SAINT MARY’S ANGELS COLLEGE OF PAMPANGA

Olongapo-Gapan Road, Sta. Ana, 2022, Pampanga

INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIAL
IN GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING 2
(GEO 2)

A.Y. 2020-2021

REFERENCES:
1. Principles of Geotechnical Engineering Eighth Edition, SI Braja M. Das and Khaled Sobhan
2. Soil Mechanics and Fundamentals by Muni Budhu (2015) – Imperial Version: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
3. Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering by Diego Innocencio T. Gillesania
Unit 4: Slope Stability Analysis
OBJECTIVES

• Understand the forces and activities that provoke slope failures.

• Understand the effects of geology, seepage, and porewater pressures on the stability of slopes.
• Estimate the stability of slopes with simple geometry and geological features.

DEFINITION OF KEY TERMS

Slip or failure zone is a thin zone of soil that reaches the critical state or residual state, resulting in
movement of the upper soil mass.

Slip plane or failure plane or slip surface or failure surface is the surface of sliding.

Sliding mass is the mass of soil within the slip plane and the ground surface.

Slope angle is the angle of inclination of a slope to the horizontal. The slope angle is sometimes referred
to as a ratio, for example, 2:1 [horizontal (H): vertical (V)].

Porewater pressure ratio is the ratio of porewater force on a slip surface to the total weight of the soil
and any external loading.

INTRODUCTION

An exposed ground surface that stands at an angle with the horizontal is called an unrestrained slope.
The slope can be natural or man-made. It can fail in various modes. Cruden and Varnes (1996) classified
the slope failures into the following five major categories. They are

1. Fall. This is the detachment of soil and/or rock fragments that fall down a slope. Figure below shows
a fall in which a large amount of soil mass has slid down a slope.

“Fall” Type of Landslide

2. Topple. This is a forward rotation of soil and/or rock mass about an axis below the center of gravity
of mass being displaced

Slope Failure by “Toppling”

3. Slide. This is the downward movement of a soil mass occurring on a surface of rupture

Slope Failure by “Sliding”

4. Spread. This is a form of slide by translation. It occurs by “sudden movement of water-bearing

seams of sands or silts overlain by clays or loaded by fills”.

Slope Failure by Lateral “Spreading”

5. Flow. This is a downward movement of soil mass similar to a viscous fluid

Slope Failure by “Flowing”

FACTOR OF SAFETY

The primary purpose of analyzing slope stability is to determine the factor of safety. In general, factor of
safety is the ratio the average shear strength of soil 𝜏𝑓 , to the average shear stress developed along the
potential failure surface, 𝜏𝑑 .
(Eq. 4.1)
𝜏𝑓
𝐹𝑠 =
𝜏𝑑
Where
𝐹𝑠 = factor of safety with respect to strength
𝜏𝑓 = average shear strength of the soil
𝜏𝑑 = average shear stress developed along the potential failure surface
The shear strength of a soil consists of two components, cohesion and friction, and may be written as
(Eq. 4.2)
𝜏𝑓 = 𝑐 ′ + 𝜎 ′ tan 𝜙 ′
Where
𝑐 ′ = cohesion
𝜎 ′ = drained angle of friction
𝜙 ′ = effective normal stress on the potential failure surface

In a similar manner, we can also write

(Eq. 4.3)
𝜏𝑑 = 𝑐𝑑′ + 𝜎 ′ tan 𝜙𝑑′
where 𝜙𝑑′ and 𝑐𝑑′ are, respectively, the effective cohesion and the angle of friction that develop along
the potential failure surface. Substituting Eqs. (4.2) and (4.3) into Eq. (4.1), we get
(Eq. 4.4)
𝑐 ′ + 𝜎 ′ tan 𝜙 ′
𝐹𝑠 = ′
𝑐𝑑 + 𝜎 ′ tan 𝜙𝑑′

Factor of safety with respect to cohesion:

(Eq. 4.5)
𝑐′
𝐹𝑐 ′ =
𝑐𝑑′

Factor of safety with respect to friction:

(Eq. 4.6)
tan 𝜙 ′
𝐹𝜙 ′ =
tan 𝜙𝑑′

When we compare Eqs. (4.4) through (4.6), we can see that when 𝐹𝑐 becomes equal to 𝐹𝜙 , it gives the
factor of safety with respect to strength.

we can write
(Eq. 4.7)
𝐹𝑠 = 𝐹𝑐 ′ = 𝐹𝜙′

When 𝐹𝑠 is equal to 1, the slope is in a state of impending failure. Generally, a value of 1.5 for the factor
of safety with respect to strength is acceptable for the design of a stable slope.

STABILITY OF INFINTE SLOPE

Infinite slope, analysis is used when a layer of firm soil or rock lies parallel to a thin softer material and
the potential slip surfaces are very long compared to their depth. this occurs when a rock surface is
parallel to the slope and there is a thin layer of soil overlying the rock. In this analysis, the driving forces
of the uphill wedges and the resisting forces of the downhill wedges are ignored, and only the remaining
central wedge is considered.

In considering the problem of slope stability, let us start with the case of an infinite slope as shown
below. An infinite slope is one in which H is much greater than the slope height. The shear strength of
the soil may be given by (Eq. 4.2)
𝜏𝑓 = 𝑐 ′ + 𝜎 ′ tan 𝜙 ′
We will evaluate the factor of safety against a possible slope failure along a plane AB located at a depth
H below the ground surface.

Let us consider a slope element, abcd, that has a unit length perpendicular to the plane of the section
shown. The forces, F, that act on the faces ab and cd are equal and opposite and may be ignored. The
effective weight of the soil element is (with pore water pressure equal to 0) is
(Eq. 4.8)
𝑊 = 𝑉𝑜𝑙 × 𝛾 = 𝛾𝐿𝐻(1 m strip)
The weight, 𝑊, can be resolved into two components:

a. Force perpendicular to the plane 𝐴𝐵 = 𝑁𝑎 = 𝑊 cos 𝛽 = 𝛾𝐿𝐻 cos 𝛽

b. Force parallel to the plane 𝐴𝐵 = 𝑇𝑎 = 𝑊 sin 𝛽 = 𝛾𝐿𝐻 sin 𝛽

Normal stress:
(Eq. 4.9)
𝑁𝑎 𝛾𝐿𝐻 cos 𝛽
𝜎′ = = = 𝛾𝐻 cos 2 𝛽
area of the base 𝐿
cos 𝛽
Tangential or shear stress:
(Eq. 4.10)
𝑇𝑎 𝛾𝐿𝐻 sin 𝛽
𝜏= = = 𝛾𝐻 sin 𝛽 cos 𝛽
area of the base 𝐿
cos 𝛽
Substitution of Eq. (4.9) and (4.10) into Eq. (4.3) yields
𝛾𝐻 sin 𝛽 cos 𝛽 = 𝑐𝑑′ + 𝛾𝐻 cos 2 𝛽 tan 𝜙𝑑′
𝑐𝑑′ = 𝛾𝐻(sin 𝛽 cos 𝛽 − cos 2 𝛽 tan 𝜙𝑑′ )
(Eq. 4.11)
𝑐𝑑′ = 𝛾𝐻 cos 2 𝛽 (tan 𝛽 − tan 𝜙𝑑′ )

Substituting Eq. (4.11) to Eq. (4.4)

𝑐 ′ + 𝛾𝐻 cos 2 𝛽 tan 𝜙 ′
𝐹𝑠 =
𝛾𝐻 cos 2 𝛽 (tan 𝛽 − tan 𝜙𝑑′ ) + 𝛾𝐻 cos 2 𝛽 tan 𝜙𝑑′
 𝑐′
+ tan 𝜙 ′
𝛾𝐻 cos 2 𝛽
𝐹𝑠 =
(tan 𝛽 − tan 𝜙𝑑′ ) + tan 𝜙𝑑′
𝑐′
+ tan 𝜙 ′
𝛾𝐻 cos 2 𝛽
𝐹𝑠 =
tan 𝛽
(Eq. 4.12)

𝑐′ tan 𝜙 ′
𝐹𝑠 = +
𝛾𝐻 cos 2 𝛽 tan 𝛽 tan 𝛽
For granular soils, 𝑐 ′ = 0, and the factor of safety, 𝐹𝑠 , becomes equal to
(Eq. 4.13)
tan 𝜙 ′
𝐹𝑠 =
tan 𝛽
in an infinite slope in sand, the value of 𝐹𝑠 is independent of the height 𝐻, and the slope is stable as long
as 𝛽 < 𝜙 ′ to make 𝐹𝑠 > 1.0

For cohesive soil the critical height 𝐻𝑐𝑟 can be obtained where 𝐹𝑠 = 1, hence
𝑐′ tan 𝜙 ′
1= +
𝛾𝐻𝑐𝑟 cos 2 𝛽 tan 𝛽 tan 𝛽
tan 𝜙 ′ 𝑐′
1− =
tan 𝛽 𝛾𝐻𝑐𝑟 cos 2 𝛽 tan 𝛽
tan 𝛽 − tan 𝜙 ′ 𝑐′
=
tan 𝛽 𝛾𝐻𝑐𝑟 cos 2 𝛽 tan 𝛽
(Eq. 4.14)

𝑐′
𝐻𝑐𝑟 =
𝛾 cos 2 𝛽 (tan 𝛽 − tan 𝜙 ′ )
If there is seepage through the soil and the ground water level coincides with the ground surface as
shown, the factor of safety with respect to strength can be obtained as
(Eq. 4.15)
𝑐′ 𝛾 ′ tan 𝜙 ′
𝐹𝑠 = +
𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 𝐻 cos 2 𝛽 tan 𝛽 𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 tan 𝛽

Analysis of infinite slope (with seepage)

PROBLEM 4.1

For the infinite slope shown below (consider that there is no seepage through the soil), determine:

a. The factor of safety against sliding along the soil–rock interface

b. The height, H, that will give a factor of safety (𝐹𝑠 ) of 2 against sliding along the soil–rock interface
c. If there is seepage through the soil as shown and the groundwater table coincides with the ground
surface, what is the factor of safety, 𝐹𝑠 , given 𝐻 = 1.16 m and 𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 = 18.55 kN/m3?

FINITE SLOPES

When the value of 𝐻𝑐𝑟 approaches the height of the slope, the slope generally may be considered finite.

Culmann (1875) approximated the surface of potential failure as a plane. The factor of safety, 𝐹𝑠 ,
calculated by using Culmann’s approximation, gives fairly good results for near-vertical slopes only. After
extensive investigation of slope failures in the 1920s, a Swedish geotechnical commission recommended
that the actual surface of sliding may be approximated to be circularly cylindrical.

ANALYSIS OF FINITE SLOPES WITH PLANE FAILURE SURFACES (CULMANN’S METHOD)

Culmann’s analysis is based on the assumption that the failure of a slope occurs along a plane when the
average shearing stress tending to cause the slip is more than the shear strength of the soil.

Finite slope analysis—Culmann’s method

Figure above shows a slope of height H. The slope rises at an angle b with the horizontal. AC is a trial
failure plane.

Considering the figure above and 1-meter width perpendicular to the paper, we can find that the weight
of the wedge ABC is equal to
𝑊 = 𝑉𝑜𝑙 × 𝛾
𝐵𝐶(𝐻)
𝑊= 𝛾
2
𝐻 𝐻
[ − ] (𝐻)
tan 𝜃 tan 𝛽
𝑊= 𝛾
2
1 1 1
𝑊 = 2 𝛾𝐻 2 ( − )
tan 𝜃 tan 𝛽
1 cos 𝜃 cos 𝛽
𝑊 = 2 𝛾𝐻 2 ( − )
sin 𝜃 sin 𝛽
1 cos 𝜃 sin 𝛽 − sin 𝜃 cos 𝛽
𝑊 = 2 𝛾𝐻 2 ( )
sin 𝜃 sin 𝛽
(Eq. 4.16)

1 sin(𝛽 − 𝜃)
𝑊 = 2 𝛾𝐻 2 [ ]
sin 𝜃 sin 𝛽

The normal and tangential components of W with respect to the plane AC are as follows:
(Eq. 4.17)
1 sin(𝛽 − 𝜃)
𝑁𝑎 = normal component = 𝑊 cos 𝜃 = 2 𝛾𝐻 2 [ ] cos 𝜃
sin 𝜃 sin 𝛽

(Eq. 4.18)
1 sin(𝛽 − 𝜃)
𝑇𝑎 = tangiential component = 𝑊 sin 𝜃 = 2 𝛾𝐻 2 [ ] sin 𝜃
sin 𝜃 sin 𝛽

The average effective normal stress and shear stress on the plane AC may be given by
(Eq. 4.19)
𝑁𝑎 𝑁𝑎 1 sin(𝛽 − 𝜃)
𝜎′ = = = 2 𝛾𝐻 [ ] sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃
𝐴𝐶 𝐻 sin 𝜃 sin 𝛽
sin 𝜃
(Eq. 4.20)
𝑇𝑎 𝑇𝑎 1 sin(𝛽 − 𝜃)
𝜏= = = 2 𝛾𝐻 [ ] sin2 𝜃
𝐴𝐶 𝐻 sin 𝜃 sin 𝛽
sin 𝜃
The average resistive shearing stress developed along the plane AC may also be expressed as
(Eq. 4.21)
1 sin(𝛽 − 𝜃)
𝜏𝑑 = 𝑐𝑑′ + 2 𝛾𝐻 [ ] sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃 tan 𝜙𝑑′
sin 𝜃 sin 𝛽

Substituting Eq. (4.20) to (4.21) leads to

1 sin(𝛽 − 𝜃) 1 sin(𝜃𝛽 − 𝜃)
𝛾𝐻 [ ] sin2 𝜃 = 𝑐𝑑′ + 2 𝛾𝐻 [ ] sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃 tan 𝜙𝑑′
2 sin 𝜃 sin 𝛽 sin 𝜃 sin 𝛽
 1 sin(𝛽 − 𝜃) 1 sin(𝛽 − 𝜃)
𝑐𝑑′ = 2 𝛾𝐻 [ ] sin2 𝜃 − 2 𝛾𝐻 [ ] sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃 tan 𝜙𝑑′
sin 𝜃 sin 𝛽 sin 𝜃 sin 𝛽
1 sin(𝛽 − 𝜃) 1 sin(𝛽 − 𝜃)
𝑐𝑑′ = 2 𝛾𝐻 [ ] sin 𝜃 − 2 𝛾𝐻 [ ] cos 𝜃 tan 𝜙𝑑′
sin 𝛽 sin 𝛽

(Eq. 4.22)

1 sin 𝜃 − cos 𝜃 tan 𝜙𝑑′

𝑐𝑑′ = 2 𝛾𝐻 sin(𝛽 − 𝜃) ( )
sin 𝛽

To determine the critical failure plane, we must use the principle of maxima and minima (for a given
value of 𝜙𝑑′ ) treating 𝛾, 𝐻 and 𝛽 as constants we can obtain
(Eq. 4.23)
𝛽 − 𝜙𝑑′
𝜃𝑐𝑟 =
2
Substituting Eq. (4.23) to Eq. (4.22) yields
(Eq. 4.24)

𝛾𝐻 1 − cos(𝛽 − 𝜙𝑑′ )
𝑐𝑑′ = [ ]
4 sin 𝛽 cos 𝜙𝑑′

and
𝑐𝑑′ 1 − cos(𝛽 − 𝜙𝑑′ )
=
𝛾𝐻 4 sin 𝛽 cos 𝜙𝑑′

STABILITY NUMBER

It is based on the principle resistance of soil mass against sliding, because of cohesion and internal
friction acting over the failure plane. This failure surface is assumed to be circular arc. The factors
affecting the stability of soil slope is expressed with the parameter stability number. The expression to
find the stability number is given below.
(Eq. 4.25)
𝑐′
𝑚=
𝛾𝐻
Substituting Eq. (4.24) to Eq. (4.25) yields
(Eq. 4.26)

𝑐𝑑′ 1 − cos(𝛽 − 𝜙𝑑′ )

𝑚= =
𝛾𝐻 4 sin 𝛽 cos 𝜙𝑑′

The maximum height of the slope for which critical equilibrium occurs can be obtained from Eq. (4.26)
(Eq. 4.27)
4𝑐 ′ sin 𝛽 cos 𝜙 ′
𝐻𝑐𝑟 =
𝛾[1 − cos(𝛽 − 𝜙 ′ )]
PROBLEM 4.2

A cut is to be made in a soil that has 𝛾 = 17 kN/m3, 𝑐 ′ = 40 kN-m2, and 15. The side of the cut slope will
make an angle of 30° with the horizontal. What depth of the cut slope will have a factor of safety, 𝐹𝑠 , of
3?
ANALYSIS OF FINITE SLOPE WITH CIRCULARLY CYLINDRICAL FAILURE SURFACE

In general, slope failure occurs in one of the following modes

1. When the failure occurs in such a way that the surface of sliding intersects the slope at or above its
toe, it is called a slope failure

Slope Failure

The failure circle is referred to as a toe circle if it passes through the toe of the slope, and as a slope
circle if it passes above the toe of the slope.

Under certain circumstances, it is possible to have a shallow slope failure, as shown below

Shallow Slope Failure

2. When the failure occurs in such a way that the surface of sliding passes at some distance below the
toe of the slope, it is called a base failure. The failure circle in the case of base failure is called a
midpoint circle.

Base Failure

Various procedures of stability analysis may, in general, be divided into two major classes:

1. Mass Procedure – the soil that formed the slope is assumed to be homogeneous and the mass of
soil above the surface of sliding is taken as a unit.
2. Method of slices – In this procedure, the non-homogeneity of the soil and the pore water pressure
can be taken into consideration and the soil above the surface of sliding is divided into a number of
vertical parallel slices.

MASS PROCEDURE OF STABILITY ANALYSIS (Homogeneous Clay Soil with 𝝓 = 0 (Undrained Condition))

Considering the unit length perpendicular to the section of the slope, we can give the total weight of the
soil above the curve AED as 𝑊 = 𝑊1 + 𝑊2

Stability analysis of slope in homogeneous clay soil (𝝓 = 𝟎)

𝑊1 = (Area of FCDEF)(𝛾)

𝑊2 = (Area of ABFEA)(𝛾)
Failure of the slope may occur by the sliding of the soil mass. The moment of the driving force about O
to cause slope instability is
(Eq. 4.28)
𝑀𝑑 = 𝑊1 𝑙1 + 𝑊2 𝑙2
where 𝑙1 and 𝑙2 are the moment arms.

If we take moment about O due to shearing force along circular failure plane, the resistance to sliding
can be derived from the cohesion that acts along the potential surface of sliding. Considering 1-meter
width,

𝑇𝑅 = 𝜏𝐴
⏜ ) (1)
𝑇𝑅 = 𝑐𝑑 (𝐴𝐸𝐷

(Eq. 4.29)
𝜋𝑟𝜃
𝑇𝑅 = 𝑐𝑑 ( ) where θ in degrees
180
(Eq. 4.30)
𝑇𝑅 = 𝑐𝑑 (𝑟𝜃) where θ in radians
For moment developed about O:
(Eq. 4.31)
𝜋𝑟 2 𝜃
𝑀𝑅 = 𝑐𝑑 where θ in degrees
180
(Eq. 4.32)
𝑀𝑅 = 𝑐𝑑 𝑟 2 𝜃 where θ in radians
For equilibrium, 𝑀𝑅 = 𝑀𝑑 ; thus,

𝑐𝑑 𝑟 2 𝜃 = 𝑊1 𝑙1 + 𝑊2 𝑙2
or
𝜋𝑟 2 𝜃
𝑐𝑑 = 𝑊1 𝑙1 + 𝑊2 𝑙2
180
(Eq. Eq. 4.33)
180(𝑊1 𝑙1 + 𝑊2 𝑙2 )
𝑐𝑑 = where θ in degrees
𝜋𝑟 2 𝜃
(Eq. 4.34)
𝑊1 𝑙1 + 𝑊2 𝑙2
𝑐𝑑 = where θ in radians
𝑟2 𝜃
The factor of safety against sliding may now be found:
(Eq. 4.35)
𝜏𝑓 𝑐𝑢
𝐹𝑠 = =
𝑐𝑑 𝑐𝑑
Stability problems of this type were solved analytically by Fellenius (1927) and Taylor (1937). For the
case of critical circles, the developed cohesion can be expressed by the relationship
(Eq. 4.36)
𝑐𝑑 = 𝛾𝐻𝑚
or
(Eq. 4.37)
 𝑐𝑑
𝑚= (stability number)
𝛾𝐻
The critical height of the slope can be evaluated (i.e. Fs = 1) by substituting 𝐻 = 𝐻𝑐𝑟 and 𝑐𝑑 = 𝑐𝑢 (full
mobilization of the undrained shear strength) into the preceding equation. Thus,
𝑐𝑢
𝐻𝑐𝑟 =
𝛾𝑚
Terzaghi and Peck (1967) used the term 𝛾𝐻/𝑐𝑑 , the reciprocal of m, and called it the stability factor.
Figure below should be used carefully. Note that it is valid for slopes of saturated clay and is applicable
to only undrained conditions (𝜙 = 0).

1. For slope angle 𝛽 greater than 53°, the critical circle is always a toe circle. The location of the center
of the critical toe circle may be found with the aid of the graph below.
2. For 𝜷 < 𝟓𝟑°, the critical circle may be a toe, slope, or midpoint circle, depending on the location of
the firm base under the slope. This is called the depth function, which is defined as
(Eq. 9.38)
vertical distance from the top of the slope to the firm base
𝐷=
height of the slope
 Location of the center of critical circles for 𝜷 > 𝟓𝟑°

3. When the critical circle is a midpoint circle (that is, the failure surface is tangent to the firm base), its
position can be determined with the aid of graph below.

Location of midpoint circle (Based on Fellenius, 1927; and Terzaghi and Peck, 1967)

4. The maximum possible value of the stability number for failure at the midpoint circle is 0.181.
PROBLEM 4.3

A cut slope is to be made in soft clay with its sides rising at an angle of 75° to the horizontal as shown in
Figure below. Given, c’ = 30.87 kPa and 𝛾 = 17.14 kN/m3, Stability number, m = 0.219, Use the graph
“Location of the center of critical circles for 𝜷 > 𝟓𝟑°” for the values of 𝜃 and 𝛼.

a. Determine the maximum depth up to which the excavation can be carried out?
b. Find the radius, r, of the critical circle when the factor of safety is equal to 1.
c. Find the distance BC.

PROBLEM 4.4

A cut slope was excavated in a saturated clay. The slope made an angle of 40° with the horizontal. Slope
failure occurred when the cut reached a depth of 6.1 m. Previous soil explorations showed that a rock
layer was located at a depth of 9.15 m below the ground surface. Assume an undrained condition and
𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 = 17.29 kN/m3.

a. Determine the undrained cohesion of the clay if the stability number is 0.175.
b. What was the nature of the critical circle?
c. With reference to the toe of the slope, at what distance did the surface of sliding intersect the
bottom of the excavation? Assume n = 0.9

PROBLEM 4.5

A 45° slope is excavated to a depth of 8 m in a deep layer of saturated clay of unit weight 19 kN/m3; the
relevant shear strength parameters are 𝑐𝑢 = 65 kPa and 𝝓𝒖 = 0.

a. Determine the factor of safety for the trial failure surface specified in figure below.
b. Determine the minimum factor of safety considering limit state approach.