Redefining Humanitarian Architecture with

Complexity in Mind: Moving Toward a New Practice

JAMES MILLER
University of Oregon

Humanitarian architecture has become a mainstay keen awareness of humanitarian design’s impacts on local commu-
in the social practice of architecture and has had nities and a more reflexive approach given by both designers and
an overall positive influence on design teaching. humanitarian aid organizations.
However, the field of humanitarian design has a Several trending publications have come out in the past decade
tendency to oversimplify growing issues of social depicting the work of design activists, to name a couple: Expanding
and environmental justice. The field of humanitar- Architecture: Design as Activism and Beyond Architecture:
ian architecture suggests to students that design Architecture and Human Dignity. The popularization of humanitar-
can solve systemic problems, but fails to define the ian architecture has been especially noticeable in the wake of recent
natural disasters, such as the 2010 earthquake in Haiti. The attention
complexity of the systems these problems exist
to the subject is positive; it draws the consideration and services of
within. Rather than emphasizing critical analysis the architecture profession to real socio-cultural, socio-economic,
and deconstruction, it emphasizes trending design and socio-ecological problems. The humanitarian design phenom-
vocabulary. This paper establishes the basis of enon, much like the Occupy movement also begins to draw our
humanitarian architecture, the definition, and the attention to the other 98% of the built environment. The problem is,
key concepts that define the practice of humanitar- it makes us believe that the architecture and design professions can
ian architecture, and it uses the concepts of ‘craft’ solve humanitarian crises without an expertise in development. This
after all is the failure of our technocratic society and a central tenant
and ‘replicability’ to analyze the practice within
to the growing ‘risk’ we live with 1. Furthermore, the new wave of
complex systems. This analysis of the field makes
design activism leads us to believe that this is a new phenomenon
the argument that incremental facilitation and deep with new solutions, but the ideas and conflicts of humanitarian
community engagement is necessary for a successful architecture have persisted through time. This paper establishes the
humanitarian architecture. And in order to achieve basis of humanitarian architecture, the definition, and the key con-
success, a new school of humanitarian architecture cepts that define the practice of humanitarian architecture, and it
needs to be developed that develops students and uses the concepts of ‘craft’ and ‘replicability’ to analyze the practice
practitioners who are prepared to work within com- within complex systems.
plexity, employing praxis.
DEFINING HUMANITARIAN ARCHITECTURE
INTRODUCTION Herbert Simon defines design as “devising courses of action aimed
Humanitarian architecture has become a popularized phenomenon at changing existing situations into preferred ones”2. Alastair defines
over the past decade, taking form from crowdsourced building design as “the act of deliberately moving from an existing situation
plans to studio projects and pro-bono services. However, recently, to a preferred one by professional designers or others applying
it seems to have lost the spot light and both its financial viability design knowingly or unknowingly;” he then defines design activ-
and socio-cultural viability have started to crack at the seams as ism as “design thinking, imagination and practice applied knowingly
its community impacts are analyzed more critically. Perhaps the or unknowingly to create a counter-narrative aimed at generating
reduction in humanitarian architecture’s visibility is due to a more and balancing positive social, institutional, environmental and or
robust economy over the past few years that has shifted the focus economic change”3. Using the logic of Simon and Alastair and apply-
of students back toward profit driven design, or it has become more ing it to the practice of architecture, architecture is tied to culture,
ubiquitous within the application of socially conscious architecture society, economics, political forces, and the environment; architec-
in the sustainability movement. Hopefully it is in part due to a more ture reflects the culture and traditions of a community. Demetri

Session Title Brooklyn Says, “Move to Detroit” 1

Porphyrios defines architecture as, “the imitative celebration of Christopher Alexander furthers the concept of the house as a
construction and shelter qualified by the myths and ideas of a given concrete expression of one’s place in this world. When the family
culture. Such myths might have to do with life, nature, or mode designs a house, a relation to the house is formed that is natural.
of production of a given society ”4. When practicing architecture, Mass social housing alienates people and causes despair 11. Within
one is practicing art and designing the built environment, moving humanitarian architecture, human feeling and human dignity must
from existing situations to preferred ones. Architecture is both the come first, “in which the housing process is reestablished as the fun-
process and the manifestation of the process. Humanitarianism damental human process in which people integrate their values and
elicits humanism, ethics, and justice it connects each person at the themselves”12. Production methods of housing in the modern world
core level of human nature, just for being another human. Placing are too centralized and fail to adapt or prevent adaptation to fit the
humanitarianism in the realm of architecture elicits the notion user’s needs. The building practices are controlled by businesses,
that architecture connects and creates a built environment that government agencies, and industry. Decisions are made without
links people at the core, human level; it is social, just, and ethical. the attachment to the project or being engaged in the experience
Therefore, humanitarian architecture is improving the welfare and of building. The production system in place defines a pattern of
happiness of a population through the art and practice of design- control; decisions are made remotely without regard to the location
ing the built environment that the population occupies. Through this they impact 13. People who create buildings themselves are creating
process, humanitarian architecture can alleviate suffering and trans- buildings full of meaning and value; these are the use values they
form conditions into collectively preferred ones; it acts to create a establish within their community 14.
built environment that is for the betterment of society. However,
Shelter is a basic human right; “the house is man’s affirmation in
within this normative view lies a central issue with humanitar-
space” 15. When housing is created at an individual level and a com-
ian architecture and humanitarian design – it tends to be product
munity level, it provides the connection between the individual,
based rather than process based and seeks outcomes rather than
community and culture 16. In practicing humanitarian architecture,
evolution. By placing humanitarian architecture within complex
the practitioner must realize these intricacies of social-housing.
systems, we can implement more incremental interventions and
She must take notice that good housing is made through the social
learn from failure and success as we create social architecture that
networks, cultural capital, and resources within the population, not
operationalizes the knowledge and cultures of the users, such as
from outside methods of top-down intervention. Generative design,
Chirstopher Alexander suggest in his series, The Nature of Order.
which enables adaptation through incremental growth, facilitates
This paper argues that the true form of humanitarian architecture is
this type of bottom-up housing 17. “When dwellers control the major
seen through incremental processes that build resilience within the
decisions and are free to make their own contributions to the design,
most marginalized communities; the work of the Asian Coalition of
construction or management of their housing, both the process
Housing Rights is an excellent example.
and the environment produced stimulate individual and social well
being. When people have no control over, nor responsibility for key
THE CONCEPTS OF HUMANITARIAN ARCHITECTURE
decisions in the housing process, on the other hand, dwelling envi-
Slums have to be looked at for their complexity and innovative-
ronments may instead become a barrier to personal fulfillment and
ness; they are not hopeless, disorganized, spontaneous, and chaotic
a burden on the economy”18. Allowing the user to become invested
systems on the periphery of society 5. Slums are sophisticated and
in their housing, through participation among other strategies, they
industrious, capable of producing shelter for millions of poor families
become empowered and bring that much more success to the proj-
worldwide; they contain complex systems of enterprise and even act
ect. Where economic or political hindrances occur, agency can be
as incubators and catalysts for the individual seeking a better life 6.
used to lead toward transformative change.
Buildings are manifestations of the collective. The term ‘user’ came
Informal networks and linkages need to be increased within dis-
into use in reference to welfare housing. Using the term allowed
advantaged communities, in order to facilitate connections to
architects to have discussions about inhabitants as one, users, ignor-
resources outside of their means. Rather than just providing
ing differences7. Lefebvre states: “The word user has something
people with a professional design service, help them gain access
vague and vaguely suspect about it. By making inhabitants into
to the resources that will most readily help them succeed. One
abstractions, inhabitants can’t recognize themselves in space”8 .
successful implementation of building networking for bottom
Spatial segregation has become an inherent part of social housing.
up development on the periphery of Beirut is depicted by Mona
Oliver-Smith speaks to the necessity to maintain cultural association
Fawaz19. Humanitarian architecture needs to facilitate a process that
in order to place people in culturally and environmentally adequate
can address these issues. Furthermore, in establishing networks,
dwellings, he adds, “successful reconstruction also involves arrang-
practitioners need to understand how changes in land use and build-
ing houses on the ground, which itself may be socially categorized
ing codes affect inclusion and an individuals entrance into the city. It
and valued, and filling such houses with specific people who are
becomes the responsibility of the humanitarian architect to aid the
equally socially categorized and valued”9. Architects have to use
users in manoeuvering the field of bureaucracy as well as providing
their resources wisely and help people fight alienation, only then
agency in the case policies are contrary to social justice.
architecture realizes the potential in the user 10.

2 Redefining Humanitarian Architecture with Complexity in Mind: Moving Toward a New Practice
As a practitioner of humanitarian architecture one needs to work hand, such as the mass production of techno-solutions can be seen
with the people. One needs to consider housing as a process. When as a redundant process that lacks diversity and weakens the resil-
housing becomes a commodity, we lose the life within the process20. ience of a system.
Decisions must come from below to respond to local complexi-
Craft encompasses the vernacular traditions, culture, and genera-
ties and engage local knowledge rather than top-down regulatory
tive design of a population – it is an incremental process allowing
structures. It is important to acknowledge the “initiative, ingenuity,
for diverse outcomes. Turner states: “Genuine culture is a process
perseverance, and hope so evident in the housing action of such a
of the refinement from the grass roots up”24. The craft seen in ver-
large part of the population and in the face of so many difficulties” 21.
nacular architecture, demonstrates the transformations a form has
The professional has to take responsibility for the artificial, authori-
undergone through generations of evolution as it adapts culturally
tarian barriers in the way. For example, take the current issues
and environmentally, until it becomes the ideal structure for its
surrounding housing the temporarily homeless in the United Sates. If
environment. Craft additionally adds beauty to work. Within these
publicly funded housing is not a viable solution, how can humanitar-
human processes, each incremental decision in the process of fab-
ian architecture play a role in providing sustainable livelihoods for
rication leads to a product full of life and beauty 25. The process of
these individuals? Projects such as Opportunity Village in Eugene, OR
craft is lost when something is manufactured by machinery. There is
are demonstrable examples of this in action 22.
value in respecting and protecting traditions, “to break a tradition in
Understanding the inherent abilities and resources within a com- a basically traditional society like a peasant one is a kind of cultural
munity, the ability and ingenuity of people to self-build and create murder”26. It is essential for humanitarian architecture to be both
networks of resource, is essential to humanitarian architecture. culturally appropriate and supportive of the cultural evolution of its
Hassan Fathy taught the importance of continuing traditional trades environs.
and craft within architecture for the poor, teaching communi-
‘Replicability’ is the mechanical reproduction, as seen through the
ties to build using methods relevant to their cultural heritage and
mass production of prefabricated housing or the car; it can be seen
tradition. Because architecture must exist in the living conditions
as creating products. Industrial production and mechanization are
within tradition as seen in a culture; buildings transplanted from
opposite tradition and culture. Buildings tend to be the man made
outside become unsightly impositions 23. Respecting the traditions
capital that defines our social capital; it is the transformation into
in a building culture and maintaining the knowledge of the building
symbolism 27. The state of replicability tends to be the creation
craft enables one to create solutions that respond to the culture-
of products that are consumer driven; it is the novelty-mania as
environment relationship. A socially conscious architect should not
Porphyrios calls it. Lefebrve demonstrates that the repetitive nature
use her services for her own glory, but for that of the society she
of our industrialized and consumer driven society has defeated
is working in, expressing a relevant contribution to the tradition
uniqueness, “that the artificial and contrived have driven all spon-
and advancement of a society’s culture. Practicing these concepts
taneity and naturalness from the field, and, in short, that products
enables humanitarian architecture to remain ethical and just. The
have vanquished works”28. Porphyrios demonstrates the problems
ingenuity and resourcefulness of informal settlements demonstrates
that occur when systems of high-tech replication take charge. The
the ability of people to create delightful housing with little resource.
relationship between humanism and replication is problematic; it
It is equally important to realize that even when given the proper
leads to the fall of craft and the loss of the vernacular architecture
training and materials, the poor do not necessarily generate qual-
of a population 29. Culture and tradition is negatively affected as
ity housing. Unfortunately, when given the resources and materials,
the accumulated knowledge from generations of building practice
many will try to copy the housing of the rich to demonstrate status,
are tossed out; even worse yet, the ability of craft and building tech-
but without the proper means or methods, do so poorly. Although
nology to respond to the environment and culture is lost, relying on
the New Gourna project was a failed attempt in implementing
technical experts to relay the information. An eco-social relation-
theory into practice, the lessons learned are valuable. Fathy failed
ship within the built environment that developed sustainably now
to elucidate in his process the implications of capitalism on cultural
has a complete disconnect. One example is the culture loss and
evolution and the social stratification imbedded within the urban
movement from communalism to individualism that has taken place
environment. This failure validates the need for more thorough
in the Marshall Islands since the United States occupation began in
systems thinking within the practice of social or humanitarian archi-
the 1950s 30.
tecture. There are many pitfalls and obstacles in the way of the
practical application of a theory and one has to be prepared for it. Furthering the idea of ‘craft’ one can consider the practice of
humanitarian architecture as a way to form socially regenera-
REPLICATION VERSUS CRAFT tive architecture. Socially regenerative architecture balances the
With the understanding of humanitarian architecture, the differ- individuals need with those of the collective – creates stability
ence between ‘craft’ and ‘replicability’ provides a lens to critique the and security while allowing for change initiated and accepted by
current work in the field of humanitarian architecture. Craft can be its inhabitants; and encourages social cohesion, social mixing, and
seen as an incremental approach that develops a diversity of ways, social inclusion. “Regenerative architecture will seek to engage
providing more resilience within a system. Replicability on the other human institutions in the democratic reproduction of life-enhancing

Session Title Brooklyn Says, “Move to Detroit” 3

places”³¹. Decentralization, such as the decentralization of technol- be affordable. Many of their projects are purposed in the recovery
ogy, and democratization have helped slum dwellers to gain access of Midwest towns ravaged by tornadoes. Putting Studio 804’s work
to resources and improve their built environment 32. Potentially, through the lens demonstrates that their projects tend to be high-
humanitarian architecture is synonymous with regenerative archi- tech impositions on society and are not always responsive to the
tecture, enabling the continuous enhancement of social housing. At communities needs. Contemporary architecture may be attractive
the very least, humanitarian architecture should serve the humble at first, but what are the long term consequences? “Architecture has
everyday needs of people. nothing to do with ‘novelty-mania’ and intellectual sophistries”34.
Studio 804’s claim to ‘affordable modern’ seems to be an assumed
ANALYSIS OF CURRENT HUMANITARIAN ARCHITECTURE: THE reality of what is best for a community. Seen through the established
PROBLEMS OF NOVELTY-MANIA lens of social architecture, their work is not responsive to the com-
The good intentions of architects who practice humanitarian archi- munity and is not a responsible form of social architecture. Another
tecture have a tendency to turn into poor implementations due to design-build studio that demonstrates some of these same issues is
the failure to react to localized conditions and local knowledge and the Oregon BILDS studio at the University of Oregon, while pushing
perhaps egotism. “Very often, images and testimonies of disaster the envelope of affordable high performance and passive housing, it
survivors and newly homeless families in newspapers and on the fails to meet the direct need of affordable housing, a key tenant of
television inspire well-intentioned architects, industrial designers, its mission.
and engineers to propose emergency shelters, [often produced by
The Building Sustainable Communities (BaSiC) Initiative, another
industrialized methods] that seek technical efficiency for rapid mass
organization that facilitates student, design-build projects dem-
production”33. It should not be assumed that affected people will
onstrates another problem of the current state of humanitarian
accept and occupy housing units that are provided after a disaster.
architecture. The BaSiC Initiative is an academic learning program
If the housing does not respond to their needs, why should they
that evolved from a University of Texas foreign study program
use it? Misplaced intentions exemplify the need to follow an estab-
in Mexico 35. The BaSiC Initiative demonstrates issues that sur-
lished doctrine of humanitarian architecture before being able to
round similar organization, including Studio 804, the Rural Studio
act. Furthermore, when systems thinking is not initiated, a failure
(University of Auburn), Oregon BILDS and many more. In the
to realize the social and economic positioning of survivors to ‘game
schematic design and design development phase, the programs
the system’ can lead to a failure to shelter those most in need. From
demonstrate the successful use of participatory or collaborative
field studies in Haiti following the 2010 earthquake, I discovered that
design through the use of charrettes and open-door policies, but
many individuals who had the privilege of mobility took advantage
they tend not to involve the community or user-clients in the final-
of the ticketing system many humanitarian aid organizations had for
ization of designs, construction, or management of the project.
obtaining a transitional shelter. By accumulating tickets, a family
Alexander, Chavez, Fathy, Turner, & Ward show there is a value in
could accumulate shelters. In some cases, as I observed, these accu-
teaching the user skills to construct, renovate, or at the very least
mulated shelters were used as income properties for that upwardly
participate in the production of housing in order to create a more
mobile family. Here in lies a central problem when complex prob-
affordable and sustainable process. Even if this process clashes
lems are not assessed in the first place or in real time.
with the current regulative standards, the organization should find
As design-build studios across architecture schools begin to enter a way to mitigate the concern. Furthermore, these organizations
into the field of humanitarian design, they should do so with a sense tend to be more concerned with the empowerment of the student
of reflexivity. Developing a curriculum that includes theory, research through humanitarian architecture than the empowerment of the
and design within the design process would help students to develop community or the end users. It is important for the students to expe-
an understanding of complex socio-cultural, socio-economic, socio- rience architecture as a cultural activity, but it is more important
technical, and socio-ecological issues at hand in development and for humanitarian architecture to help the community, reifying their
enable them to develop systems thinking. Through a more robust culture and exemplifying the traditions and resources within. The
approach to teaching and studying humanitarian architecture, we humanitarian architect must be humble.
can begin to lessen the negative latency inherent within the current
One last issue with the state of humanitarian design is ‘soft design’.
trend of humanitarian projects. In the same vein, current design-
Many of the solutions tend not to be ‘real’. There is a need to look
build programs with a social mission need to be honest and stay true
in depth at the root of the problem and not just graze the surface.
to that mission.
Many so-called humanitarian architects are guided by modern-
Studio 804 is a nonprofit organization, which provides a design build ist faith in the emancipatory properties of science and invention.
studio for graduate students in the school of architecture at the Just as David Brooks had it wrong with the problems of Haiti, and
University of Kansas. Studio 804, has been criticized for emphasizing why a natural disaster is not in itself a disaster with out the societal
the priority of the designer’s vision rather than the needs of the cli- ramifications of vulnerability 36. The failure to recognize individual
ent. These projects tend to demonstrate contemporary architecture assumptions of foreign intervention is demonstrated in the post-
trends and advanced technologies that enable innovative projects to disaster recovery of Haiti.

4 Redefining Humanitarian Architecture with Complexity in Mind: Moving Toward a New Practice
We need to house the poor in improved conditions, conditions that develop students and practitioners who are able to apply systems
improve their health and wellbeing and increase the use value of the thinking and implement praxis.
established housing, increase resilience and lead toward sustainable
livelihoods. Participatory design is not always successful, especially ENDNOTES
when dealing with often traumatized and unqualified, low-skill work- 1. Beck, Ulrich. Risk Society: Towards a New Modernity. Theory, Culture & Society.
ers. In these cases it will be necessary for an expert in the generative London ; Newbury Park, Calif: Sage Publications, (1992).

process of design and development to lead the project from the top- 2. Alastair, Faud-Luke. Design Activism. Sterling, VA: Earthscan, (2009). 5.
down 37. Move away from high tech prefabrication, mass production 3. Ibid., 27.
to housing by the people. “Instead it means that real decision making
4. Porphyrios, Demetri. “The Relevance of Classical Architecture.” Architectural
power over design, planning, and financing and management of the Design 59, no. 9–10 (1989): 53–56.
project form individual users must form part of that participation” 38.
5. Lizarralde, Gonzalo, Cassidy Johnson, and Colin Davidson, eds. Rebuilding After
More recently this has developed into what is termed owner-driven Disasters: From Emergency to Sustainability. New York, NY: Spon Press, (2010).
approach or a user-driven approach in which agencies provide hous- Print.
ing finance and technical expertise and the rest is up to the owner. 6. Chavez, Roberto. “Is There New Hope for Slum Dwellers? Reflections from
You need to develop social and cultural capital. Provide housing that 30 Years of Experience.” World Bank and Cities Alliance event at the National
Building Museum. Washington DC. (2009). Conference; Lizarralde et al.
the person is ready to take ownership of, can afford and will be able Rebuilding After Disasters: From Emergency to Sustainability; Turner, John F.C.
to maintain Housing By People: Toward Autonomy in Building Environments. New York:
Marion Boyers Publishers Ltd., (1991). Print.

CONCLUSION: MOVING TOWARD A NEW PRACTICE 7. Forty, Adrian. Words and Buildings: A Vocabulary of Modern Architecture.
In order to understand what will bring health, safety and welfare, London: Thames & Hudson, (2004). Print.

one must have an understanding of the community they work 8. Lefèbvre, Henri. The Production of Space. Wiley-Blackwell, (1991). 362.
within. Ask the question: ‘What do you know?’ not ‘What do you 9. Oliver-Smith, A. “Post-disaster Housing Reconstruction and Social Inequality: a
want?’. “Why are the ‘problems’ so universally defined in terms of Challenge to Policy and Practice.” Disasters 14.1 (1990): 9.
what people ought to have, instead of in realistic terms of what peo- 10. Hertzberger, Herman. “The Interaction of Form and Users.” in The Scope of Social
ple could have?”39. There is an additional set of skills, experiences, Architecture. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company Inc., (1984). 13–21.
and education that are necessary to move forward the practice of 11. Alexander, Christopher et al. “The Production of Houses.” The Scope of Social
humanitarian architecture in order to mitigate vulnerability in the Architecture. New York, NY: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company Inc., (1984),
122–131. Print; Alexander, Christopher. The nature of order: the process of creat-
affected population. Humanitarian architecture implies agency, link- ing life. Taylor & Francis, (2002).
ing it to activism in order to bring about change and social, cultural,
12. Alexander, Christopher et al. “The Production of Houses.” 123.
and or political transformation. In improving the health safety and
welfare of a population, humanitarian architecture must be respect- 13. Ibid.

ful and responsive to the cultures and customs of societies and use 14. Davis, Howard. The Culture of Building. New York: Oxford University Press,
the collective knowledge and processes of the society in order to (1999).

empower the community. “What is needed is an architecture of 15. Ward, Colin. Talking Houses: Ten Lectures by Colin Ward. London: Freedom Press,
change – an architecture that moves the field beyond the design of (1990).

buildings and toward the design of new processes of engagement 16. Turner, John F.C. Housing By People: Toward Autonomy in Building Environments.
with the political forces that shape theories, practices, academies,
17. Uzzell, Douglas. “Dissonance of Formal and Informal Planning Styles, Or Can
policies and communities”40. A new school of thought is under way, Formal Planners Do Bricolage?” City & Society 4.2 (1990): 114–130. Web. 1 Feb.
much in the way Turner suggests a new school of the built environ- 2012.

ment, and we need to create a new department of humanitarian 18. Turner, John F.C. Freedom To Build: Dweller Control of the Housing Process. New
architecture under this school. York, NY: The Macmillan Company, (1972). Print.

19. Fawaz, Mona. “Neoliberal Urbanity and the Right to the City: A View from Beirut’s
In conclusion, humanitarian architecture is a process with the pur- Periphery.” Development and Change 40, no. 5 (September 1, 2009): 827–52.
pose of helping the lowest common denominator of the population
20. Turner. Housing By People: Toward Autonomy in Building Environments.
rise up from the bottom-up, providing the increase in resilience and
sustainable livelihoods through improving the built environment. It 21. Turner, Freedom To Build: Dweller Control of the Housing Process. 145.

works from within these communities and fosters their culture, tra- 22. Heben, Andrew. Tent City Urbanism: From Self-Organized Camps to Tiny House
dition, abilities, and resources. Humanitarian architecture requires Villages. 1st edition. Eugene, OR: Village Collaborative, (2014).

a new set of practitioners who are trained in the proper concepts, 23. Fathy, Hassan. Architecture for the Poor: An Experiment in Rural Egypt. Chicago,
are humble and capable of motivating a community. Possibly a new IL: The University of Chicago Press, (1973).

school of the built environment is under way that will facilitate the 24. Turner, John F.C. Housing By People: Toward Autonomy in Building Environments.
26.
education and growth of humanitarian architecture. If humanitar-
ian architecture is to be pursued by studios, it would be prudent 25. Fathy. Architecture for the Poor: An Experiment in Rural Egypt.; Alexander. The
nature of order: the process of creating life.
to develop a concentration, minor, or a parallel major in order to

Session Title Redefining Humanitarian Architecture with Complexity

BrooklyninSays,
Mind:“Move
Moving
to Detroit”
Toward a New Practice 5
 ENDNOTES
26. Fathy. Architecture for the Poor: An Experiment in Rural Egypt. 25.

27. Alastair. Design Activism.

28. Lefèbvre, Henri. The Production of Space. Wiley-Blackwell, (1991). 75.

29. Porphyrios, Demetri. “Introduction.” Leon Krier: Architecture and Urban Design.
New York: St. Martins Press, (1992). ii.

30. Miller, James. The Continuity of Deep Cultural Patterns in the Face of Climate
Change: A Case Study of Three Marshallese Communities. (Doctoral Dissertation).
Forthcoming.

31. Moore, Steven. “Technology, Place, and Non-modern Regionalism.” Architectural

Regionalism: Collected Writings on Place, Identity, Modernity, and Tradition. Ed.
Vincent Canizaro. New York: Princeton Architectural Press, (2007). 381.

32. Chavez. “Is There New Hope for Slum Dwellers? Reflections from 30 Years of
Experience.”

33. Lizarralde et al. Rebuilding After Disasters: From Emergency to Sustainability. 6.

34. Porphyrios. “The Relevance of Classical Architecture.” 96.

35. Aquilino, Marie. Beyond Shelter: Architecture and Human Dignity. New York:
Metropolis Books, (2011).

36. Brooks, David. “The Underlying Tragedy.” The New York Times: Opinion. New
York Times, 14 Jan. 2010. Web.

37. Salingaros, Nikos et al. “Favelas and Social Housing: The Urbanism of Self-
Organization.” Florianopolis, Brazil, 2006.

38. Lizarralde et al. Rebuilding After Disasters: From Emergency to Sustainability. 13.

39 Turner, Freedom To Build: Dweller Control of the Housing Process. 151.

40. Bell, Bryan, Katie Wakeford. Expanding Architecture: Design as Activism. New
York: Metropolis Books, (2008). 18.

6 Redefining Humanitarian Architecture with Complexity in Mind: Moving Toward a New Practice