 2 43 22
Western 1 50 18
Central 1 47 17
Greater Accra 9 21 8
Volta 1 37 38
Eastern 3 62 7
Ashanti 4 48 11
Brong Ahafo 0 63 17
Northern 0 24 57
Upper East 0 19 67
Upper West 0 24 52
Sanitation ladder

• Sanitation ladder is
incremental progression WC with Septic tank or sewerage
of service levels of system
different quality Pour flush with pit
Ventilated improved latrine

• It covers JMP improved Lid/cover latrine

sanitation definition Conventional dry latrine
Dig and bury (Traditional practice)

S. Oduro-Kwarteng (Civil Eng. KNUST)

 Sanitation Ladder
Use of improved facilities which are not
shared with other households and where
excreta are safely disposed in situ or
transported and treated offsite
Improved facility which
separates excreta from human
contact (private)
Improved facility which
separates excreta from human
contact (shared with other
Households)
Unimproved facility does not
separate excreta from human
contact
Open defecation
Sanitation
Sanitation Value Chain

Containment Emptying Transport Treatment Re-use / disposal

Classification of Sanitation Technologies

1.Wet (water dependent or Dry (non-water dependent)

2. On-site or Off-site
Onsite sanitation Technologies
Off-site sanitation
On-site sanitation

On-site sanitation systems Nightsoil collection

‘dry’ sanitation (pit latrines, VIP, KVIP) systems
systems
On-site sanitation (individual or
shared) with off-site disposal

On-site sanitation with leaching Off-site transportation

‘wet’ sanitation facilities and treatment of
systems WC/septic tank, pour flush, aqua sewage
privy
Overview of On-site Sanitation Technologies
• The on-site sanitation systems which are non-water dependent system
(dry sanitation) are:
• Traditional pit latrine
• Ventilated Improved Pit Latrine (VIP)
• Kumasi Ventilated Improved Pit Latrine (KVIP)
• Enviroloo (Patented)
• Compost toilet
• Urine Diverting Dry toilet
• Water dependent on-site systems have water-seals.
• Water Closet + Septic tank or pit
• Pour-flush
• Aqua-privy
• Biofil toilet

S. Oduro-Kwarteng (Civil Engineering Department, KNUST)

on-site sanitation
Water dependent
• Merits
• Water seal provides minimal Odour
• Excludes flies
• high quality service
• Demerits
• Large space requirement
• Large Water requirement
• High Cost of facility

Non-water dependent
• Merits
• Small space requirement
• No water requirement
• Low Cost of facility
• Low maintenance cost
• Demerits
• High Odour nuisance
• Flies nuisance
Onsite sanitation Technology
Bucket latrine - Nightsoil collection systems
 IMPROVED/SIMPLE PIT LATRINE
•Suitable where people use solid/ hard materials for anal cleansing.

•Suitable for locations where there is scarcity of water or where the water
supply is not regular.

•Suitable where the ground is easy to dig, where the water table is low,
places where there are no issues with water-logging and flooding.

•Suitable where there is space to dig a new pit and move the
superstructure when the old pit becomes full, hence not suitable for urban
areas.
•Suitable for remote areas where transportation of imported materials is
difficult and costly.
•Suitable for places where the inhabitants cannot afford to build a costly
latrine system, easy to build with local materials only

18
 The ventilated improved pit (VIP)
• The VIP technology comprises of a pit, cover slab, privy
room and a vent pipe with fly trap/screen.
• The pit and cover slab forms the sub structure with the
privy room and vent forming the superstructure.
• The pit may be lined or unlined depending on the stability
of the soil. Also the pit may be elevated above ground
based on the level of the water table.
• Continuous airflow through the top-structure and above
the vent pipe removes smells and vents gases to the
atmosphere.
• A darkened interior is maintained causing insects entering
the pit to be attracted towards the light at the top of the
vent pipe and trapped by the fly screen.

19
Ventilated Improved Pit Latrine (VIP)
The components of the VIP are thus:
• A pit to hold accumulated solids,
• A cover slab with a squat hole and vent hole
• A tall, vertical vent pipe with a fly screen fitted to the cover slab at
the back on the pit
• A superstructure slightly offset from the pit

Dr. S. Oduro-Kwarteng (Civil Eng. KNUST)

Fly screen

Vent pipes
Excreta treatment mechanism in VIP toilet
• The liquid portion of the excreta soaks away into the soil.
• The solids in the excreta are broken down by biological digestion
(anaerobic) into simpler compounds.
• The soluble products of biological digestion are carried into the soil
by the liquid portion of the excreta.
• The gases produced, mainly H2S and CH4, are removed by the vent.
• Cold air entering the squat hole displaces the foul air in the
pit, which moves out through the vent pipe.
• The air column in vent pipe is warmer and thus lighter than that in
privy room as the pipe is exposed to sunlight.

S. Oduro-Kwarteng (Civil Eng. KNUST)

 Types of VIPs
VIP latrines may be composed of:
• Single-Pit VIP Latrine
• Alternating Double-Pit VIP (one cubicle)
• Multiple-Pit VIP (more than one cubicle)
• Kumasi Ventilated Improved Pit Latrine (KVIP) (Alternating Double-Pit
and off-set pit)

S. Oduro-Kwarteng (Civil Eng. KNUST)

Single-pit or direct-pit latrine

• These are designed to be used for 2 years,

• Used where land is available,
• Used in rural areas and in areas where land is not scarce.
• They are usually unlined and require re-location whenever they are full.

S. Oduro-Kwarteng (Civil Eng. KNUST)

 Constructing the VIP toilet

25
 Pit Excavation

26
 Pit lining

27
 Pit lined with blocks

28
 Formwork for reinforced cover slab

29
 Concrete preparation

30
 Casting of reinforced cover slab

31
 Cover slab with floor rest

32
 Placing of slab over pit

33
 Secured slab over pit

34
 Erecting of superstructure

35
 Fixing door frame

36
 Installed VIP bowl

37
 Completed superstructure

38
 DESIGN OF VIPs

Pit (calculation of pit volume)

• The pit to hold accumulated solids from human excreta.

• The pit design volume is the product of:
• Sludge accumulation rate (m3/person/year) (0.03-0.04
m3/person/year)
• Number of people (users)
• Filling time (years) ( choose at least 2 years)
• Allow for freeboard of 0.5m above sludge when it is full and cover slab.

Per capita fresh excreta = 0.1825m3/person/year; BOD g/d = 30

S. Oduro-Kwarteng (Civil Engineering Department, KNUST)

Pit Lining and Foundation
• The top part of the pit is lined to prevent collapse of the walls.
• Holes are left in the lining to allow liquid to seep out of the pit.
• A foundation built of brick, stone or concrete is provided for around the
pit for the superstructure walls.
• Where ground water covers part of the pit, the lining is extended all the
way down to the bottom of the pit.
• Lining materials include bricks, concrete, stone, or cement mortar
plastered directly onto the surface of the soil (of the pit walls).

S. Oduro-Kwarteng (Civil Engineering Department, KNUST)

Pit Cover Slab, Squat Hole, and Seat
• A cover slab of reinforced concrete is used over the pit.
• A squat hole, which is usually key or pear shaped is provided in the slab
OR Seat/pedestal is provided,
• A hole is also left for the insertion of the vent pipe.
• The cover slabs are placed on foundation/walls and sealed with cement
mortar.

S. Oduro-Kwarteng (Civil Engineering Department, KNUST)

Superstructure
• Function: The superstructure provides privacy and shade from poor
weather.
• Adequate ventilation is provided (usually opening is provided at the
front of the building) to ensure unrestricted flow of air through the squat
hole and up the vent in order to have effective control of odour.
(opening can be at the back depending on the wind direction)
• There should be no other openings at the side or back of the building if
front opening is provided.
• This avoids short circuit of wind flow, and ensures that the incoming air
goes into the squat hole.
• The toilet should be located in an area where there is free flow of air
and not in an area shaded by tall buildings

S. Oduro-Kwarteng (Civil Engineering Department, KNUST)

Vent pipe
• The vent pipe may be made of asbestos cement, uPVC, bricks, or
concrete blocks and is equipped with a fly screen at its upper end.
• The vent and fly screen have three important functions:
• Controls odour – the vent creates a strong draught of air that carries
all foul-smelling gases from the pit up the vent pipe. This is called
“chimney effect”.
• Excludes flies – flies are attracted to faecal odour moving up the vent
pipe. They therefore concentrate at the top of the vent pipe, but
cannot enter the pit because of the fly screen.
• Traps flies – flies that find their way into the pit are attracted to light
and try to escape though the vent pipe but are trapped, eventually
fall back into the pit and die.
 Kumasi ventilated improved pit (kvip)

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 Kumasi ventilated improved pit (kvip)
• An improvement to the traditional VIP is the Kumasi
Ventilated Improved Pit (KVIP) which is designed
with double pits.
• The double Pit VIP has almost the same design as
the Single Pit VIP with the added advantage of a
second pit that allows it to be used continuously
and permits safer and easier emptying.
• By using two pits, one pit can be used, while the
content of the second rests, drains, reduces in
volume, and degrades.
• When the second pit is almost full (the excreta is 50
cm from the top of the pit), it is covered, and the
content of the first pit is removed.
• Due to the extended resting time (at least 1 or 2
years after several years of filling), the material
within the pit is partially sanitized and humus-like.
45
Alternating double-pit VIP latrines

• It is used where there is insufficient space for constructing another pit

when the first is full,
• One pit is used until it is full (within 0.5m of the cover slab). It is then
sealed and the other put in use.
• When the second pit is almost full, the first pit is emptied and ready for
use.
• A minimum of one year is recommended for total destruction of
pathogens.

S. Oduro-Kwarteng (Civil Eng. KNUST)

DESIGN OF KUMASI VENTILATED IMPROVED LATRINE (KVIP)

Opening above door

Beam to support superstructure

wall

S. Oduro-Kwarteng (Civil Engineering Department, KNUST)

 Construction of 4-Seater KVIP
• Alternating Double-Pit VIP (one cubicle)
• Multiple-Pit VIP (more than one cubicle)

S. Oduro-Kwarteng (Civil Engineering Department, KNUST)

Multiple-Pit VIP Latrine
• Multiple cubicles are suitable for communal use, institutional use
• It is used where space is very limited or where households cannot afford
to own their own latrines,
• Each pit, except the ones at the ends has two squat holes.
• The volume of the end pits is only half that of the inner ones.

S. Oduro-Kwarteng (Civil Eng. KNUST)

VIP public toilets in Kumasi

S. Oduro-Kwarteng (Civil Engineering Department, KNUST)

DESIGN OF KVIP
Pit volume design
• It is designed for not more than 25 per cubicle or 50 users per pit
• Pits are indirect and alternating in use
• Each cubicle has two adjacent pits underneath it, one of which is used
until about ¾ full, then covered with grass or leaves, filled with earth
(soil) and sealed. The other pit is then put in use.
• It is designed for at least ½ year to 3 years for allowing for storage of
anal cleansing materials.
Design Of 5-Seater KVIP:
• Sludge accumulation rate - 0.06m3/person/year.
• To allow for bulk anal cleansing material increase sludge accumulation
rate by 50% (accumulation rate of 0.09 m3/person/year. )
• Given that life span of Pit is 11/2 years and the number of persons using a
pit is 50 (for two cubicles).
• The Pit Volume = 0.09 x 50x 1.5 = 6.75m3
• For multiple-pits, volume of Pits at the ends is half this value (pits 1 and 6)
• Assuming a width of 1.5m and a length of 2.5m, the depth of the Pit
becomes 1.8m.
• With 0.5m freeboard, the overall depth becomes 2.7m.
• The dimensions of each pit 2.5m x 1.5m x 2.7m (overall depth),

S. Oduro-Kwarteng (Civil Engineering Department, KNUST)

Pit lining
• Pits are lined, each privy room or cubicle has 2 pits.
• Pit lining using 225mm thick cement block wall, and pits separated by
225mm block.
• Pits are separate by 225 mm thick partition walls with very smooth
rendered surface using rich cement mortar (1:3) to ensure stability of
the lining

S. Oduro-Kwarteng (Civil Engineering Department, KNUST)

 Vent pipe and toilet orientation
• Each pit has a vent and fly screen at top end,

• Vent pipe is 100mm uPVC or vent stack made from cement blocks
(150x150 cross-section area)

• Vent pipe should face northwards, eastward or westward to allow direct

sunlight to reach the pipe, for pipe heating up, rising and sucking the foul
air.

• Opening in front or at the back should face wind direction

Construction of 5-Seater KVIP

S. Oduro-Kwarteng (Civil Engineering Department, KNUST)

Construction of 5-Seater KVIP

Cover slab arrangements and thickness

• The diameter of the iron rod is (10 mm) at 150 or 200 centres
• Concrete mix is 1:2:4
• Slab thickness is 75 mm
• Radius of squat hole is 90 or 100mm and length 350
• Vent hole created in cover slab

S. Oduro-Kwarteng (Civil Engineering Department, KNUST)

Construction of 5-Seater KVIP

1100mm
1775mm

825mm
1275mm

1000mm 500mm

S. Oduro-Kwarteng (Civil Engineering Department, KNUST)

Construction
Handle for Cover Slabs
• For each cover slab the number of handle required is 2
• The length of each handle is 450 to 550mm
• The diameter of rod used for the handle is ¼ (6 mm)
• Calculate the amount of materials required.
• Cover Slab to cover un-use Squat Hole
• Squat holes not in use must be covered with the squat hole cover.
• The slab has a thickness of 50 mm
• The number required is 5
• Calculate the amount of materials required.

S. Oduro-Kwarteng (Civil Engineering Department, KNUST)

Construction: Lining and superstructure
Sandcrete block lining
• Lining is 6x 9x18 blocks (150x225x450mm)
• Mortar (1:3) for block laying
• Calculate the amount of materials required.
Superstructure
• 150mm x 225mm x 300mm soil bricks or blocks
• For the laying of the blocks or bricks, use 1:4 cement mortar
• 50 mm x 75mm hardwood for roofing members
• 50 mm x 100mm hardwood for door frame
• 25 mm x 300mm softwood for door, formwork, etc.
• Calculate the amount of materials required.
Enviroloo toilet

S. Oduro-Kwarteng (Civil Engineering Department, KNUST)

 Urine diversion dry toilet (UDDT)
Urine is separated at the user
interface, drained through a
piping system and infiltrated into
the soil for disposal, or collected,
stored and sanitised in containers
for use as a fertiliser.

 Faecal matter and anal wiping

material are collected into a
ventilated vault directly below the
user interface.

64
Urine diversion/ composting vault toilet

Urine diversion (UD) dry

U/dry F - pedestal type
Plastic (SA)
 Preparing the foundation

66
 Dressing the foundation

67
 Developing the vault

68
 Developing the vault

69
 Plastering the excreta vault

70
 Preparing for Decking of excreta vault

71
 Concrete decking of excreta vault

72
 Concrete decking

73
 Complete concrete deck

74
 Erecting superstructure

75
 Erecting superstructure

76
 Excreta vault with access doors

77
 Complete excreta vault

78
 Urine storage tank

79
 Drainpipes connections

80
 Complete uddt toilet

81
Design and Construction of WET on-
site Sanitation Toilets
Estimation of quantity of faecal sludge
• Fresh excreta measurement

• Wastewater quantity estimation

• Sludge quantity measurement

• Per capita generation rate

S. Oduro-Kwarteng (Civil Eng. KNUST)

 Aqua Privy
• These are essentially small single
compartment septic tanks located
directly below a squatting plate with a
drop pipe of size 100 – 150mm, extending
about 100 – 150mm below the liquid level
in the tank.
• The extension of the pipe below the liquid
level forms a simple water seal, which
prevents the escape of odours and
insects (mainly mosquitoes and flies) from
the tank into the privy room.
• Excreta are discharged directly into the
tank
Onsite sanitation Technology
 Pour-flush toilet

86
 Pour-flush Toilets

• The pour flush toilet is a sanitation technology that needs only a

fraction of the volume of water needed by a conventional cistern flush
toilet.
• The main components are a:
• Pour flush bowl , only 1 – 2 litres of water is needed to flush the
excreta from the bowl into the pit. The water is poured directly by
hand into the bowl.
• Water seal trap, the water-seal trap prevents the odours of the
excreta in the pit from escaping through the toilet and also prevents
insects from entering or leaving the pit.
• The pit is lined to its full depth with holes left in the lining to allow the
seepage of liquids into the soil. The upper part is however fully
mortared and made watertight.
 Constructing a pour-flush toilet

89
 Creating formwork

90
 Groove for ‘u’ bend

91
 Positioning the pour-flush bowl

92
 Slab reinforcement Arrangement

93
 Concrete slab casting

94
 Concrete slab casting

95
 Concrete slab placed over pit

96
 Erecting wooden superstructure

97
 Inside of privy room

98
 Water closet (wc) with Septic tanks

• The water closet with septic tank toilet is a type of flush toilet that disposes of human
waste by using water to flush it through a drain pipe into a septic tank.
• The septic tank is a water tight chamber through which blackwater flows for partial
treatment. It acts as a settling and treatment chamber for the blackwater.
• The liquid is retained in the septic tank for at least 24 hours, but may be up to 10
days.
• In the septic tank solids settle out to the bottom where they undergo biological
digestion. The liquids pass out of the tank and into a subsoil drainage system (soak-
away).
• Digested sludge gradually builds up in the tank and requires eventual removal by
tanker.
• This technology maintains a separation between humans and excreta.

99
 THE WATER SEAL

To prevent odour and flies

100
 Design of Septic Tank

• Septic tanks are small rectangular tanks usually sited below ground
level
• Septic tanks may have one, two or three compartments.
• Multi compartment tanks usually provide better effluent quality.
• Retention time of sewage is 1 – 3 days. Three days retention at the start
reduces to one day at the time of disludging,
• Over time, the digested sludge accumulates in the tank creating the
need for desludging at regular intervals, usually once every 2 to 5 years.

S. Oduro-Kwarteng (Civil Engineering Department, KNUST)

S. Oduro-Kwarteng (Civil Engineering Department, KNUST)
Design of septic tank
• Tank volume , V = NQt + NST
t = retention time in days (use one day)
N = number of users
Q = per capita wastewater flow (m3/day)
S = sludge accumulation rate (m3/day/year)
T = desludging frequency (at least 2 years)
Design of septic tank

S. Oduro-Kwarteng (Civil Engineering Department, KNUST)

Disposal of septic tank effluents
• Effluents normally treated through a subsurface soil absorption
(drainage) system (absorption fields/trenches, soakaways etc.).
• The disposal of septic tank effluents becomes very difficult in the areas
where:
• Compact soil conditions result in low infiltration rates.
• High ground water tables prevail.
• Population density is high and thus there is limited infiltration space.

S. Oduro-Kwarteng (Civil Engineering Department, KNUST)

Drain fields/trenches
Drainfield

S. Oduro-Kwarteng (Civil Engineering Department, KNUST)

 Latrine Number Design
Types Latrine Technologies of Users Parameters Standards

KVIP Sludge 0.06m3/person/year (dry latrines)

Accumulation Rate
VIP 0.04m3/person/year (wet latrines)
10 Desludging
)Household Pour-flush latrines persons frequency (T) 2 years
latrine Eco san per drop Depth of Pit (d) 2-3 m
Composting Toilets hole Free board 0.5m
WC with Septic
Tanks Siting Distance at least 30m down stream
from water sources
Biofil Toilet at least 2m above water table
50
persons
Institutional per drop
Latrines: hole
(source: CWSA, (2010)
DESIGN EXERCISE – HOUSEHOLD SEPTIC TANK
A residential building is to be built for a family of ten. The wastewater
flow is 100 litres/person/day.
Data
• Sludge accumulation rate– 0.04 m3/person/year
• Water depth in tank – 1.5m
• Length to width ratio of tank – 2:1
• Desludging frequency - 5 years

1. Design a two unequal compartment septic tank for the building,

2. Provide sketch plan and longitudinal section of the septic tank
showing dimensions and inlet and outlet arrangements.
 FAECAL SLUDGE MANAGEMENT

110
 What is Faecal Sludge?

Faecal sludge (FS) comes from onsite sanitation technologies, and has not
been transported through a sewer. It is raw or partially digested, a slurry or
semisolid, and results from the collection, storage or treatment of
combinations of excreta and blackwater, with or without greywater.

Faecal sludge comprises all liquid and semi-liquid contents

of pits and vaults accumulating in on-site sanitations
installations, namely unsewered public and private latrines
or toilets, aqua privies and septic tanks.
Faecal Sludge is highly variable in consistency, quantity, and
concentration
What is Faecal Sludge Management

Faecal sludge management (FSM) is the collection,

transport, treatment and dispose or reuse of faecal sludge
from pits/compartments/vaults of on-site sanitation systems
 Some Terminologies
• Urine - is the liquid produced by the body to rid itself of urea and other waste products. In this
context, the Urine product refers to pure Urine that is not mixed with Faeces or water. Depending on
diet, human Urine collected from one person during one year (approx. 300 to 550 L) contains 2 to 4 kg
of nitrogen. With the exception of some rare cases, Urine is sterile when it leaves the body

• Faeces - refers to (semi-solid) excrement that is not mixed with Urine or water. Depending on
diet, each person produces approximately 50 L per year of faecal matter. Fresh faeces contain about
80% water. Of the total nutrients excreted, Faeces contain about 12% N, 39% P, 26% K and have 107 to
109 faecal coliforms in 100 mL.

• Flushwater - is the water discharged into the User Interface to transport the content and/or clean it.
Freshwater, rainwater, recycled Greywater, or any combination of the three can be used as a Flushwater
source.
 Some Terminologies
• Anal Cleansing Water is water used to cleanse oneself after defecating and/or urinating; it is
generated by those who use water, rather than dry material, for anal cleansing. The volume of water
used per cleaning typically ranges from 0.5 L to 3 L.

• Dry Cleansing Materials are solid materials used to cleanse oneself after defecating and/or urinating
(e.g., paper, leaves, corncobs, rags or stones

• Excreta consists of Urine and Faeces that is not mixed with any Flushwater. Excreta is small in
volume, but concentrated in both nutrients and pathogens. Depending on the quality of the Faeces, it has
a soft or runny consistency.

• Brownwater is the mixture of Faeces and Flushwater, and does not contain Urine. It is generated by
Urine-Diverting Flush Toilets and, therefore, the volume depends on the volume of the Flushwater used.
Brownwater may also include Anal Cleansing Water and/or Dry Cleansing Materials
 Some Terminologies
• Blackwater - is the mixture of Urine, Faeces and Flushwater along with Anal Cleansing Water and/or
Dry Cleansing Materials. Blackwater contains the pathogens of Faeces and the nutrients of Urine that
are diluted in the Flushwater.

• Greywater - is the total volume of water generated from washing food, clothes and dishware, as well
as from bathing, but not from toilets. It may contain traces of Excreta (e.g., from washing diapers)
and, therefore, also pathogens. Greywater accounts for approximately 65% of the wastewater produced
in households with flush toilets.

• Effluent - is the general term for a liquid that leaves a technology, typically after Blackwater or Sludge
has undergone solids separation or some other type of treatment. Effluent originates at either a
Collection and Storage or a (Semi-) Centralized Treatment technology. Depending on the type of
treatment, the Effluent may be completely sanitized or may require further treatment before it can be
used or disposed of
 Wastewater Types

Black water
from ;toilets

Grey water
from baths,
washbasins, wastewater
showers,
kitchens, etc.
Faecal Sludge
from On-site
Sanitation systems
Faecal Sludge Service Delivery Chain
 Characteristics of Faecal Sludge
 The characteristics of faecal sludge are highly variable from country to
country and within the same country, depending on the type of sanitation
facility being used (Kone et al., 2010; Nartey 2013).

 The characteristics of FS are determined by, measuring their

physical, chemical and biological parameters.
 Physical parameters give general information on sludge processability and
handleability.
Chemical parameters are relevant to the presence of nutrients and
toxic/dangerous compounds, so they become necessary in the case of
utilization in agriculture.
Biological parameters give information on microbial activity and organic
matter/pathogens presence, thus allowing the safety of use to be evaluated.
 Characteristics of Faecal Sludge

• The parameters to be determined when characterizing faecal sludge may

include:
Physical Parameters: Chemical Parameters
Total Solids  TKN
Suspended Solids  COD
Total Volatile Solids  BOD
pH  NH4-N
Temperature  C/N ratio
electrical conductivity Biological Parameters  Heavy metals
 faecal coliform
 helminth eggs.
 TO BE CONTINUED………

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