- minute amounts of chemical messengers

Endocrine that endocrine glands and cells secrete

in the bloodstream to target tissues or
effectors rather in a duct

System - target tissues have receptors for specific

hormones
- produces a particular response in the
contains pituitary, thyroid, thymus, pineal gland,
target tissue
parathyroids, adrenal, ovaries, testes, and
pancreas

Types of Hormones
Cell Secretion Types  Water-soluble hormones
 Autocrine
- includes proteins, peptides, amino acids
- released by cells and have local effect on - most common
the same cell type - e.g growth hormone, antidiuretic,
- e.g eicosanoids prolactin
 Lipid-soluble hormones
 Paracrine
- released by cells that affect other types - includes steroids and eicosanoids
in close proximity - e.g LH, FSH, androgens
- e.g somatostatin
 Neurotransmitter and neuromodulators
Control of Hormone Release
- secreted by nerve cells
- e.g nervous system function  Humoral Stimuli
 Hormones and neurohormones - blood-borne chemicals can directly
- secreted into blood and bind to receptor stimulate the release of some hormones
sites - refers to body fluids, including blood
- e.g epinephrine and insulin  Neural Stimuli
- following action potentials, neurons
release a neurotransmitter into the
Endocrine System Function synapse with the cells that produce the
hormone.
1. Metabolism
 Hormonal Stimuli
2. Control of food intake and digestion
3. Tissue development - hormone is secreted that stimulates the
4. Ion regulation secretion of other hormones
5. Water balance
6. Heart rate and blood pressure regulation
7. Control of blood glucose and other Inhibition of Hormone Release
nutrients  Humoral inhibition
8. Control of reproductive functions
- involves actions of companion hormones
9. Uterine contraction and milk release
- usually each of the companion hormones
10. Immune system regulation
perform an opposite function
 Neural inhibition
Characteristics
- the target endocrine gland does not
secrete its hormone
 Hormones  Hormonal inhibition
 - Reduce the release of the hormones - binds to membrane-bound receptors
being controlled since they are polar molecules and
cannot pass through the cell
membrane
- When the hormone binds to the
Regulation of Blood Hormone Levels receptor, it turns on intracellular
enzymes that ultimately cause the
 Negative Feedback response dictated by the hormone-
- most hormones are regulated by this kind receptor interaction.
of mechanism
- hormone’s secretion is inhibited by the
hormone itself once blood levels have
Action of Nuclear Receptors
reached a certain point
 Positive Feedback  Lipid-soluble hormones stimulate protein
- some hormones are regulated by this synthesis.
type of mechanism  Lipid-soluble hormones diffuse across
- exemplified by tropic hormone the cell membrane and bind to their
reaction receptors, with the complex now binding
to hormone-response elements on DNA.
 This action regulates the transcription of
Hormone Receptors specific messenger ribonucleic acid
 Hormones can stimulate action (mRNA) molecules and protein
potentials, neurons release a synthesis occurs.
neurotransmitter into the synapse with
the cells that produce the hormone.
 Receptor site Membrane Receptor Actions
- portion of each receptor molecule  Membrane receptors act in 2 ways:
where a hormone binds altering activities of G proteins on the
- has specificity; allowing only one inner surface of the cell membrane or
hormone to bind to it directly altering the activity of
- the specificity is due to the molecular intracellular enzymes.
shape and chemical characteristic  Activation of G proteins
 Lipid-soluble hormones - “intracellular enzymes”
- bind to nuclear receptors due to their - Elicits specific responses in cells
lipid solubility and small molecular including the production of molecules
size allowing to easily pass in the cell and 2nd messengers
membrane  2nd messenger molecules
- nuclear receptors are found in the - produced inside a cell once a ligand
cytoplasm but move to the nucleus binds to its membrane-bound
once activated receptor.
- When hormones bind to nuclear - activates specific cellular processes
receptors, the hormone-receptor inside the cell in response to the
complex interacts with nuclear DNA hormone.
to regulate specific gene transcription. - e.g cyclic adenosine monophosphate
 Water-soluble hormones (cAMP)
 G-Protein Activation Pituitary Gland

 Many membrane-bound receptors  small gland in the brain

produce responses through the action of  controlled by hypothalamus
G proteins, which consist of 3 subunits.  divided into anterior and posterior
 The G proteins are so named because regions
one of the subunits binds to guanine  secretes at least 6 hormones
nucleotides.
 G-proteins, after several sequential
actions, interact with adenylate Anterior Pituitary Hormones
cyclase, an enzyme that converts ATP
to cAMP (cyclic adenosine  Growth hormones
monophosphate). - Target tissues: most
- Functions: stimulates growth of
 Cyclic adenosine monophosphate binds
bones, muscles, and organs
to protein kinases and activates them.
- Abnormalities: Too much GH causes
 Protein kinases
giantism; Too little GH causes
- enzymes that regulate the activity of
pituitary dwarfism
other enzymes
 Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone (TSH)
- depending on other enzyme, it can
- Target tissues: thyroid gland
increase and decrease its activity
- Functions: regulates thyroid gland
 Phosphodiesterase
secretions
- intercellular enzyme
- Abnormalities: Too much TSH,
- breaks down cAMP and results in no
thyroid gland enlarges; Too little TSH,
further cell stimulation
thyroid gland shrinks
 Gonadotrophin Hormone (Luteinizing
Hormone)
Signal Amplification
Females
 Amplification effect - Target tissue: ovaries
- when hormones stimulate the - Function: promotes ovulation and
synthesis of 2nd messengers acts progesterone production
quickly
Males
 Cascade effect
- when each receptor produces - Target tissue: testes
thousands of 2nd messengers - Function: sperm production and
- ultimately, amplification of the testosterone
hormonal signal  Gonadotrophin Hormone (Follicle-
 Amplification Stimulating Hormone)
- a single hormone activates many 2nd Females
messengers, each of which activates - Target tissue: follicles in ovaries
enzymes that produce an enormous - Function: follicle maturation and
amount of final product estrogen secretion
- efficiency of the 2nd messenger
Males
amplification is virtually unparalleled
in the body - Target tissue: seminiferous tubules
(testes)
 - Function: sperm production
 Prolactin
Posterior Pituitary Actions
- Target tissues: mammary glands and
ovaries  synthesizes and releases hormones
- Functions: milk production produced by neuroendocrine cells in the
 Melanocyte Stimulating Hormones hypothalamus
(MSH)  2 hormones that are released from the
- Target tissues: melanocytes in the posterior pituitary are the antidiuretic
skin hormone and oxytocin
- Functions: stimulate melanin
production in melanocytes
 Adrenocorticotrophic Hormone Thyroid Gland
(ACTH)
 one of the largest glands
- Target tissues: cells of adrenal cortex
 requires iodine to function
- Functions: stimulate production of
certain corticosteroids  secretes thyroid hormone and calcitonin
 Thyroid hormones secreted by
Anterior Pituitary Gland Actions follicular cells
 synthesizes hormones that is under the - Target tissues: most
- Functions: regulates metabolic rates
control of hypothalamus
and is needed for growth
 Releasing hormones
 Calcitonin secreted by a
- secreted by the neurons of the
parafollicular cells
hypothalamus that stimulate
- Target tissues: bone and some other
production and secretion of a specific
tissues
hormone
- Function: reduces blood calcium level
 Inhibiting hormones
when high
- decrease the secretion of a specific
anterior pituitary hormone

Thyroid Hormone Disorders

Posterior Gland Hormones  Hypothyroidism
- decreased metabolism
 Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)
- weight gain, reduced appetite, fatigue
- Target tissues: kidneys
- low temperature and pulse
- Functions: conserve water
- dry cold skin
- Abnormalities: Diabetes insipidus
- Myxedema in adults
(low ADH, kidneys to produce large
- Cretinism in infants
amounts of dilute, watery urine, can
 Hyperthyroidism
lead to dehydration and thirst)
- increased metabolism
 Oxytocin
- weight loss, increased appetite,
- Target tissue: uterus
nervousness
- Functions: increases uterine
- higher temperature and pulse
contractions during labor
- warm and flushed skin
- Graves’ disease (leads to goiter)
  2 small glands located superior to each
kidney
Parathyroid Gland
 Adrenal Medulla
 Parathyroid Hormone (PTH) - inner part of the adrenal gland
- Target tissues: bones and kidneys  Adrenal Cortex
- Functions: regulates blood Ca2+ - outer part of the adrenal gland
levels (more than calcitonin)
- If Ca 2+ is low then osteoclasts break
down bone matrix and less Ca 2+ is Pancreas Hormones
lost in urine.
- If Ca 2+ is high then osteoclasts don’t  Insulin
break down bone matrix and more Ca - Target tissues: liver, skeletal muscle,
2+ is lost in urine. adipose tissue
- Functions: regulates blood glucose
levels after a meal glucose levels are
Adrenal Gland Hormones high and insulin is secreted extra
glucose is stored in form of glycogen
 Adrenal medulla hormone: - Abnormalities: Diabetes Mellitus
Epinephrine/Norepinephrine Causes: too little insulin or faulty
- Target tissues: heart, blood vessels, insulin receptors
liver, fat cells Symptoms: exaggerated appetite,
- Functions: released as part of fight or excess urine, dehydration, thirst,
flight response fatigue
 Adrenal cortex hormone: Type 1: insulin dependent (requires
Aldosterone daily insulin injections)
- Type of mineralocorticoids Type 2: insulin independent, often
- Target tissues: kidneys found in obese people, can be treated
- Functions: causes Na+ and H2O to with diet but can turn into type I
be retained and K+ to be secreted,  Glucagon
indirectly involved with blood pressure - Target tissues: liver
and blood volume - Function: regulates blood glucose
 Cortisol levels between meals glucose levels
- Type of glucocorticoids drop and glucagon is secreted
- Target tissues: most glucagon allows glycogen to be
- Functions: increases breakdown of fat broken down into glucose
and protein for energy uses reduces
inflammatory and immune responses
 Androgens Pancreas Actions
- Target tissues: most
 Pancreas
- Functions:
- a mixed gland, with an exocrine
Males: secondary sexual
portion and an endocrine portion.
characteristics
 Exocrine portion of the pancreas
Females: sex drive
- secretes digestive enzymes.
Adrenal Gland Actions  Endocrine part of the pancreas
 - consists of pancreatic islets (islets of
Langerhans), which are dispersed
throughout the exocrine portion of the
pancreas.
 The islets consist of 3 types that
regulates the blood levels of nutrients,
especially glucose:
- Alpha Cells: secrete glucagon
- Beta Cells: secrete insulin
- Delta Cells: secrete somatostatin

Testes Hormone

 Testosterone
- Target tissues: most
- Functions: aids in sperm and
reproductive organ development and
function

Ovarian Hormone

 Estrogen/Progesterone
- Target tissues: most
- Functions: involved in uterine and
mammary gland development and
menstrual cycle

Thymus Gland Hormone

 Thymosin
- Target tissues: immune system
tissues
- Functions: promotes immune system
development and function

Pineal Gland Hormone

 Melatonin
- Target tissues: hypothalamus
- Functions: plays a role in onset of
puberty and controls circadian
rhythms. Light affects its function.