Geology

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 Contents

Module 1: Science of Geology

Why It Matters: Science of Geology
Outcome: What is Geology?
Reading: The Science of Geology
Reading: The Branches of Geology
Self Check: What is Geology?
Outcome: Scientific Processes in Geology
Reading: The Nature of Science
Self Check: Scientific Processes in Geology
Outcome: Scientific Tools
Reading: Geologic Tools
Reading: Maps
Video: Exploring Topographic Maps
Reading: Location and Direction
Reading: Scientific Models
Reading: Geologic Modelling
Self Check: Scientific Tools
Putting It Together: Science of Geology
Module 2: Rock Forming Minerals
Why It Matters: Rock Forming Minerals
Outcome: Chemistry of Minerals
Reading: The Building Blocks of Matter
Reading: Atomic Bonds
Self Check: Chemistry of Minerals
Outcome: Identifying Minerals
Reading: Physical Characteristics of Minerals
Reading: Classifying Minerals
Self Check: Identifying Minerals
Outcome: Most Common Elements
Reading: Abundance of Elements in Earth's Crust
Reading: Silicate Minerals and the Silicate Tetrahedron
Self Check: Most Common Elements
Putting It Together: Rock Forming Minerals

Module 3: Rocks and the Rock Cycle

Why It Matters: Rocks and the Rock Cycle
Outcome: Igneous Rocks
Reading: Characteristics of Igneous Rocks
Reading: How Are Igneous Rocks Classified?
Reading: Identifying Igneous Rocks
Reading: Uses of Igneous Rocks
Self Check: Igneous Rocks
Outcome: Sedimentary Rocks
Reading: Characteristics of Sedimentary Rocks
Self Check: Sedimentary Rocks
Outcome: Metamorphic Rocks
Reading: Characteristics of Metamorphic Rocks
Video: Identifying Metamorphic Rocks
Self Check: Metamorphic Rocks
Putting It Together: Rocks and the Rock Cycle

Module 4: Weathering and Soil Formation

Why It Matters: Weathering and Soil Formation
Outcome: Weathering and Erosion
Reading: What Is Weathering?
Reading: Mechanical Weathering
Reading: Chemical Weathering
Reading: Influences on Weathering
Self Check: Weathering and Erosion
Outcome: Soil Profiles and Types
Reading: Soil Texture and Composition
Reading: Soil Horizons and Profiles
Reading: Types of Soils
Self Check: Soil Profiles and Types
Outcome: Soil Conservation
Reading: Causes of Soil Erosion
Video: The Dust Bowl
Reading: Avoiding Soil Loss
Self Check: Soil Conservation
Putting It Together: Weathering and Soil Formation

Module 5: Plate Tectonics

Why It Matters: Plate Tectonics
Outcome: Continental Drift
Reading: Continental Drift
Reading: Wegener and the Continental Drift Hypothesis
Self Check: Continental Drift
Outcome: The Theory of Plate Tectonics
Reading: Theory of Plate Tectonics
Reading: Developing the Theory
Self Check: The Theory of Plate Tectonics
Outcome: Geological Processes
Reading: Supercontinents
Reading: Volcanic Arcs
Video: Ocean Basins
Reading: Hot Spots
Self Check: Geological Processes
Putting It Together: Plate Tectonics

Module 6: Earth's Interior

Why It Matters: Earth's Interior
Outcome: Layers of the Geosphere
Reading: Characteristics of the Crust
Reading: Characteristics of the Mantle
Reading: Characteristics of the Inner and Outer Core
Reading: The Lithosphere and Asthenosphere
Self Check: Layers of the Geosphere
Outcome: Understanding the Earth's Interior
Reading: Studying the Earth's Interior
Self Check: Understanding the Earth's Interior
Putting It Together: Earth’s Interior

Module 7: Crustal Deformation

Why It Matters: Crustal Deformation
Outcome: Stress and Strain
Reading: Stress In Earth's Crust
Reading: Strain
Self Check: Stress and Strain
Outcome: Geologic Structures
Reading: Folds
Reading: Faults
Reading: Mountains
Self Check: Geologic Structures
Putting It Together: Crustal Deformation

Module 8: Earthquakes
Why It Matters: Earthquakes
Outcome: Causes and Location of Earthquakes
Reading: The Nature of Earthquakes
Reading: Causes of Earthquakes
Reading: Common Locations of Earthquakes
Reading: The Ring of Fire
Self Check: Causes and Location of Earthquakes
Outcome: Types of Waves
Reading: Body Waves
Reading: Surface Waves
Self Check: Types of Waves
Outcome: Magnitude and Intensity
Reading: Measuring Earthquakes
Reading: Magnitude versus Intensity
Self Check: Magnitude and Intensity
Outcome: Earthquake Hazards and Prediction
Reading: Earthquake Hazards
Reading: Earthquake Prediction
Reading: Seismicity and Earthquake Prediction
Self Check: Earthquake Hazards and Prediction
Putting It Together: Earthquakes

Module 9: Volcanoes
Why It Matters: Volcanoes
Outcome: Volcano Types
Reading: Types of Volcanoes
Reading: Types of Eruptions
Reading: Supervolcanoes
Self Check: Volcano Types
Outcome: The Formation of Volcanoes
Reading: Volcanoes at Plate Boundaries
Reading: Volcanoes Hotspots
Self Check: The Formation of Volcanoes
Outcome: Igneous Features
Reading: Pyroclastic Deposits
Reading: Dikes and Sills
Reading: Volcanic Landforms
Self Check: Igneous Features
Outcome: Volcanic Hazards
Reading: Volcanic Gases, Pyroclastic Flow, and Tephra
Reading: Lahars, Landslides, and Lavaflow
Self Check: Volcanic Hazards
Outcome: Monitoring Volcanoes
Reading: Signs of an Eruption
Reading: Tools to Monitor Volcanoes
Self Check: Monitoring Volcanoes
Putting It Together: Volcanoes

Module 10: Mass Movement

Why It Matters: Mass Movement
Outcome: Types of Mass Movement
Reading: Slides
Reading: Falls
Reading: Slump and Creep
Self Check: Types of Mass Movement
Outcome: Driving and Resisting Forces
Reading: Natural Mass Wasting
Reading: Human Impact on Mass Wasting
Self Check: Driving and Resisting Forces
Putting It Together: Mass Wasting

Module 11: Hydrology

Why It Matters: Hydrology
Outcome: The Hydrologic Cycle
Reading: Phases of the Hydrologic Cycle
Self Check: The Hydrologic Cycle
Outcome: Rivers and Streams
Reading: Types of Streams and Rivers
Reading: Drainage Basins
Reading: Geologic Processes and Flowing Water
Self Check: Rivers and Streams
Outcome: Components of Groundwater
Reading: Groundwater
Reading: Porosity and Permeability
Reading: Aquifers and Well-Potential
Reading: Groundwater Withdrawal
Reading: Quality of Groundwater
Self Check: Components of Groundwater
Outcome: Geologic Features
Reading: Karst Topography
Reading: Geysers
Reading: Springs
Self Check: Geologic Features
Outcome: Oceans and Shorelines
Reading: Ocean Movement
Reading: Shorelines
Reading: Coastal Hazards
Reading: Human Modifications of Coastal Processes
Self Check: Oceans and Shorelines
Putting It Together: Hydrology

Module 12: Geological Resources

Why It Matters: Geological Resources
Outcome: Rock and Mineral Resources
Reading: Ore Genesis
Reading: Petroleum
Reading: Natural Gas
Reading: Coal
Self Check: Rock and Mineral Resources
Outcome: Extraction of Resources
Reading: Mining
Reading: Effects of Mining
Self Check: Extraction of Resources
Outcome: Getting Energy from Resources
Reading: Earth's Energy
Reading: Energy Consumption on Earth
Reading: Use and Conservation of Resources
Self Check: Getting Energy from Resources
Putting It Together: Geological Resources
MODULE 1: SCIENCE OF
GEOLOGY
 Why It Matters: Science of Geology

Define geology as a science and understand the basic

methods of science used in geology and related
scientific disciplines

Introduction

When you ask the question “What is geology?” most people will
initially respond that it is the study of rocks. This is true, but geology
is also so much more than that. What if I told you geology is an
intricate part of your everyday life? You may have to stop and think
for a minute about that statement, but let’s consider the following
questions:

1. Where do your energy resources come from—not just the

gas in car, but the components in your cell phones and
tablets as well?
2. Why does Japan have so many active volcanoes and
earthquakes?

3. Do you enjoy eating or cooking or gardening?

4. Do you enjoy bottled, spring, or tap water?

While some of those questions are obviously geology related, it

may take so exploring to find the answers to all of them. Throughout
the course, you will learn the information necessary to answer these
questions and others like them. We will see that geology is not just
rocks but is far more encompassing than that. However, I can’t let
this introduction go by without saying GEOLOGY ROCKS!

Learning Outcomes

Define the science of geology.

Identify and use scientific processes and the scientific
methods as used by geologists and with other related
scientific disciplines.

List tools and concepts commonly used by geologists.

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Authored by: Kimberly Schulte. Provided by: Columbia

Basin College. Located at:
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Attribution
 Outcome: What is Geology?

Define the science of geology.

This section will introduce you to the science of geology. You will not
only learn what geology is but you will also learn the various fields
and concentrations of geology.

What You’ll Learn to Do

Describe “geology” and identify some of its main principles.

Identify the main branches of geology.

Learning Activities

The learning activities for this section include the following:

Reading: The Science of Geology

Reading: The Branches of Geology

Self Check: What is Geology?

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Authored by: Lumen Learning and SBCTC. License: CC
BY: Attribution
 Reading: The Science of Geology

Why Do People Study Geology?

A lot of people are attracted to geology and other earth sciences

because they love to be outdoors. These people wonder how the
magnificent rock formations that they see, like those in Yosemite in
California (see figure 1), were formed. They want to study the
processes that create and modify landforms.

Figure 1. Half dome in Yosemite, National Park, California, USA

But earth science is not just about what we can see with the naked
eye—the molten lava, icy mountain peaks, steep canyons, and
towering waterfalls. Some people want to go deeper, to learn about
what drives the surface processes and other features of the planet;
for example, why does Earth have a magnetic field? These people
are interested in learning about the layers of material that lie beneath
the surface, the mantle and the core. Since more than 70 percent of
Earth is covered with oceans, it’s not surprising that many people
wonder what lies within and at the bottom of the seas.

Some people look up and wonder what

lies beyond our skies. These people are
interested in applying what we know about
Earth to our more distant surroundings.
They want to understand our near
neighbors, the planets and satellites of our
Solar System, and objects that lie far
beyond. Figure 2. The “Blue Marble”

What is Geology?

In its broadest sense, geology is the study of Earth—its interior and

its exterior surface, the rocks and other materials that are around us,
the processes that have resulted in the formation of those materials,
the water that flows over the surface and lies underground, the
changes that have taken place over the vastness of geological time,
and the changes that we can anticipate will take place in the near
future. Geology is a science: we use deductive reasoning and
scientific methods to understand geological problems.

Geology is arguably the most integrated of all of the sciences

because it involves the understanding and application of all of the
other sciences: physics, chemistry, biology, mathematics, astronomy,
and others. But unlike most of the other sciences, geology has an
extra dimension, that of time—billions of years of it. Geologists study
the evidence that they see around them, but in most cases, they are
observing the results of processes that happened thousands,
millions, and even billions of years in the past. Those were
processes that took place at incredibly slow rates—millimeters per
year to centimeters per year—but because of the amount of time
available, they produced massive results.

Geology is displayed on a grand scale in mountainous regions,

perhaps nowhere better than the Rocky Mountains in Canada
(Figure 3). The peak on the right is Rearguard Mountain, which is a
few kilometers northeast of Mount Robson, the tallest peak in the
Canadian Rockies (3,954 m). The large glacier in the middle of the
photo is the Robson Glacier. The river flowing from Robson Glacier
drains into Berg Lake in the bottom right.

The sedimentary rock that these mountains are made of formed in

ocean water over 500 million years ago. A few hundred million years
later, these beds were pushed east for tens to hundreds of
kilometers by tectonic plate
convergence and also pushed
up to thousands of meters
above sea level. Over the past
two million years this area—like
most of the rest of Canada—
has been repeatedly glaciated,
and the erosional effects of
those glaciations are obvious.
The Robson Glacier is now only
Figure 3. Rearguard Mountain and Robson Glacier
a small remnant of its size in the Rocky Mountains of British Columbia
during the Little Ice Age of the
fifteenth to eighteenth centuries,
as shown by the distinctive line on the slope on the left. Like almost
all other glaciers in the world, it is now receding even more rapidly
because of human-caused climate change.

Geology is also about understanding the evolution of life on Earth;

about discovering resources such as metals and energy; about
recognizing and minimizing the environmental implications of our use
of those resources; and about learning how to mitigate the hazards
related to earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and slope failures. All of
these aspects of geology, and many more, are covered in this
course.

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1.2: Earth Science and Its Branches. Provided by: CK-12.

Located at: http://www.ck12.org/book/CK-12-Earth-
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Half Dome in Yosemite National Park, California, USA.
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1.1 What Is Geology?. Authored by: Steven Earle.

Located at: https://opentextbc.ca/geology/chapter/1-1-
what-is-geology/. Project: Physical Geology. License: CC
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Blue Marble 2002. Provided by: NASA. Located at:

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 Reading: The Branches of Geology

As we mentioned, there are many varieties of geology. There is so

much to know about our home planet that most geologists become
specialists in one area. These specialties are known as branches of
geology, and have specific titles. For example, a mineralogist
studies minerals while a seismologist monitors earthquakes to help
protect people and property from harm (figure 1).

Figure 1. (A) Mineralogists focus on all kinds of minerals. (B) Seismographs are
used to measure earthquakes and pinpoint their origins.
 Volcanologists brave molten
lava to study volcanoes.
Scientists who compare the
geology of other planets to
Earth are planetary geologists.
Some geologists study the
Moon. Others look for
petroleum. Still others
specialize in studying soil. Figure 2. These folded rock layers have bent over
time. Studying rock layers helps scientists to
Some geologists can tell how explain these layers and the geologic history of the
area.
old rocks are and determine
how different rock layers formed
(figure 2). There is probably an
expert in almost anything you can think of related to Earth!

Geologists might study rivers and lakes, the underground water

found between soil and rock particles, or even water that is frozen in
glaciers. Earth scientists also need geographers who explore the
features of Earth’s surface and work with cartographers, who make
maps. Studying the layers of rock beneath the surface helps us to
understand the history of planet Earth.

Some Branches of Geology

As you’ve seen, different branches of geology study one particular

part of earth. Since all of the branches are connected, specialists
work together to answer complicated questions. Let’s look at some
other important branches of geology.

Geochemistry

Geochemistry is the study of the chemical processes which form and

shape the Earth. It includes the study of the cycles of matter and
energy which transport the Earth’s chemical components and the
interaction of these cycles with the hydrosphere and the atmosphere.

It is a subfield of inorganic chemistry, which is concerned with the

properties of all the elements in the periodic table and their
compounds. Inorganic chemistry investigates the characteristics of
substances that are not organic, such as nonliving matter and
minerals found in the Earth’s crust.

Oceanography

Oceanography is the study of the composition and motion of the

water column and the processes which are responsible for that
motion. The principal oceanographic processes influencing
continental shelf waters include waves and tides as well as wind-
driven and other oceanic currents. Understanding the oceanography
of shelf waters and the influence this has on seabed dynamics,
contributes to a wide range of activities such as the following:
 assessment of offshore petroleum production infrastructure

seabed mapping and characterisation for environmental

management

marine biodiversity surrogacy research

assessment of renewable energy potential

Paleontology

Paleontologists are interested in fossils and how ancient organisms

lived. Paleontology is the study of fossils and what they reveal about
the history of our planet. In marine environments, microfossils
collected within in layers of sediment cores provide a rich source of
information about the environmental history of an area.

Sedimentology

Sedimentology is the study of sediment grains in marine and other

deposits, with a focus on physical properties and the processes
which form a deposit. Deposition is a geological process where
geological material is added to a landform. Key physical properties of
interest include:

the size and shape of sediment grains

the degree of sorting of a deposit

the composition of grains within a deposit

sedimentary structures.
 These properties together provide a record of the mechanisms
active during sediment transportation and deposition which allows
the interpretation of the environmental conditions that produced a
sediment deposit, either in modern settings or in the geological
record.

Additional Branches

Benthic Ecology. Benthic ecology is the study of living

things on the seafloor and how they interact with their
environment.

Biostratigraphy. Biostratigraphy is the branch of

stratigraphy that uses fossils to establish relative ages of
rock and correlate successions of sedimentary rocks within
and between depositional basins.
Geochronology. Geochronology is a discipline of
geoscience which measures the age of earth materials and
provides the temporal framework in which other geoscience
data can be interpreted in the context of Earth history.

Geophysics. Information relating to various techniques

including: airborne electromagnetics, gravity, magnetics,
magnetotellurics, radiometrics, rock properties and seismic.
Marine Geochemistry. Marine geochemistry is the science
used to help develop an understanding of the composition
of coastal and marine water and sediments.
 Marine Geophysics. Marine geophysics is a scientific
discipline which uses the quantitative observation of
physical properties to understand the seafloor and sub-
seafloor geology.
Marine Surveying. The survey environment varies from
oceanographic studies in the water column to investigating
sediment and geochemical processes on the seafloor and
imaging the sub-seafloor rocks. Surveys are carried over
Australia’s entire marine jurisdiction, from coastal estuaries
and bays, across the continental shelf and slope, to the
deep abyssal plains.

Spectral Geology. Spectral geology is the measurement

and analysis of portions of the electromagnetic spectrum to
identify spectrally distinct and physically significant features
of different rock types and surface materials, their
mineralogy and their alteration signatures.

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Australia. Located at: http://www.ga.gov.au/scientific-
topics/disciplines. License: CC BY: Attribution
 Self Check: What is Geology?

Check Your Understanding

Answer the question(s) below to see how well you understand the
topics covered in the previous section. This short quiz
does not count toward your grade in the class, and you can retake it
an unlimited number of times.

Use this quiz to check your understanding and decide whether to

(1) study the previous section further or (2) move on to the next
section.

An interactive or media element has been excluded from this

version of the text. You can view it online here:
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/geo/?p=2691

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 Outcome: Scientific Processes in Geology

Identify and use scientific processes and the scientific

methods as used by geologists and with other related
scientific disciplines.

This section discusses the importance of the scientific process as it

relates to geology and other scientific disciplines.

What You’ll Learn to Do

Order the steps of the scientific process.

Form a hypothesis and use it to design a scientific
experiment.

Learning Activities

The learning activities for this section include the following:

Reading: The Nature of Science

Self Check: Scientific Processes in Geology

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BY: Attribution
 Reading: The Nature of Science

Sometime in your life you’ve asked a question about the world

around you. Probably you’ve asked a lot of questions over the years.
The best way to answer questions about the natural world is by
using science. Scientists ask questions every day, and then use a
set of steps to answer those questions. The steps are known as the
scientific method. By following the scientific method, scientists come
up with the best information about the natural world. As a scientist,
you need to do experiments to find out about the world. You also
need to wonder, observe, talk, and think. Everything we learn helps
us to ask new and better questions.

Scientific Method

The scientific method is a set of steps that help us to answer

questions. When we use logical steps and control the number of
things that can be changed, we get better answers. As we test our
ideas, we may come up with more questions. The basic sequence of
steps followed in the scientific method is illustrated in figure 1.
 Figure 1. The Scientific Method

Questions

Asking a question is one really good way to begin to learn about

the natural world. You might have seen something that makes you
curious. You might want to know what to change to produce a better
result.

Let’s say a farmer is having an erosion problem. She wants to

keep more soil on her farm. The
farmer learns that a farming
method called “no-till farming”
allows farmers to plant seeds
without plowing the land. She
wonders if planting seeds
without plowing will reduce the
erosion problem and help keep Figure 2. Soil is often lost from ground that has
been plowed.
more soil on her farmland. Her
question is this: “Will using the
no-till method of farming help
me to lose less soil on my farm?” (figure 2).

Research

Before she begins, the farmer

needs to learn more about this
farming method. She can look
up information in books and
magazines in the library. She
may also search the Internet. A
Figure 3. Rather than breaking up soil like in this
good way for her to learn is to picture, the farmer could try no-till farming
methods.
talk to people who have tried
this way of farming. She can
use all of this information to
figure out how she is going to test her question about no-till farming.
Farming machines are shown in the figure 3.
Hypothesis

After doing the research, the farmer will try to answer the question.
She might think, “If I don’t plow my fields, I will lose less soil than if I
do plow the fields. Plowing disrupts the soil and breaks up roots that
help hold soil in place.” This answer to her question is a hypothesis.
A hypothesis is a reasonable explanation. A hypothesis can be
tested. It may be the right answer, it may be a wrong answer, but it
must be testable. Once she has a hypothesis, the next step is to do
experiments to test the hypothesis. A hypothesis can be proved or
disproved by testing. If a hypothesis is repeatedly tested and shown
to be true, then scientists call it a theory.

Experiment

When we design experiments, we choose just one thing to change.

The thing we change is called the independent variable. In the
example, the farmer chooses two fields and then changes only one
thing between them. She changes how she plows her fields. One
field will be tilled and one will not. Everything else will be the same
on both fields: the type of crop she grows, the amount of water and
fertilizer that she uses, and the slope of the fields she plants on. The
fields should be facing the same direction to get about the same
amount of sunlight. These are the experimental controls. If the
farmer only changes how she plows her fields, she can see the
impact of the one change. After the experiment is complete,
scientists then measure the result. The farmer measures how much
soil is lost from each field. This is the dependent variable. How
much soil is lost from each field “depends” on the plowing method.

Data and Experimental Error

During an experiment, a
scientist collects data. The data
might be measurements, like
the farmer is taking in figure 4.
The scientist should record the
data in a notebook or onto a
computer. The data is kept in
charts that are clearly labeled.
Labeling helps the scientist to
know what each number
represents. A scientist may also
write descriptions of what
happened during the
experiment. At the end of the
experiment the scientist studies Figure 4. A pair of farmers take careful
measurements in the field.
the data. The scientist may
create a graph or drawing to
show the data. If the scientist
can picture the data the results may be easier to understand. Then it
is easier to draw logical conclusions.
 Even if the scientist is really careful it is possible to make a
mistake. One kind of mistake is with the equipment. For example, an
electronic balance may always measure one gram high. To fix this,
the balance should be adjusted. If it can’t be adjusted, each
measurement should be corrected. A mistake can come if a
measurement is hard to make. For example, the scientist may stop a
stopwatch too soon or too late. To fix this, the scientist should run the
experiment many times and make many measurements. The
average of the measurements will be the accurate answer.
Sometimes the result from one experiment is very different from the
other results. If one data point is really different, it may be thrown
out. It is likely a mistake was made in that experiment.

Conclusions

The scientist must next form a conclusion. The scientist must study
all of the data. What statement best explains the data? Did the
experiment prove the hypothesis? Sometimes an experiment shows
that a hypothesis is correct. Other times the data disproves the
hypothesis. Sometimes it’s not possible to tell. If there is no
conclusion, the scientist may test the hypothesis again. This time he
will use some different experiments. No matter what the experiment
shows the scientist has learned something. Even a disproved
hypothesis can lead to new questions.

The farmer grows crops on the two fields for a season. She finds
that 2.2 times as much soil was lost on the plowed field as compared
to the unplowed field. She concludes that her hypothesis was
correct. The farmer also notices some other differences in the two
plots. The plants in the no-till plots are taller. The soil moisture
seems higher. She decides to repeat the experiment. This time she
will measure soil moisture, plant growth, and the total amount of
water the plants consume. From now on she will use no-till methods
of farming. She will also research other factors that may reduce soil
erosion.

Theory

When scientists have the data and conclusions, they write a paper.
They publish their paper in a scientific journal. A journal is a
magazine for the scientists who are interested in a certain field.
Before the paper is printed, other scientists look at it to try to find
mistakes. They see if the conclusions follow from the data. This is
called peer review. If the paper is sound it is printed in the journal.

Other papers are published on the same topic in the journal. The
evidence for or against a hypothesis is discussed by many scientists.
Sometimes a hypothesis is repeatedly shown to be true and never
shown to be false. The hypothesis then becomes a theory.
Sometimes people say they have a ”theory” when what they have is
a hypothesis.
 In science, a theory has been repeatedly shown to be true. A
theory is supported by many observations. However, a theory may
be disproved if conflicting data is discovered. Many important
theories have been shown to be true by many observations and
experiments and are extremely unlikely to be disproved. These
include the theory of plate tectonics and the theory of evolution.

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 Self Check: Scientific Processes in Geology

Check Your Understanding

Answer the question(s) below to see how well you understand the
topics covered in the previous section. This short quiz
does not count toward your grade in the class, and you can retake it
an unlimited number of times.

Use this quiz to check your understanding and decide whether to

(1) study the previous section further or (2) move on to the next
section.

An interactive or media element has been excluded from this

version of the text. You can view it online here:
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/geo/?p=2692

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Authored by: Kimberly Schulte and Lumen Learning.

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 Outcome: Scientific Tools

List tools and concepts commonly used by geologists.

This section discusses some of the common tools and concepts

geologists employ.

What You’ll Learn to Do

Discuss several tools and their use in geology.

Understand how to read various maps.

Find a location using longitude and latitude.
Identify commonly used geological models.

Learning Activities

The learning activities for this section include the following:

Reading: Geologic Tools

Reading: Maps

Video: Exploring Topographic Maps

Reading: Location and Direction
Reading: Scientific Models

Reading: Geologic Modelling

Self Check: Scientific Tools

 Reading: Geologic Tools

Geologists use a lot of tools to aid their studies. Some of the most common tools used are compasses,
rock hammers, hand lenses, and field books.

Compasses

There are a number of different (specialised) magnetic compasses used by geologists to measure
orientation of geological structures, as they map in the field, to analyse (and document) the geometry of
[1]
bedding planes, joints, and/or metamorphic foliations and lineations. In this aspect the most common
device used to date is the analogue compass.

Classic geological compasses

Classic geological compasses that are of practical use combine two functions, direction finding and
navigation (especially in remote areas), and the ability to measure strike and dip of bedding surfaces
and/or metamorphic foliation planes. Structural geologists (i.e. those concerned with geometry and the
pattern of relative movement) also have a need to measure the plunge and plunge direction of
lineations.

Compasses in common use include the Brunton compass and the Silva compass.

Modern Geological Compasses

The concept of modern geological compass was developed by Eberhard Clar of the University of Vienna
[2]
during his work as structural geologist. He published it in 1954. An advantage of his concept is that
strike and dip is measured in one step, using the vertical circle for dip angle and the compass for the
strike direction. The first implementation was done by the VEB Freiberger Präzisionsmechanik in
Freiberg, Germany. The details of the design were made in a close cooperation with the Freiberg
[3]
University of Mining and Technology.
 Setup of a modern geological compass after Prof.
top view bottom side
Clar (Freiberger), total view

Usage

At first sight it appears confusing to the novice user,

for the numbers on the compass dial ascend in an
anticlockwise direction. This is because the compass is
used to determine dip and dip-direction of surfaces
(foliations), and plunge and plunge-direction of lines
(lineations). To use the compass one aligns the lid of
the compass with the orientation of the surface to be
measured (to obtain dip and dip direction), or the edge
of the lid of the compass with the orientation of the line
(to obtain plunge and plunge direction). The compass
must be twisted so that the base of the compass
becomes horizontal, as accomplished using the spirit
Strike line and dip of a plane describing attitude relative to a
level incorporated in it. The needle of the compass is horizontal plane and a vertical plane perpendicular to the strike line

then freed by using the side button, and allowed to spin

until the damping action slows its movement, and then
stabilises. The side button is released and the needle is then firmly held in place, allowing the user
thereafter to conveniently read the orientation measured. One first reads the scale that shows the angle
subtended by the lid of the compass, and then depending on the colour shown (red or black) the end of
the compass needle with the corresponding colour. Data are then recorded as (for example) 25°->333°
(dip and dip-direction) or (plunge and plunge-direction).

This compass has the most use by structural geologists, measuring foliation and lineation in
metamorphic rocks, or faults and joints in mining areas.

Digital Compasses

With the advent of the smartphone, geological compass programs based on the 3-axis teslameter and
the 3-axis accelerometer have also begun to appear. These compass programs use vector algebra to
compute plane and lineation orientations from the accelerometer and magnetometer data, and permit
rapid collection of many measurements. However, some problems are potentially present. Smartphones
produce a strong magnetic field of their own which must be compensated by software; as well, because
the Earth’s magnetic field fluctuates rapidly, measurements made by smartphone geological compasses
can potentially be susceptible to considerable noise. Users of a smartphone compass should carefully
calibrate their devices and run several tests against traditional magnetic compasses in order to
understand the limitations of their chosen program.

Rock Hammers

A geologist’s hammer, rock hammer, rock pick, or

geological pick is a hammer used for splitting and breaking rocks.
In field geology, they are used to obtain a fresh surface of a rock to
determine its composition, nature, mineralogy, history, and field
estimate of rock strength. In fossil and mineral collecting, they are
employed to break rocks with the aim of revealing fossils inside.
Geologist’s hammers are also sometimes used for scale in a
photograph.
A geologist’s hammer used to break up rocks, as
well as a scale in the photograph

Shape

Geologist’s hammers, as with most hammers, have two heads, one on either side. Most commonly, the
[4]
tool consists of a flat head on one end, with either a chisel or a pick head at the other end.

A chisel head (pictured), which is shaped like a chisel, is useful for clearing covering vegetation
from exposures and is sometimes (though inadvisedly) used to pry open fissures. Some rocks
can be easily split, like slate or shale, to reveal any fossils.
A pick head, which terminates in a sharp point to deliver maximum pressure, is often preferred
for harder rocks. A geologist’s hammer bearing a pick end is often referred to as a rock pick or
geological pick instead of a geologist’s hammer.
A flat head is used to deliver a blow to a rock with the intention of splitting it. Specimens or
samples can be trimmed to remove sharp corners or reduce them in size.

Construction

The effective power of a geologist’s hammer is mainly considered to be a reflection of its head weight
and handle length. Head weight may range from 8 oz (225 g) or less on a small hammer—such as
would generally be used for casual use or by children—to 24 oz (680 g) and greater. A hammer of 16 oz
(450 g) is often quoted as sufficient for all rock types, although metamorphic or igneous rocks often
require heavier hammers for a more powerful blow.
 The best geologist’s hammers are forged from one piece of
hardened steel, which renders them sturdy and long-lasting.
Alternatives such as tubular- and wooden-shafted hammers are
more commonly used, in part due to their lower cost. Such
alternative handles sacrifice strength and make the hammer
unsuitable for high-strain activities such as prying.

The form and weighting of the shaft defines the balance, which
itself defines the ease, efficiency, and comfort of use of the A geologist’s hammer with tubular shaft and chisel
head
geologist’s hammer.

Hand Lenses

The hand lens is a vital geological field tool used to identify small
mineral crystals and structures in rocks. It is a simple, small
magnification device used to see small details more closely. Unlike
a magnifying glass, a loupe does not have an attached handle,
and its focusing lens(es) are contained in an opaque cylinder or
cone or fold into an enclosing housing that protects the lenses
when not in use.

Three basic types of hand lenses exist:

Loupe used by a geologist

Simple lenses, which result in the highest degree of
optical aberration and are generally lower magnification.
Multiple lenses, generally higher magnification because of the reduced optical aberration.

Prismatic, Multiple lenses with prisms used to change the perspective.

Jewelers typically use a monocular, handheld loupe in order to magnify gemstones and other jewelry
[5] [6]
that they wish to inspect. A 10x magnification is good to use for inspecting jewelry and hallmarks and
is the Gemological Institute of America’s standard for grading diamond clarity. Stones will sometimes be
inspected at higher magnifications than 10x, although the depth of field, which is the area in focus,
[7]
becomes too small to be instructive. The accepted standard for grading diamonds is therefore that
[8]
inclusions and blemishes visible at 10x impact the clarity grade.

Field Books

Field books are used to take fieldnotes; they can be anything from a composition type notebook to a
spiral, but most use an actual “field book” like those available for purchase here. Fieldnotes refer to
qualitative notes recorded by scientists during or after their observation of a specific phenomenon they
are studying. They are intended to be read as evidence that gives meaning and aids in the
understanding of the phenomenon. Fieldnotes allow the researcher to access the subject and record
what they observe in an unobtrusive manner.

One major disadvantage of taking fieldnotes is that they are recorded by an observer and are thus
[9]
subject to (a) memory and (b) possibly, the conscious or unconscious bias of the observer. It is best to
record fieldnotes immediately after leaving the site to avoid forgetting important details.

Fieldnotes are particularly valued in geology and other descriptive sciences such as ethnography,
biology, and archaeology.

Structure
[10]
There are two components of fieldnotes: descriptive information and reflective information.

Descriptive information is factual data that is being recorded. Factual data includes time and
date, the state of the physical setting, social environment, descriptions of the subjects being
studied and their roles in the setting, and the impact that the observer may have had on the
[11]
environment.
Reflective information is the observer’s reflections about the observation being conducted.
[12]
These reflections are ideas, questions, concerns, and other related thoughts.

Fieldnotes can also include sketches, diagrams, and other drawings. Visually capturing a
[13]
phenomenon requires the observer to pay more attention to every detail as to not overlook anything.

1. The Mapping of Geological Structures (Geological Society of London Handbook Series) [Paperback] K. R. McClay; Statistics of

Earth Science Data: Their Distribution in Time, Space and Orientation [Paperback] Graham J. Borradaile (Author) ↵

2. Clar, E.: A dual-circle geologist’s and miner’s compass for the measurement of areal and linear geological elements. Separate

print from the negotiations of the Federal Institute of Geology Vienna, 1954, vol. 4 ↵

3. "Geologist's Compass: Operating Manual," Freiberger Präzisionsmechanik.

http://www.fpm.de/downloads/GeologistCompass_eng.pdf. ↵

4. MartinS (2006). "'Geological Hammers' info page"↵

5. "Jewelry - How to Use a Loupe - Using Jewelry Magnifiers". Jewelry.About.com ↵

6. Ibid. ↵

7. http://www.gemsociety.org/article/10x-loupe-the-gemologists-best-friend/ ↵

8. "The 4C's Of Diamonds: Diamond Clarity". Leibish & Co. ↵

9. Canfield, Michael (2011). Field Notes on Science & Nature. Harvard University Pres. p. 21. ↵
 10. Labaree, Robert V. "Research Guides: Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper: Writing Field Notes".

libguides.usc.edu. Retrieved 2016-04-12. ↵

11. Ibid. ↵

12. Ibid. ↵

13. Canfield,Michael (2011). Field Notes on Science & Nature. p. 162. ↵

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Geological compass. Provided by: Wikipedia. Located at:

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geologist%27s_hammer. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-
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 Reading: Maps

Maps are essential tools in geology. Maps are as important in

geology as written texts are in the study of literature. By studying
maps, a geologist can see the shape and geology of the earth’s
surface and deduce the geological structures that lie hidden beneath
the surface. Geologists are trained in map reading and map making.
Many geologists have experience mapping some part of the earth’s
surface.

It takes some training to read maps skillfully. You are not expected
to become a geological expert in reading maps. However, you will be
expected to develop your map reading skills as you use maps to
help you learn geology.

Topographic Maps

A topographic map (like the one in figure 1) is one type of map

used by geologists. Topographic maps show the three-dimensional
shape of the land and features on the surface of the earth.
Topographic maps are also used by hikers, planners who make
decisions on zoning and construction permits, government agencies
involved in land use planning and hazard assessments, and civil
engineers. The topographic
maps drawn and published by
the U. S. Geological Survey
portray the grids that are used
on deeds to identify the location
of real estate, so homeowners
and property owners sometimes
find it useful to refer to
topographic maps of their area.

Figure 1. Map of Yellowstone.

Most topographic maps make
use of contour lines to depict
elevations above sea level. The
contour lines reveal the shape of the land in the vertical direction,
allowing the 3-dimensional shape of the land to be portrayed on a 2-
dimensional sheet of paper or computer screen. When you know
how to read contour lines, you can look at them on a topographic
map and visualize the mountains, plains, ridges, or valleys that they
portrays.

Topographic maps are important in geology because they portray

the surface of the earth in detail. This view of the surface shows
patterns that provide information about the geology beneath the
surface.

The landforms of the earth result from surface processes such as

erosion or sedimentation combined with internal geological
processes such as magma rising to create a volcano or a ridge of
bedrock pushed up along a fault. By studying the shape of the
earth’s surface through topographic maps, geologists can
understand the nature of surface processes in a given area,
including zones subjected to landsliding, places undergoing erosion
and places where sediment is accumulating. They can also find
clues to the underlying geologic structure and geologic history of the
area.

In addition to a topographic map, a complete understanding of the

underlying geologic structure and history of an area requires
completion of a geologic map and cross-sections. A topographic map
provides the frame of reference upon which most geologic maps are
constructed.

Reading a Topographic Map

Reading a topographic map requires familiarity with how it portrays

the three-dimensional shape of the land, so that in looking at a
topographic map you can visualize the shape of the land. To read a
topographic map, you need to understand the rules of contour lines.

Rules for Contour Lines

A contour line connects all the points on a map area that
are at a specific elevation. For example, every point on a
600-foot contour line represents a point on earth that is 600
feet above sea level. You can visualize a contour line as the
shoreline that would exist if the ocean were to cover the
land to that elevation.
The contour interval is the vertical distance, also known as
the elevation difference, between adjacent contour lines.
On a map with a 40-foot contour interval, the vertical
distance between two contour lines that are next to each
other, is 40 feet, regardless of the horizontal distance
between the two lines on the map.

Contour lines do not intersect each other, because a point

on the surface of the earth cannot be at two different
elevations. (However, in the rare case of a vertical cliff
showing up on a topographic map, contour lines along the
cliff may appear to join together into a single line.)
Circles that are closed contours generally signify hills.

Depressions that have no outlet are signified by closed

contours with short lines that stick out of them and point
toward the center. (The short lines sticking out of the
contour lines are called hachures, hatch marks, or tick
marks.)
Contour lines on standard US Geological Survey
topographic maps are brown — except on the surfaces of
glaciers, where the contour lines are blue.
 The elevation of a point on the map that is not on a contour
line must be estimated as greather than the elevation of the
nearest contour line below it, and less than elevation of the
nearest contour line above it. For example, a point lying
midway between the contours 5440 ft and 5480 ft would be
at approximately 5460 ft elevation.
Contour lines curve upstream when they cross a valley.
This leads to the “Rule of Vs”: Where they cross streams,
contour lines make Vs that point upstream.

Where contours are close together, the topography is steep;

where contour lines are far apart, the slope is gentle or flat.
The relief on a landscape is the elevation difference
between two given points. The maximum relief on a
topographic map is the elevation difference between the
highest and lowest points on the map.

Map Quadrangles, Latitudes, and Longitudes

Standard United States Geological Survey topographic maps cover a

quadrangle. A map quadrangle spans a fraction of a degree of
longitude east-to-west and the same fraction of a degree of latitude
north-to-south. Because lines of longitude degrees (also called
meridians) in the Northern Hemisphere come closer and closer
together the nearer they get to the North Pole, whereas lines of
latitude degrees remain the same distance apart as they circle the
earth, quadrangle maps span less distance east-to-west than they
do north-to-south.

Latitude is how far north or south of the equator a point is on earth,

measured in degrees, from 0° at the equator to 90° at the poles.
When specifying a latitude, always state whether it is in the Northern
Hemisphere (N) or Southern Hemisphere (S).

Longitude is how far east or west, up to a maximum of 180°, a

point on earth is from the Prime Meridian. The Prime Meridian, 0°
longitude, is a north-south line that runs through Greenwhich,
England. When specifying a longitude, state whether it is in the
Western Hemisphere (W) or Eastern Hemisphere (E).

Meridians, lines of longitude, run from the South Pole to the North
Pole, converging (coming together) at the poles. Because the
meridians converge at the poles, a degree of longitude gets smaller
and smaller near each pole. In contrast, a degree of latitude remains
approximately 69 miles across, no matter how near or far from the
poles or equator it is.

Degrees of latitude and longitude are divided into arc minutes and
arc seconds. In this context, they are usually just called minutes and
seconds, but it must be kept in mind that these minutes and seconds
are units of angles, not units of time. These units, which divide
angles into smaller parts, work as follows:
 1. There are 60 arc minutes in 1 degree.

2. The symbol for minutes is a single apostrophe: ‘.

3. In symbols, 60′ = 1° means there are 60 minutes in 1
degree.

4. There are 60 arc seconds in 1 arc minute.

5. To convert arc minutes into a decimal fraction of a degree,
multiply the number of arc minutes by 1°/60′. For example,
to convert 15′ into a decimal fraction of a degree, 15′ x
1°/60′ = 0.25°. In simpler terms, just divide the number of
arc minutes by 60 to convert to decimal degrees.
6. The symbol for arc seconds is a double apostrophe or
quotation mark: “.

7. In symbols, 60″ = 1′ means there are 60 seconds in 1

minute.

Two common quadrangle sizes are 7.5 minutes (1/8 of a degree),

and 15 minutes (1/4 of a degree).

NAME, SIZE, AND LATITUDE-LONGITUDE OF A

TOPOGRAPHIC MAP QUADRANGLE
The image above shows the northeastern corner portion of
the topographic map of the Juniper quadrangle, which spans
the border of the states of Oregon and Washington. The
name of the quadrangle comes from the name of a place on
the map. Find the following information using this corner of
the map:

1. The name of the quadrangle

2. The state(s) in which the quadrangle is located

3. The size of the quadrangle

4. The name and fractional scale of the quadrangle map that is located
adjacent to the northeast of the corner corner

5. The longitude of the eastern boundary of the map

6. The latitude of the northern boundary of the map

Show Answer

MAP SCALE, CONTOUR INTERVAL, AND MAGNETIC

DECLINATION
Important information is shown at the bottom of a USGS
quadrangle map, including the map scale, the contour
interval, and the magnetic declination. The image above is
from the bottom of the Juniper 7.5 minute quadrangle. It tells
you, among other things:

1. The map scale. The map scale is listed in terms of the fractional scale
as 1:24,000. This means that 1 inch on the map corresponds to
24,000 inches in the real world represented by the map, or 1 cm
equals 24,000 cm; in other words, distances on the map have been
shrunk by a factor of 24,000 from their real-world size. Beneath the
fractional scale, the map scale is also depicted a different way, in bar
scales using three different units. One of the bar scales is in miles,
one is in units of thousands of feet, and one is in kilometers.

2. The contour interval, the difference in elevation between adjacent

contour lines on the map, is listed below the map scale as 20 feet.
 3. There is also a reminder that elevations shown on the map are
elevations above mean (average) sea level on earth.

4. (You might note that this map does something unusual for a
topographic map. It shows depths in the Columbia River in feet below
the surface of the river when the river is backed up in its reservoir
behind a dam to a normal pool surface elevation of 340 feet above
sea level.)

5. To the left of the bar scales, the magnetic declination is shown as an

arrow diverging from a line oriented toward true north. True north is
the direction toward the geographic North Pole. The geographic North
Pole is where the northern end of earth’s axis of rotation is located.
The magnetic North Pole is in northeastern Canada. In 1962, the
magnetic North Pole, as measured from the Juniper quadrangle, was
located 20.5° east of true north. If you took a magnetic compass to
the Juniper quadrangle in 1962, its north arrow would point 20.5° east
of true north, so you would have had to set your magnetic compass to
compensate for the declination. The magnetic North Pole wanders a
few miles every year and the magnetic declination of 20.5° east of
true north was determined in the year 1962; it may be slightly different
now.

Constructing a Topographic Profile

One of the important tools you can use to extract the vertical
information from a topographic map, and see more clearly the shape
of the earth’s surface that it represents is a topographic profile.

Construction of a topographic profile allows you to visualize the

vertical component of a landscape. A topographic profile is similar to
the view you have of a landscape while standing on earth, looking at
hills and valleys from the side rather than from above.

Given a topographic map such as the one below, here’s how to

construct a topographic profile.

Step 1

Determine the line of profile, the line across that part of the map that
you want to see in profile or cross-section view. Depending on which
part of the map you want to see in profile, you can draw your line of
profile in any direction you choose, across any part of the map you
choose. For the map used in this example, we choose to draw the
profile from A to A’ as shown in the diagram below, to see the entire
length of the hill in profile.

Step 2
Draw a grid that will contain the profile. The width of the grid should
be the same as the length of the line of profile. To draw the profile,
the grid must be crossed by evenly-spaced horizontal lines that
represent the contour elevations. The grid must extend high enough
to span the elevation range of the contour lines spanned by the line
of profile. You can see that the grid, shown below, includes the range
of elevations that the line of profile crosses on the map. In addition,
the grid must have an extra horizontal line at the bottom and top to
accommodate the parts of the profile that go above the highest
contour elevation and below the lowest contour elevation. That is
why the grid in the example below goes below 400 feet and above
500 feet in elevation.
Step 3

Transfer the contour elevations from the topographic map to the

profile grid. The point where each contour line crosses the line of
profile on the topographic map determines the horizontal coordinate
of each corresponding point on the grid of the topographic profile.
The elevation of each contour line corresponds to the vertical
coordinate of each corresponding point on the profile grid, as shown
on the diagram below.

Step 4

Now that you have marked the elevation points on the profile grid,
draw a smooth line connecting the data points as shown below. Note
that the ends of this profile go below the 400 foot contour elevation
but they do not extend to the 380 foot elevation because on the map
the line of profile did not reach the 380 foot contour line. Also note
that the top of the profile reaches a peak above 520 feet but less
than 540 feet because the line of profile does not cross the 540 foot
contour line.

Step 5

The completed topographic profile and the map it was drawn from
are shown below. Topographic profiles are usually constructed
without drawing any lines on the map. Instead, the edge of a piece of
paper is laid along the line of profile and the contour line data is
transferred to the edge of the piece of paper. From the edge of the
piece of paper, the data are transfered to the profile grid, which is on
a separate piece of paper.

Notice on the topographic profile constructed above that the peak

of the hill is above 520 ft, but below 540 ft. Similarly, the ends of the
profile are below 400 ft but above 380. This is consistent with the
elevations of those parts of the line of profile on the map.

Note that the vertical scale on the profile is very different from the
horizontal scale on the map. In this example, the map covers 0.25
miles horizontally in less distance than the profile covers 100 feet
vertically. As a result, the topographic profile is greatly exaggerated
vertically. In an actual view of the hill, looking at it from the side, it
would not look nearly as steep as it does in the topographic profile
that we have constructed.

If the vertical scale on a topographic profile is different from the

map scale, as it is in this case, then the profile will exhibit a vertical
exaggeration. The vertical exaggeration of a topographic profile can
be calculated. It is the fractional scale of the topographic profile’s
vertical axis, divided by the fractional scale of the map. For example,
if the vertical scale on the profile is 1:200 and the map scale is
1
( )
200
1:24,000, the vertical exaggeration is . To divide by a
1
( )
24,000

fraction, you can invert and multiply, so this becomes

1 24, 000 24, 000
( ) × ( ) = = 120 . A topographic profile
200 1 200

with a VE of 120 would be a very exaggerated topographic profile. It

would be as if a rubber model of the landscape has been pulled in
the vertical direction, until it is 120 times taller than it really is.

If the vertical scale of a topographic profile is different from the

map scale, the vertical exaggeration should be listed next to the
profile, such as VE = 10 or VE 10x if the vertical exaggeration is 10.

Compare the profile to the topographic map. You will see that the
hill is steeper on the west (left) side than on the east (right) side. This
is consistent with the contour lines being spaced more closely on the
west side of the hill and farther apart on the east side of the hill. This
accords with the rules of contour lines, which state that slopes are
steeper where contour lines are more closely spaced, and slopes are
less steep where contour lines are more widely spaced.

If you drew a profile from north to south across the peak of the hill,
do you think the profile would be symmetric or asymmetric?

CHECKLIST FOR A COMPLETE TOPOGRAPHIC

PROFILE

A properly drawn topographic profile will have the following

attributes:

The topographic profile is drawn on a rectilinear graph with evenly spaced

grid lines. (Vertical grid lines are not required.)

Elevation lines are labeled along the left-hand vertical axis.

The profile is a smooth curve where its gradient changes, rather than
straight-line segments connecting the dots and only bending at the dots.

If the vertical scale on the profile is different from the map scale, the
resulting amount of vertical exaggeration is listed.

The ends and any high points or low points of the topographic profile should
be above or below elevation lines, not on them, except in cases where an
end, high point, or low point of a line of profile happens to fall right on a
contour line.
 EXPLORE MORE: TOPOGRAPHIC MAPS

Use this resource to answer the questions that follow. You

may stop watching at the 4:04 mark.

An interactive or media element has been excluded from

this version of the text. You can view it online here:
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/geo/?p=1401

1. What do topographic maps do and how do they do it?

2. What are the meanings of the terms topographic map, contour line,
contour interval and index contour?

3. If you were to walk along a contour line, what would happen to your
elevation?

4. If you walk perpendicular to contour lines what are you doing?

5. What do close contour lines indicate?

Bathymetric Maps

A bathymetric map is like a topographic map with the contour

lines representing depth below sea level, rather than height above.
Numbers are low near sea level and become higher with depth.

Kilauea is the youngest volcano found above sea level in Hawaii.

On the flank of Kilauea is an
even younger volcano called
Loihi. The bathymetric map
pictured in figure 3 shows the
form of Loihi.

Geologic Maps

A geologic map shows the

geological features of a region
(see figure 4 for an example).
Rock units are color-coded and
identified in a key. Faults and Figure 3. Loihi volcano growing on the flank of
folds are also shown on Kilauea volcano in Hawaii. Black lines in the inset
show the land surface above sea level and blue
geologic maps. The geology is lines show the topography below sea level. Click
on the image to view a larger version.
superimposed on a topographic
map to give a more complete
view of the geology of the
region.

A geologic map shows mappable rock units, mappable sediment

units that cover up the rocks, and geologic structures such as faults
and folds. A mappable unit of rock or sediment is one that a geologist
can consistently recognize, trace across a landscape, and describe
so that other people are able to recognize it and verify its presence
and identity. Mappable units are shown as different colors or patterns
on a base map of the geographic area.

Geologic maps are important

for two reasons. First, as
geologists make geologic maps
and related explanations and
cross-sections, they develop a
theoretical understanding of the
geology and geologic history of
a given area.

Second, geologic maps are

essential tools for practical
applications such as zoning,
Figure 4. A geologic map of the region around Old
civil engineering, and hazard Faithful, Yellowstone National Park.
assessment. Geologic maps
are also vital in finding and
developing geological resources, such as gravel to help build the
road you drive on, oil to power the car you travel in, or aluminum to
build the more fuel-efficient engine in your next vehicle. Another
resource that is developed on the basis of geologic maps is
groundwater, which many cities, farms, and factories rely on for the
water they use.

Essential Components of Geologic Maps

A complete geologic map has at least two features:

the map itself

the map legend or key that explains all the symbols on the
map.

Professional geologic maps usually have two other components as

well:

an accompanying explanation of the rock or sediment units

geologic cross-sections of the map area.

The legend or key to a geologic map is usually printed on the

same page as the map and follows a customary format. The symbol
for each rock or sediment unit is shown in a box next to its name and
brief description. These symbols are stacked in age sequence from
oldest at the bottom to youngest at the top. The geologic era, or
period, or epoch–the geologic age–is listed for each rock unit in the
key. By stacking the units in age sequence from youngest at the top
to oldest at the bottom, and identifying which interval of geologic time
each unit belongs to, the map reader can quickly see the age of
each rock or sediment unit. The map key also contains a listing and
explanation of the symbols shown on the map, such as the symbols
for different types of faults and folds. See the Table of Geologic Map
Symbols for pictures and an overview of the map symbols, including
strikes and dips, faults, folds, and an overview.
Table of Geologic Map Symbols

Strike and Dip Symbols

Strike and dip are a way of representing the three-dimensional orientation of a planar
surface on a two-dimensional map. The strike is the compass direction of a horizontal line
on the plane. All the horizontal lines on a plane are parallel, so they all have the same
characteristic compass direction. The dip is the angle at which the plane slopes downhill
from the horizontal, at its maximum slope, which is at right angles (90º) from strike.
Map
Definition Explanation of symbol
Symbol

strike (longer line) is horizontal line on bedding

plane
strike and dip of strike parallels nearby contacts between
beds other than stratified rocks
horizontal or
vertical dip shows which way beds run downhill
dip angle, number at end of dip symbol, is how
much beds tilt down from horizontal

because the bed is horizontal it strikes in all

horizontal beds directions
because the bed is horizontal, the dip is 0%

strike (longer line) is horizontal line on bedding

plane
strike and dip of because the bed dips vertically (has a 90% dip),
vertical beds it dips equally in either direction at right angles to
strike, so the dip line is shown extending in both
directions
Geologic Fault Symbols
Type of
Type of Map
Definition Regional Geologic Associations
Fault Symbol
Stress

zones of
crustal
extension
divergent plate
hanging wall down, boundaries
normal tension
footwall up edges of
horsts and
grabens
Basin and
Range region

low-angle normal fault, boundaries of

footwall—gneiss, metamorphic
detachment tension
hanging wall—shallow- core
crust rocks complexes

zones of
crustal
hanging wall up, compression
thrust compression
footwall down convergent
plate
boundaries

zones of
crustal
high-angle (45° or compression
reverse compression
more dip) thrust fault convergent
plate
boundaries
Geologic Fault Symbols

continental
margins
undergoing
oblique (not
rocks on either side straight on)
strike-slip move horizontally in shear plate
opposite directions convergence
transform
plate
boundaries

orogenic
mountain belts
continental
combines horizontal margins
oblique-slip combination undergoing
and vertical motion
oblique (not
straight on)
plate
convergence
Geologic Fold Symbols
Type of Map
Definition Appearance of Beds in Map View
Fold Symbol

roughly parallel stripes

dip away from center
(away from axis)
anticline up fold oldest at center (along
axis)
youngest farthest from
center

roughly a U-shaped
pattern
plunges in direction U
plunging points
up fold with tilted axis
anticline oldest at center (along
axis)
youngest farthest from
center

roughly parallel stripes

dip toward center (toward
axis)
syncline down fold
oldest farthest from center
youngest at center (along
axis)

roughly a U-shaped
pattern
plunges in direction U
plunging opens
down fold with tilted axis
syncline
oldest farthest from center
youngest at center (along
axis)
Geologic Fold Symbols

strata tilted in one

monocline all dip in same direction
direction

roughly a bull’s eye

pattern
structural upward bulge in layered dip away from center
dome rocks oldest in center
youngest farthest from
center

roughly a bull’s eye

pattern
structural downward bulge in dip toward center
basin layered rocks
youngest in center
oldest farthest from center

The explanations of rock units are often given in a separate

pamphlet that accompanies the map. The explanations include
descriptions with enough detail for any geologist to be able to
recognize the units and learn how their ages were determined.

If included, cross-sections are usually printed on the same page

as the geologic map. They are important accompaniments to
geologic maps, especially if the map focuses on the geology of the
bedrock underneath the soil and loose sediments.

Geologic Cross-Sections
A geologic cross-section is a sideways view of a slice of the earth. It
shows how the different types of rock are layered or otherwise
configured, and it portrays geologic structures beneath the earth’s
surface, such as faults and folds. Geologic cross-sections are
constructed on the basis of the geology mapped at the surface
combined with an understanding of rocks in terms of physical
behavior and three-dimensional structures.

Summary

Earth scientists regularly use topographic, bathymetric, and

geologic maps.
Topographic maps reveal the shape of a landscape.
Elevations indicate height above sea level.
Bathymetric maps are like topographic maps of features
found below the water. Elevations indicate depth below sea
level.
Geologic maps show rock units and geologic features like
faults and folds.

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 Video: Exploring Topographic Maps

Check out this augmented reality map originally developed by The

University of California–Davis. It was created to help students
understand topographic maps.

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Check out UC Davis’s website to learn more about the project.

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 Reading: Location and Direction

If you found this feature while out in the field, could you find
it again?

If you’re going to make

observations of geological
features, you’re going to need
to know the location where you
are so you can mark it on a
map. If you find a rock
formation filled with gold, you’ll
Figure 1. Old Faithful
want to be able to find the
location again!

You may need to tell someone when your truck gets stuck when
you’re in the field so you’ll need a direction to give them.

The photo in figure 1 is of Old Faithful Geyser in Yellowstone

National Park. Let’s explore just a few of the ways we can pinpoint
the location of this famous geological icon.

Location
How would you find Old Faithful? One way is by using latitude and
longitude. Any location on Earth’s surface — or on a map — can be
described using these coordinates. Latitude and longitude are
expressed as degrees that are divided into 60 minutes. Each minute
is divided into 60 seconds.

Latitude

A look on a reliable website shows us that Old Faithful Geyser is

located at N44o27’ 43’’. What does this mean?

Latitude tells the distance north or south of the Equator. Latitude

lines start at the Equator and circle around the planet. The North
Pole is 90oN, with 90 degree lines in the Northern Hemisphere. Old
Faithful is at 44 degrees, 27 minutes and 43 seconds north of the
Equator. That’s just about exactly half way between the Equator and
the North Pole!

Longitude

The latitude mentioned above does not locate Old Faithful exactly,
since a circle could be drawn that latitude north of the Equator. To
locate Old Faithful we need another point – longitude. At Old Faithful
the longitude is W110o49’57’’.

Longitude lines are circles that go around the Earth from north to
south, like the sections of an orange. Longitude is measured
perpendicular to the Equator. The Prime Meridian is 0o longitude and
passes through Greenwich, England. The International Date Line is
the 180o meridian. Old Faithful is in the Western Hemisphere,
between the Prime Meridian in the east and the International Date
Line in the west.

Elevation

An accurate location must take into account the third dimension.

Elevation is the height above or below sea level. Sea level is the
average height of the ocean’s surface or the midpoint between high
and low tide. Sea level is the same all around Earth.

Old Faithful is higher above sea level than most locations at 7,349
ft (2240 m). Of course, the highest point on Earth, Mount Everest, is
much higher at 29,029 ft (8848 m).

Global Positioning System

Satellites continually orbit Earth and can be used to indicate location.

A global positioning system receiver detects radio signals from at
least four nearby GPS satellites. The receiver measures the time it
takes for radio signals to travel from a satellite and then calculates its
distance from the satellite using the speed of radio signals. By
calculating distances from each of the four satellites the receiver can
triangulate to determine its location. You can use a GPS meter to tell
you how to get to Old Faithful.

Direction

Direction is important if you want to go between two places.

Directions are expressed as north (N), east (E), south (S), and west
(W), with gradations in between. The most common way to describe
direction in relation to the Earth’s surface is with a compass, a
device with a floating needle that is actually a small magnet. The
compass needle aligns itself with the Earth’s magnetic north pole.
Since the magnetic north pole is 11.5 degrees offset from its
geographic north pole on the axis of rotation, you must correct for
this discrepancy.

Without using a compass, we can say that to get to Old Faithful,

you enter Yellowstone National Park at the South Entrance, drive
north-northeast to West Thumb, and then drive west-northwest to
Old Faithful.

Summary

Latitude is the distance north or south of the Equator and is

expressed as a number between 0 and 90 degrees north or
south.
 Longitude is the distance east or west of the Prime Meridian
and is expressed as a number between 0 and 180 degrees
east or west.

Elevation is the height above sea level.

Direction is expressed as north, south, east, or west, or
some gradation between them.

EXPLORE MORE

Use this resource to answer the questions that follow.

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1. What are lines of latitude?

2. How far apart are the lines of latitude, in degrees, in miles?

3. What are the latitudes of the Equator, the Tropic of Cancer, and the
Tropic of Capricorn? What are the characteristics of the regions found
between the Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn?

4. Where are the Arctic and Antarctic circle? What are the
characteristics of the regions that are found poleward of these
circles?

5. What are lines of longitude?

6. Where do the meridians meet?

 7. What is the Prime Meridian? Where is it located?

8. How are longitude and latitude measured?

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 Reading: Scientific Models

Scientists use models to help them understand and explain ideas.

Models explain objects or systems in a more simple way. Models
often only show only a part of a system. The real situation is more
complicated. Models help scientists to make predictions about
complex systems. Some models are something that you can see or
touch. Other types of models use an idea or numbers. Each type is
useful in certain ways.

Scientists create models with computers. Computers can handle

enormous amounts of data. This can more accurately represent the
real situation. For example, Earth’s climate depends on an enormous
number of factors. Climate models can predict how climate will
change as certain gases are added to the atmosphere. To test how
good a model is, scientists might start a test run at a time in the past.
If the model can predict the present it is probably a good model. It is
more likely to be accurate when predicting the future.

Physical Models

A physical model is a representation of something using objects. It

can be three-dimensional, like a globe. It can also be a two-
dimensional drawing or diagram. Models are usually smaller and
simpler than the real object. They most likely leave out some parts,
but contain the important parts. In a good model the parts are made
or drawn to scale. Physical models allow us to see, feel and move
their parts. This allows us to better understand the real system.

An example of a physical model is a drawing of the layers of Earth

(figure 1). A drawing helps us to understand the structure of the
planet. Yet there are many differences between a drawing and the
real thing. The size of a model is much smaller, for example. A
drawing also doesn’t give good idea of how substances move.
Arrows showing the direction the material moves can help. A
physical model is very useful but it can’t explain the real Earth
perfectly.
 Figure 1. Earth’s Center.

Ideas as Models

Some models are based on an idea that

helps scientists explain something. A good
idea explains all the known facts. An
example is how Earth got its Moon. A Mars-
sized planet hit Earth and rocky material
broke off of both bodies (figure 2). This
material orbited Earth and then came Figure 2. A collision showing a
meteor striking Earth.
together to form the Moon. This is a model
of something that happened billions of
years ago. It brings together many facts known from our studies of
the Moon’s surface. It accounts for the chemical makeup of rocks
from the Moon, Earth, and meteorites. The physical properties of
Earth and Moon figure in as well. Not all known data fits this model,
but much does. There is also more information that we simply don’t
yet know.

Models that Use Numbers

Models may use formulas or equations to describe something.

Sometimes math may be the only way to describe it. For example,
equations help scientists to explain what happened in the early days
of the universe. The universe formed so long ago that math is the
only way to describe it. A climate model includes lots of numbers,
including temperature readings, ice density, snowfall levels, and
humidity. These numbers are put into equations to make a model.
The results are used to predict future climate. For example, if there
are more clouds, does global temperature go up or down? Models
are not perfect because they are simple versions of the real
situation. Even so, these models are very useful to scientists. These
days, models of complex things are made on computers.

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 Reading: Geologic Modelling

Geologic modelling, or
Geomodelling, is the applied
science of creating
computerized representations
of portions of the Earth’s crust
based on geophysical and
geological observations made
on and below the Earth surface.
A Geomodel is the numerical
equivalent of a three-
dimensional geological map
complemented by a description
of physical quantities in the Figure 1. Geological mapping software displaying
domain of interest. a screenshot of a structure map generated for an
8500ft deep gas & Oil reservoir in the Erath field,
Geomodelling is related to the Vermilion Parish, Erath, Louisiana. The left-to-
right gap, near the top of the contour map
concept of Shared Earth Model; indicates a Fault line. This fault line is between
the blue/green contour lines and the
which is a multidisciplinary, purple/red/yellow contour lines. The thin red
interoperable and updatable circular contour line in the middle of the map
indicates the top of the oil reservoir. Because gas
knowledge base about the floats above oil, the thin red contour line marks
the gas/oil contact zone.
subsurface.
 Geomodelling is commonly used for managing natural resources,
identifying natural hazards, and quantifying geological processes,
with main applications to oil and gas fields, groundwater aquifers and
ore deposits. For example, in the oil and gas industry, realistic
geologic models are required as input to reservoir simulator
programs, which predict the behavior of the rocks under various
hydrocarbon recovery scenarios. A reservoir can only be developed
and produced once; therefore, making a mistake by selecting a site
with poor conditions for development is tragic and wasteful. Using
geological models and reservoir simulation allows reservoir
engineers to identify which recovery options offer the safest and
most economic, efficient, and effective development plan for a
particular reservoir.

Geologic modelling is a relatively recent subdiscipline of geology

which integrates structural geology, sedimentology, stratigraphy,
paleoclimatology, and diagenesis;

In 2-dimensions (2D), a geologic formation or unit is represented

by a polygon, which can be bounded by faults, unconformities or by
its lateral extent, or crop. In geological models a geological unit is
bounded by 3-dimensional (3D) triangulated or gridded surfaces.
The equivalent to the mapped polygon is the fully enclosed
geological unit, using a triangulated mesh. For the purpose of
property or fluid modelling these volumes can be separated further
into an array of cells, often referred to as voxels (volumetric
elements). These 3D grids are the equivalent to 2D grids used to
express properties of single surfaces.

Geomodelling generally involves the following steps:

1. Preliminary analysis of geological context of the domain of

study.

2. Interpretation of available data and observations as point

sets or polygonal lines (e.g. “fault sticks” corresponding to
faults on a vertical seismic section).

3. Construction of a structural model describing the main rock

boundaries (horizons, unconformities, intrusions, faults)

4. Definition of a three-dimensional mesh honoring the

structural model to support volumetric representation of
heterogeneity (see Geostatistics) and solving the Partial
Differential Equations which govern physical processes in
the subsurface (e.g. seismic wave propagation, fluid
transport in porous media).

Geologic modelling components

Structural framework

Incorporating the spatial positions of the major formation boundaries,

including the effects of faulting, folding, and erosion (unconformities).
The major stratigraphic divisions are further subdivided into layers of
cells with differing geometries with relation to the bounding surfaces
(parallel to top, parallel to base, proportional). Maximum cell
dimensions are dictated by the minimum sizes of the features to be
resolved (everyday example: On a digital map of a city, the location
of a city park might be adequately resolved by one big green pixel,
but to define the locations of the basketball court, the baseball field,
and the pool, much smaller pixels – higher resolution – need to be
used).

Rock type

Each cell in the model is assigned a rock type. In a coastal clastic

environment, these might be beach sand, high water energy marine
upper shoreface sand, intermediate water energy marine lower
shoreface sand, and deeper low energy marine silt and shale. The
distribution of these rock types within the model is controlled by
several methods, including map boundary polygons, rock type
probability maps, or statistically emplaced based on sufficiently
closely spaced well data.

Reservoir quality

Reservoir quality parameters almost always include porosity and

permeability, but may include measures of clay content, cementation
factors, and other factors that affect the storage and deliverability of
fluids contained in the pores of those rocks. Geostatistical
techniques are most often used to populate the cells with porosity
and permeability values that are appropriate for the rock type of each
cell.

Fluid saturation

Most rock is completely

saturated with groundwater.
Sometimes, under the right
conditions, some of the pore
space in the rock is occupied by
other liquids or gases. In the
energy industry, oil and natural
gas are the fluids most
Figure 2. A 3D finite difference grid used in
commonly being modelled. The MODFLOW for simulating groundwater flow in
an aquifer.
preferred methods for
calculating hydrocarbon
saturations in a geologic model
incorporate an estimate of pore throat size, the densities of the
fluids, and the height of the cell above the water contact, since these
factors exert the strongest influence on capillary action, which
ultimately controls fluid saturations.

Geostatistics

An important part of geologic modelling is related to geostatistics. In

order to represent the observed data, often not on regular grids, we
have to use certain interpolation techniques. The most widely used
technique is kriging which uses the spatial correlation among data
and intends to construct the interpolation via semi-variograms. To
reproduce more realistic spatial variability and help assess spatial
uncertainty between data, geostatistical simulation based on
variograms, training images, or parametric geological objects is often
used.

Mineral Deposits

Geologists involved in mining and mineral exploration use geologic

modelling to determine the geometry and placement of mineral
deposits in the subsurface of the earth. Geologic models help define
the volume and concentration of minerals, to which economic
constraints are applied to determine the economic value of the
mineralization. Mineral deposits that are deemed to be economic
may be developed into a mine.

Technology

Geomodelling and CAD share a lot of common technologies.

Software is usually implemented using object-oriented programming
technologies in C++, Java or C# on one or multiple computer
platforms. The graphical user interface generally consists of one or
several 3D and 2D graphics windows to visualize spatial data,
interpretations and modelling output. Such visualization is generally
achieved by exploiting graphics hardware. User interaction is mostly
performed through mouse and keyboard, although 3D pointing
devices and immersive environments may be used in some specific
cases. GIS (Geographic Information System) is also a widely used
tool to manipulate geological data.

Geometric objects are represented with parametric curves and

surfaces or discrete models such as polygonal meshes.
 Figure 3. Gravity Highs

Research in Geomodelling

Problems pertainting to Geomodelling cover

 Defining an appropriate Ontology to describe geological
objects at various scales of interest

Integrating diverse types of observations into 3D

geomodels: geological mapping data, borehole data and
interpretations, seismic images and interpretations,
potential field data, well test data, etc.

Better accounting for geological processes during model

building

Characterizing uncertainty about the geomodels to help

assess risk. Therefore, Geomodelling has a close
connection to Geostatistics and Inverse problem theory

Applying of the recent developed Multiple Point

Geostatistical Simulations (MPS) for integrating different
data sources

Automated geometry optimization and topology

conservation

History

In the 1970s, geomodelling mainly consisted of automatic 2D

cartographic techniques such as contouring, implemented as
FORTRAN routines communicating directly with plotting hardware.
The advent of workstations with 3D graphics capabilities during the
1980s gave birth to a new generation of geomodelling software with
graphical user interface which became mature during the 1990s.
 Since its inception, geomodelling has been mainly motivated and
supported by oil and gas industry.

Geologic modelling software

Software developers have built several packages for geologic

modelling purposes. Such software can display, edit, digitise and
automatically calculate the parameters required by engineers,
geologists and surveyors. Current software is mainly developed and
commercialized by oil and gas or mining industry software vendors:

Geologic modelling and visualisation

SGS Genesis

IRAP RMS Suite

Geomodeller3D
Geosoft provides GM-SYS and VOXI 3D modelling
software
GSI3D

Petrel

Rockworks

Move

Groundwater modelling

FEFLOW
 FEHM

MODFLOW

GMS

Visual MODFLOW

ZOOMQ3D

Moreover, industry Consortia or companies are specifically

working at improving standardization and interoperability of earth
science databases and geomodelling software:

Standardization: GeoSciML by the Commission for the

Management and Application of Geoscience Information, of
the International Union of Geological Sciences.
Standardization: RESQML(tm) by Energistics

Interoperability: OpenSpirit, by TIBCO(r)

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 Self Check: Scientific Tools

Check Your Understanding

Answer the question(s) below to see how well you understand the
topics covered in the previous section. This short quiz
does not count toward your grade in the class, and you can retake it
an unlimited number of times.

Use this quiz to check your understanding and decide whether to

(1) study the previous section further or (2) move on to the next
section.

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 Putting It Together: Science of Geology

Summary

In this section, you learned the following:

1. The extensive definition of geology

2. The various fields within geology and what they study

3. How scientists use the scientific method to answer

questions

Synthesis

While we have not thoroughly answered our questions from the

beginning of the outcome, we should be able to understand the
connection these questions have to geology. We now know that
geology is more than rocks—it deals with the resources we use in
our everyday life, and it explains why some areas are more
tectonically active than others. As we move through the course, keep
these questions in mind.

So let’s get started on this course and see why geology rocks.
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MODULE 2: ROCK FORMING
MINERALS
 Why It Matters: Rock Forming Minerals

Identify and compare common rock forming minerals,

mineral structures and mineral properties.

One of the related fields of geology is mineralogy: the study of

minerals. Geologists rely on minerals for many reasons. Not only are
some minerals considered resources we use, such as gypsum, but
they are the basis for the formation of rocks. Minerals are classified
in different ways based on the elements that they contain. Matter
(elements) makes up the minerals and minerals make up rocks. We
can’t understand rocks and rock forming process or some of the
other areas of geology until we have a basic knowledge of minerals.

OCCUPATION FOCUS: MINERALOGIST

Mineralogists specialize in minerals—their identification, their

chemistry, and their formation. Mineralogists work can work in
laboratories, in museums, for corporations, or for the
government, but they mainly work “in the field.” It is not
uncommon to find them in very remote locations such as
caves. They can focus on mineral identification for resource
 locations, the economic value of the mineral such as
diamonds, they can examine the chemical content of minerals
to help learn about the interior of the Earth and the various
geologic processes. Regardless of what they area they are
focusing on, mineralogists need a solid foundation in both
chemistry and geology.

Learning Outcomes

Describe the basic chemistry involved in mineral formation

and structures.
Identify and classify common rock forming minerals.

Identify the most common elements in the Earth’s crust and

their order of abundance.

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 Outcome: Chemistry of Minerals

Describe the basic chemistry involved in mineral

formation and structures.

In this section, you will learn the basic chemistry associated with the
different types and classes of minerals.

What You’ll Learn to Do

Identify the building blocks of matter.

Differentiate between different kinds of atomic bonds.

Learning Activities

The learning activities for this section include the following:

Reading: The Building Blocks of Matter

Reading: Atomic Bonds

Self Check: Chemistry of Minerals

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 Reading: The Building Blocks of Matter

Why study the chemistry of minerals? Minerals are made of atoms,

which have an impact on the behavior and characteristics of the
mineral. Thus, to understand, explain, and predict the behavior of
minerals, and rocks—which are made of minerals—we must
understand some basic facts about atoms and how they behave.
This requires a basic understanding of some chemistry. We will
begin by constructing atoms in our thinking in terms of the three sub-
atomic particles of which atoms are made.

Atoms

Atoms consist of protons,

neutrons, and electrons.
Protons have a positive (+)
electrical charge. Electrons
have a negative (−) charge that
is exactly equal and opposite to
the electrical charge of a
Figure 1. Elements, such as helium, depicted here,
proton. Neutrons are are made up of atoms. Atoms are made up of
electrically neutral. protons and neutrons located within the nucleus,
with electrons in orbitals surrounding the nucleus.
 Most of the mass of an atom is packed into its tiny nucleus. An
atomic nucleus is made of protons and neutrons, which have
approximately the same mass (about 1.67 × 10−24 grams).
Electrons, on the other hand, are arranged in specific orbitals around
the nucleus of an atom; they are also much smaller in mass than
protons and neutrons, weighing only 9.11 × 10−28 grams, or about
1/1800 the weight of protons and neutrons.

Even though the mass of an electron is a tiny mass compared to

the mass of a proton or a neutron, the electrons occupy most of the
volume of an atom (see Figure 1).

Ions

A neutral atom has the same number of electrons as it does protons.

An atom that has lost or gained any electrons is no longer an
electrically neutral atom. That type of atom, which is not electrically
neutral and has an electrical charge associated with it, is called an
ion. Atoms that have gained electrons are negatively (−) charged
ions, or anions. Atoms that have lost electrons are positively (+)
charged ions, or cations.

It is also possible to have ions that are actually small groups of

atoms bonded together. These are known as polyatomic ions. One
example of a polyatomic ion is the carbonate ion, (CO3)2−, which has
two extra electrons, giving it the net electrical charge of 2−.
 CHEMICAL FORMULAS

We’ve just seen that a carbonate ion can also be called

(CO3)2−. But what exactly does this mean?

First let’s look at the letters: CO. Atoms have

chemical symbols; each element has been assigned one or
two letters to represent it. Thus, C stands in for carbon, and O
stands in for oxygen (all of these chemical symbols can be
seen in the periodic table in figure 2 below).

As we read above, the 2− means that the ion has two extra
electrons. But what about the 3? This means there are three
oxygen atoms in the ion. The number of atoms in a particular
formula is always notated in subscript. Charge is always
written in superscript at the end of the formula (a superscript
at the beginning of the formula means something else—we’ll
get to this when we discuss isotopes below). The parentheses
around CO3 indicate that the charge belongs to the whole
polyatomic unit rather than just the O3.

Thus the carbonate ion is one carbon atom (C), three oxygen
atoms (O3), and two extra electrons (2−), which charge the
whole polyatomic ion.

The Periodic Table

Naturally occurring atoms found in the earth range from hydrogen,
with just one proton in its nucleus, to uranium, with 92 protons in its
nucleus. These are the naturally occurring chemical elements, which
includes such commonly known elements as carbon, oxygen, iron,
and so on. The periodic table lists all the chemical elements in a way
that tells us how many protons each of them has, how its electrons
are arranged, and what the general chemical behavior of each
element is.
Figure 2. Follow this link to a large version of the Periodic Table. The link
 will open in a new window so you can easily refer to it as you read through this
page.

As shown in Figure 2, the periodic table consists of eighteen

groups and seven periods. Two additional rows of elements, known
as the lanthanides and actinides, are placed beneath the main table.
These elements are placed separately to make the table more
compact. All the elements in a group have a similar chemical
behavior. This is because all the elements in a group have a similar
arrangement of electrons in their atoms, and it is the electron
arrangement that determines the chemical behavior of an element.

For each element, the name, atomic symbol, atomic number, and
atomic mass are provided. The atomic number is a whole number
that represents the number of protons: each chemical element is
distinguished by the number of protons in its nucleus. For example,
every atom of the element oxygen has eight protons in its nucleus.
That is why the atomic number of oxygen is 8. If an atom has greater
or fewer than eight protons in its nucleus, it is not oxygen, it is some
other chemical element. In the periodic table, the atomic number of
each element is listed above the chemical symbol of the element.

The atomic mass, which is the average mass of different isotopes,

is estimated to two decimal places. For example, hydrogen has the
atomic symbol H, the atomic number 1, and an atomic mass of 1.01.
The atomic mass is always larger that the atomic number. For most
small elements, the atomic mass is approximately double the atomic
number, as the number of protons and neutrons is about equal.

The elements are divided into three categories: metals, nonmetals

and metalloids. These form a diagonal line from period two, group
thirteen to period seven, group sixteen. All elements to the left of the
metalloids are metals, and all elements to the right are nonmetals.

The periodic table was created to help chemists better understand

elements and how they function. It is a map to elemental behavior.

Isotopes

Every atom of a specific element must have the same number of

protons in its nucleus. This number is its atomic number. However,
there is a range of possible numbers of neutrons it can have in its
nucleus. The fact that atoms of a chemical element may have
different numbers of neutrons results in each chemical element
having several isotopes. Isotopes are atoms of a given chemical
element that have different numbers of neutrons in their nuclei.

For example, while all atoms of the element oxygen have eight
protons in their nuclei, those oxygen atoms may have eight, nine, or
ten neutrons. The different numbers of neutrons in the nucleus
distinguishes the three isotopes of oxygen. Oxygen-16 is the isotope
of oxygen with 8 neutrons in its nucleus. The number 16 is called the
atomic mass number. The atomic mass number is the total number
of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an isotope. From this
definition, and knowing that all oxygen atoms have 8 protons in the
nucleus, you can deduce that oxygen-17 is the oxygen isotope with 9
neutrons and oxygen-18 is the oxygen isotope with 10 neutrons.
Abbreviated into symbols, the three isotopes of oxygen are written
as 16O, 17O and 18O.

Isotopes are not very important for understanding minerals, but

are important in understanding how to apply chemistry and nuclear
physics to geology, such as how to use measurements of radioactive
isotopes to measure the ages of rocks and minerals and how to use
oxygen isotopes from layers of glacial ice to determine what the
temperature of the earth was during an ice age.

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 Reading: Atomic Bonds

Chemical Reactions

Minerals form as a result of chemical reactions. Chemical reactions

are driven mainly by the arrangement and rearrangement of
electrons in atoms. In a mineral, the atoms are held together by
chemical bonds, which derive from the electrons.

Electrons can be thought of

as occupying energy levels, or
shells, in an atom. The lowest-
energy shell is closest to the
nucleus. Each shell can
accommodate only a limited
number of electrons. The first
shell can hold two electrons, the
second and third shells can Figure 1. The Bohr model of the atom.
hold eight electrons, and the
next two shells can hold
eighteen electrons. Unless energy is added to an atom to excite it
from its low-energy state, the electrons in the atom will occupy the
lowest-energy shells available to them.
 The Bohr model (see figure 1) was developed by Niels Bohrs in
1913. In this model, electrons exist within principal shells. An
electron normally exists in the lowest energy shell available, which is
the one closest to the nucleus. Energy from a photon of light can
bump it up to a higher energy shell, but this situation is unstable, and
the electron quickly decays back to the ground state.

Chemical Bonds

If atoms interact with other atoms, they can gain or lose electrons to
the other atoms, or share electrons with other atoms. In an individual
atom, the most stable arrangement is a full outer shell of electrons.
Therefore, chemical reactions will occur, and chemical bonds will
form that hold atoms together to each other, when atoms encounter
other atoms and change their electron configurations toward more
stable, lower-energy arrangements, which generally involves
achieving full outer electron shells in the atoms.

This stable configuration—a full outer shell of electrons—is

exemplified by the inert gases. In the periodic table the inert gases
are the elements of group 18 or VIIIA, the last column on the right.
Inert gases do not have to undergo any chemical reactions or form
any chemical bonds with other atoms in order to have a full outer
shell of electrons. The inert gases already have full outer shells of
electrons. That is why they are chemically inert. Their electrons are
as stable as can be arranged. For this reason, inert gases are
extremely unlikely to undergo any chemical reactions and it is almost
impossible for them to bond with any other atoms. Because they do
not bond with any other atoms to form a liquid, a solid, a molecule, or
a mineral, the inert gases consist of atoms that stay separate from
each other, in the gas state.

Individual atoms of all the other chemical elements, when they are
neutral atoms, do not have full outer shells of electrons like the inert
gases do. Therefore, they do not have the most stable arrangement
of electrons that they possibly can. That is why most chemical
elements have a strong tendency to either gain or lose electrons, or
to enter into other arrangements of their valence electrons, the
electrons in their outer shell. Chemical reactions and chemical bonds
are generally a result of electrons being rearranged within and
among atoms to give the atoms full outer electron shells.

For an atom to lose or gain one electron takes less energy than to
lose or gain two, which in turn takes less energy than to lose or gain
a third electron. For an individual atom to gain or lose four electrons
will only occur in extremely high-energy environments such as in a
star. In common chemical reactions on earth, and in the formation of
chemical bonds, no element will completely gain or lose four
electrons. This limits the charges of atomic cations to +1, +2 or +3
and the charges of atomic anions to –1, –2, or –3.

Reading this far, you have learned about one group of elements in
the periodic table, group 18, the inert gases. Another group of
chemical elements in the periodic table is the alkali elements. The
alkali elements compose group 1 or IA, the left hand column,
including the elements sodium (Na) and potassium (K).

Hydrogen is not usually considered as an alkali element because,

even though it is shown in group 1 in the periodic table. Hydrogen is
so light and small, with just a single proton in its nucleus, that it has
some unique behaviors and is considered in a class by itself.

The alkali elements have a single electron in their outer electron

shell. If an alkali element loses a single electron, it becomes an ion
with a +1 charge and a full outer shell. If an opportunity arises, alkali
elements will easily turned into +1 cations.

Ionic bonds

Now look at group 17 or VIIA in the periodic table, which includes the
chemical elements fluorine (F), chlorine (Cl) and so on. These are
the halogen elements. If a halogen element gains a single electron, it
becomes an ion with a–1 charge and a full outer electron shell. If an
opportunity arises, halogen elements have a strong tendency to take
in an extra electron and become -1 anions because by doing so they
achieve a full outer shell of electrons, which is the most stable
arrangement of electrons possible.
 If sodium and chlorine atoms get together in the right conditions,
such as in an evaporating solution of salt water, each sodium atoms
will give up an electron to a chlorine atom. This turns the sodium
atoms into sodium ions, Na+, and the chlorine atoms into chloride
ions, Cl–. Opposite electrical charges attract, so the sodium ions and
chloride ions will tend to stick together with each other, joined by
what are called ionic bonds.

Figure 2. In the formation of an ionic compound, metals lose electrons and

nonmetals gain electrons to achieve an octet. Ionic bonds are formed between
ions with opposite charges. For instance, positively charged sodium ions and
negatively charged chloride ions bond together to make crystals of sodium
chloride, or table salt, creating a crystalline molecule with zero net charge.

Not only will the sodium and chloride ions have a very strong
tendency to join together with each other via ionic bonds, in most
situations they will naturally arrange into a configuration where there
is no wasted space and no wasted energy. This leads them to form
the crystal lattice of the mineral halite. Halite is a mineral with the
chemical formula NaCl, sodium chloride, in which the bonds between
the atoms are all ionic bonds.
 Look at the diagram of halite showing the sodium and chloride
ions arranged into the crystal lattice. All the ionic bonds are at the
same angle and the same distance, so they are all of equal strength.
This is the lowest-energy arrangement of the ions, the most stable
arrangement. If any of the ions were spaced located at different
angles or at different distances, there would be extra energy
available. This extra energy would drive the ions toward equal
angles and distances from each other, until the extra energy is used
up and the ions are arranged into their lowest energy state. That is
why minerals form, as a natural way for atoms to arrange
themselves into the lowest energy state currently available to them.

Covalent bonds

Some elements, such as carbon (C) and silicon (Si) have a half-full
valence shell. (The valence shell is another name for the outer shell,
where the most reactive electrons are.) If an element such as carbon
were to gain 4 electrons or lose 4 electrons, it would have a full
valence shell. However, it is very difficult for an atom to gain or lose
four electrons—the energy barrier becomes too strong. Therefore,
carbon and silicon, along with a few other elements, tend to form a
different type of bond in which they share their outer electrons with
other atoms, which in turn share their outer electrons with the carbon
(or silicon) atom. The atoms all end up with a full outer shell of
electrons, even though some or all of those electrons are being
shared with neighboring atoms. This electron sharing keeps the
atoms bonded together. This type of chemical bond is called a
covalent bond.

It is not uncommon for covalent bonds to be relatively strong. An

extreme example can be in diamond. Diamond is a mineral
consisting of nothing but carbon atoms, so its chemical formula is
simply C. Each carbon atom in the diamond crystal lattice is
covalently bonded to—sharing its valence electrons with—four
neighboring carbon atoms. A diamond crystal is held together by
nothing but extremely strong covalent bonds in all directions, which
makes diamond a very hard mineral, the hardest known.

Metallic bonds

Gold forms a naturally occurring mineral of more or less pure gold,

Au, held together by another type of bond, the metallic bond. Metallic
elements such as gold and copper, when they bond with other
metallic elements, are sharing some of their electrons not just with
adjacent atoms, but throughout the whole substance. That is why
metallic substances such as copper, gold, and aluminum make such
good electrical conductors, because it is so easy to get the “loose”
electrons to respond through the whole extent of the metal.

Hydrogen bonds

Another type of chemical bond that occurs in some minerals is the

hydrogen bond. Hydrogen bonds are caused by the positive and
negative ends of polar molecules attracting each other strongly
enough to hold each other in fixed positions. For example, water
molecules can join together through hydrogen bonds to form the
mineral known as ice. In a water molecule, H2O, each of the
hydrogen atoms forms a covalent bond with the oxygen atom.

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 Self Check: Chemistry of Minerals

Check Your Understanding

Answer the question(s) below to see how well you understand the
topics covered in the previous section. This short quiz
does not count toward your grade in the class, and you can retake it
an unlimited number of times.

Use this quiz to check your understanding and decide whether to

(1) study the previous section further or (2) move on to the next
section.

An interactive or media element has been excluded from this

version of the text. You can view it online here:
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/geo/?p=2699

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 Outcome: Identifying Minerals

Identify and classify common rock forming minerals.

The solid earth is made of rocks, which are made of minerals. To

understand rocks you need to become familiar with minerals and
how they are identified. This outcome gives you the background
needed to understand the terms used in identifying minerals.

This section will introduce you to minerals. You will learn the
various techniques used by geologists to identify and classify
minerals.

What You’ll Learn to Do

Identify minerals based on their physical characteristics.

Sort minerals into the correct mineral class.

Learning Activities

The learning activities for this section include the following:

Reading: Physical Characteristics of Minerals

 Reading: Classifying Minerals

Self Check: Identifying Minerals

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 Reading: Physical Characteristics of Minerals

What are Minerals?

All rocks except obsidian and coal are made of minerals. (Obsidian
is a volcanic rock made of glass and coal is made of organic
carbon.) Most rocks contain several minerals in a mixture
characteristic of the particular rock type. When identifying a rock you
must first identify the individual minerals that make up that rock.

Minerals are naturally occurring, inorganic solids with a definite

chemical composition and a crystal lattice structure. Although
thousands of minerals in the earth have been identified, just ten
minerals make up most of the volume of the earth’s crust—
plagioclase, quartz, orthoclase, amphibole, pyroxene, olivine, calcite,
biotite, garnet, and clay.

Together, the chemical formula (the types and proportions of the

chemical elements) and the crystal lattice (the geometry of how the
atoms are arranged and bonded together) determine the physical
properties of minerals.

The chemical formula and crystal lattice of a mineral can only be

determined in a laboratory, but by examining a mineral and
determining several of its physical properties, you can identify the
mineral. First, you need to become familiar with the physical
properties of minerals and how to recognize them.

Minerals can be identified by their physical characteristics. The

physical properties of minerals are related to their chemical
composition and bonding. Some characteristics, such as a mineral’s
hardness, are more useful for mineral identification. Color is readily
observable and certainly obvious, but it is usually less reliable than
other physical properties.

How are Minerals Identified?

Mineralogists are scientists

who study minerals. One of the
things mineralogists must do is
identify and categorize
minerals. While a mineralogist
might use a high-powered
microscope to identify some
minerals, most are recognizable
Figure 1. This mineral has shiny, gold, cubic
using physical properties. crystals with striations, so it is pyrite.

Check out the mineral

in figure 1. What is the mineral’s color? What is its shape? Are the
individual crystals shiny or dull? Are there lines (striations) running
across the minerals?

Color, Streak, and Luster

Diamonds are popular gemstones because the way they reflect light
makes them very sparkly. Turquoise is prized for its striking
greenish-blue color. Notice that specific terms are being used to
describe the appearance of minerals.

Color

Color is often useful, but

should not be relied upon.
Different minerals may be the
same color. Real gold, as seen
in figure 2, is very similar in
color to the pyrite in figure 1.
Figure 2. This mineral is shiny, very soft, heavy,
and gold in color, and is actually gold.

Additionally, Some minerals

come in many different colors.
Quartz, for example, may be clear, white, gray, brown, yellow, pink,
red, or orange. So color can help, but do not rely on color as the
determining property. Figure 3 shows one sample of quartz that is
colorless and another quartz that is purple. A tiny amount of iron
makes the quartz purple. Many minerals are colored by chemical
impurities.

Figure 3. Purple quartz, known as amethyst, and clear quartz are the same
mineral despite the different colors.

Luster

Luster describes the reflection of light off a mineral’s surface.

Mineralogists have special terms to describe luster. One simple way
to classify luster is based on whether the mineral is metallic or non-
metallic. Minerals that are opaque and shiny, such as pyrite, have a
metallic luster. Minerals such as quartz have a non-metallic luster.

Luster is how the surface of a mineral reflects light. It is not the

same thing as color, so it crucial to distinguish luster from color. For
example, a mineral described as “shiny yellow” is being described in
terms of luster (“shiny”) and color (“yellow”), which are two different
physical properties. Standard names for luster include metallic,
glassy, pearly, silky, greasy, and dull. It is often useful to first
determine if a mineral has a metallic luster. A metallic luster means
shiny like polished metal. For example cleaned polished pieces of
chrome, steel, titanium, copper, and brass all exhibit metallic luster
as do many other minerals. Of the nonmetallic lusters, glassy is the
most common and means the surface of the mineral reflects light like
glass. Pearly luster is important in identifying the feldspars, which
are the most common type of mineral. Pearly luster refers to a subtle
irridescence or color play in the reflected light, same way pearls
reflect light. Silky means relecting light with a silk-like sheen. Greasy
luster looks similar to the luster of solidified bacon grease. Minerals
with dull luster reflect very little light. Identifying luster takes a little
practice. Remember to distinguish luster from color.

Different types of non-metallic luster are described in table 1.

Table 1. Six types of non-metallic luster.

Luster Appearance
Adamantine Sparkly
Earthy Dull, clay-like
Pearly Pearl-like

Resinous Like resins, such as tree sap

Silky Soft-looking with long fibers
Vitreous Glassy
 Can you match the minerals in figure 4 with the correct luster from
table 1?

Figure 4. (a) Diamond has an adamantine luster. (b) Quartz is not sparkly and has
a vitreous, or glassy, luster. (c) Sulfur reflects less light than quartz, so it has a
resinous luster.

Streak

Streak is the color of a mineral’s powder. Streak is a more reliable

property than color because streak does not vary. Minerals that are
the same color may have a different colored streak. Many minerals,
such as the quartz in the figure 3, do not have streak.

To check streak, scrape the mineral across an unglazed porcelain

plate (Figure 5). Yellow-gold pyrite has a blackish streak, another
indicator that pyrite is not gold, which has a golden yellow streak.

Specific Gravity
Density describes how much
matter is in a certain amount of
space: density = mass/volume.

Mass is a measure of the

amount of matter in an object.
The amount of space an object
takes up is described by its
volume. The density of an
Figure 5. The streak of hematite across an
object depends on its mass and unglazed porcelain plate is red-brown.
its volume. For example, the
water in a drinking glass has
the same density as the water in the same volume of a swimming
pool.

The specific gravity of a substance compares its density to that of

water. Substances that are more dense have higher specific gravity.

Hardness

Hardness is the strength with which a mineral resists its surface

being scraped or punctured. In working with hand samples without
specialized tools, mineral hardness is specified by the Mohs
hardness scale. The Mohs hardness scale is based 10 reference
minerals, from talc the softest (Mohs hardness of 1), to diamond the
hardest (Mohs hardness of 10). It is a relative, or nonlinear, scale. A
hardness of 2.5 simply means that the mineral is harder than
gypsum (Mohs hardness of 2) and softer than calcite (Mohs
hardness of 3). To compare the hardness of two minerals see which
mineral scratches the surface of the other.

Table 2. Mohs Hardness Scale

Hardness Index Minerals Common Objects

1 talc
2 gypsum 2.5-fingernail

3 calcite 3.5-pure, untarnished copper

4 fluorite

5 to 5.5-stainless steel
5 feldspar
5.5 to 6-glass

6 apatite 6 to 6.5-hard steel file

7 quartz

8 topaz
9 corundum

10 diamond

With a Mohs scale, anyone can test an unknown mineral for its
hardness. Imagine you have an unknown mineral. You find that it can
scratch fluorite or even feldspar, but apatite scratches it. You know
then that the mineral’s hardness is between 5 and 6. Note that no
other mineral can scratch diamond.

Cleavage and Fracture

Breaking a mineral breaks its chemical bonds. Since some bonds
are weaker than other bonds, each type of mineral is likely to break
where the bonds between the atoms are weaker. For that reason,
minerals break apart in characteristic ways.

Cleavage

Cleavage is the tendency of a mineral to

break along certain planes to make smooth
surfaces. Halite breaks between layers of
sodium and chlorine to form cubes with
smooth surfaces (figure 6).

Figure 6. A close-up view of

A mineral that naturally breaks into sodium chloride in a water
bubble aboard the International
perfectly flat surfaces is exhibiting Space Station.

cleavage. Not all minerals have cleavage. A

cleavage represents a direction of
weakness in the crystal lattice. Cleavage surfaces can be
distinguished by how they consistently reflect light, as if polished,
smooth, and even. The cleavage properties of a mineral are
described in terms of the number of cleavages and, if more than one
cleavage, the angles between the cleavages. The number of
cleavages is the number or directions in which the mineral cleaves. A
mineral may exhibit 100 cleavage surfaces parallel to each other.
Those represent a single cleavage because the surfaces are all
oriented in the same diretion. The possible number of cleavages a
mineral may have are 1,2,3,4, or 6. If more than 1 cleavage is
present, and a device for measuring angles is not available, simply
state whether the cleavages intersect at 90° or not 90°.

To see mineral cleavage, hold the mineral up beneath a strong

light and move it around, move it around some more, to see how the
different sides reflect light. A cleavage direction will show up as a
smooth, shiny, evenly bright sheen of light reflected by one set of
parallel surfaces on the mineral.

Mica has cleavage in one direction and forms sheets (figure 7).

Figure 7. Sheets of mica.

 Minerals can cleave into polygons.
Fluorite forms octahedrons (figure 8).

One reason gemstones are beautiful is

that the cleavage planes make an attractive
crystal shape with smooth faces.

Figure 8. This rough diamond

Fracture shows its octahedral cleavage.

Fracture is a break in a mineral that is not

along a cleavage plane. Fracture is not
always the same in the same mineral because fracture is not
determined by the structure of the mineral.

Minerals may have characteristic fractures (figure 9). Metals

usually fracture into jagged edges. If a mineral splinters like wood, it
may be fibrous. Some minerals, such as quartz, form smooth curved
surfaces when they fracture.
 Figure 9. Chrysotile has splintery fracture.

All minerals have fracture. Fracture is breakage, which occurs in

directions that are not cleavage directions. Some minerals, such as
quartz, have no cleavage whatsoever. When a mineral with no
cleavage is broken apart by a hammer, it fractures in all directions.
Quartz is said to exhibit conchoidal fracture. Conchoidal fracture is
the way a thick piece of glass breaks with concentric, curving ridges
on the broken surfaces. However, some quartz crystals have so
many flaws that instead of exhibiting conchoidal fracture they simply
exhibit irregular fracture. Irregular fracture is a standard term for
fractures that do not exhibit any of the qualities of the other fracture
types. In introductory geology, the key fracture types to remember
are irregular, which most minerals exhibit, and conchoidal, seen in
quartz.

Crystal Shape

All minerals are crystalline, but only some have the opportunity to
exhibit the shapes of their crystals, their crystal forms. Many
minerals in an introductory geology lab do not exhibit their crystal
form. If a mineral has space while it grows, it may form natural
crystals, with a crystal shape reflecting the geometry of the mineral’s
internal crystal lattice. The shape of a crystal follows the symmetry of
its crystal lattice. Quartz, for instance, forms six-sided crystals,
showing the hexagonal symmetry of its crystal lattice. There are two
complicating factors to remember here: (1) minerals do not always
form nice crystals when they grow, and (2) a crystal face is different
from a cleavage surface. A crystal face forms during the growth of
the mineral. A cleavage surface is formed when the mineral is
broken.

Other Identifying Characteristics

There are some properties that only help to distinguish a small

number of minerals, or even just a single mineral. An example of
such a special property is the effervescent reaction of calcite to a
weak solution of hydrochloric acid (5% HCl). Calcite fizzes or
effervesces as the HCl solution dissolves it and creates CO2 gas.
Calcite is easy to identify even without testing the reaction to HCl, by
its hardness, luster and cleavage.

Another special property is magnetism. This can be tested by

seeing if a small magnet responds to the mineral. The most common
mineral that is strongly magnetic is the mineral magnetite. A special
property that shows up in some sample of plagioclase feldspar is its
tendency to exhibit striations on cleavage surfaces. Striations are
perfectly straight, fine, parallel lines. Magnification may be required
to see striations on plagioclase cleavage surfaces. Other special
properties may be encountered on a mineral to mineral basis.

Some minerals have other unique properties, some of which are

listed in table 3. Can you name a unique property that would allow
you to instantly identify a mineral that’s been described quite a bit in
this chapter? (Hint: It is most likely found on your dinner table.)

Table 3. Some minerals have unusual properties that can be used for identification.
Property Description Example of Mineral
Fluorescence Mineral glows under ultraviolet light Fluorite

Magnetism Mineral is attracted to a magnet Magnetite

Mineral gives off radiation that can be measured
Radioactivity Uraninite
with Geiger counter

Bubbles form when mineral is exposed to a weak

Reactivity Calcite
acid
Sulfur (smells like
Smell Some minerals have a distinctive smell
rotten eggs)
Taste Some minerals taste salty Halite
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 Reading: Classifying Minerals

Classes of Minerals

Minerals are classified according to their chemical properties. Except

for the native element class, the chemical basis for classifying
minerals is the anion, the negatively charged ion that usually shows
up at the end of the chemical formula of the mineral. For example,
the sulfides are based on the sufur ion, S2–. Pyrite, for example,
FeS2, is a sulfide mineral. In some cases, the anion is of a mineral
class is polyatomic, such as (CO3)2–, the carbonate ion. The major
classes of minerals are:

silicates
sulfides

carbonates

oxides
halides

sulfates
phosphates

native elements
Silicates

Based on the polyatomic anion, (SiO4)4–, which has a tetrahedral

shape. Most minerals in the earth’s crust and mantle are silicate
minerals. All silicate minerals are built of silicon-oxygen tetrahedra
(SiO4)4– in different bonding arrangements which create different
crystal lattices. You can understand the properties of a silicate
mineral such as crystal shape and cleavage by knowing which type
of crystal lattice it has.

In nesosilicates, also called island silicates, the silicate

tetrahedra are separate from each other and bonded
completely to non silicate atoms. Olivine is an island
silicate.

In sorosilicates or paired silicates, such as epidote, the

silicate tetrahedra are bonded in pairs.
In cyclosilicates, also called ring silicates, the silicate
tetrahedra are joined in rings. Beryl or emerald is a ring
silicate.
In phyllosilicates or sheet silicates, the tetrahedra are
bonded at three corners to form flat sheets. Biotite is a
sheet silicate.

In single-chain inosilicates the silicate tetrahedra are

bonded in single chains. Pyroxenes are singele-chain
inosilicates.
 In double-chain inosilicates the silicate tetrahedra are
bonded in double chains. Amphiboles are double-chain
inosilicates.
In tectosilicates, also known as framework silicates, all
corners of the silicate tetrahedra are bonded to corners of
other silicate tetrahedra, forming a complete framework of
silicate tetrahedra in all directions. Feldspar, the most
common mineral in earth’s crust, and quartz are both
framework silicates.

Sulfides

These are based on the sulfide ion, S2–. Examples include pyrite,
FeS2, galena, PbS, and sphalerite, ZnS in its pure zinc form. Some
sulfides are mined as sources of such metals as zinc, lead, copper,
and tin.

Carbonates

These are based on the carbonate ion, (CO3)2–. Calcite, CaCO3, and
dolomite, CaMg(CO3)2, are carbonate minerals. Carbonate minerals
tend to dissolve relatively easily in water, especially acid water, and
natural rain water is slightly acid.

Oxides

These are based on the oxygen anion, O2–. Examples include iron
oxides such as hematite, Fe2O3 and magnetite, Fe3O4, and
pyrolusite, MgO.

Halides

These have a halogen element as the anion, whether it be fluoride,

F–, chloride, Cl–, bromide, Br–, iodide, I–, or astatide, At –. Halite,
NaCl, is a halide mineral.

Sulfates

These have the polyatomic sulfate ion, (SO4)2–, as the anion.

Anhydrite, CaSO4, is a sulfate.

Phosphates

These have the polyatomic phosphate ion, (PO4)3–, as the anion.

Fluorapatite, Ca5(PO4)3F, which makes your teeth hard, is a
phosphate mineral.

Native Elements

These are made of nothing but a single element. Gold (Au), native
copper (Cu), and diamond and graphite, which are made of carbon,
are all native element minerals. Recall that a mineral is defined as
naturally occurring. Therefore, elements purified and crystallized in a
laboratory do not qualify as minerals, unless they have also been
found in nature.

Mineral Classification Tables

In tables 1–3, hardness is measured on Mohs Hardness Scale. As

you read through the tables, you can click on the images of minerals
to see a larger version of the photo.
Table 1. Nonmetallic Luster—Light Color
Typical Color Hardness Cleavage/Fracture Mineral Name Photo of Mineral

colorless 7 conchodial fracture quartz

chalcedony
variable 7 conchodial fracture
(chert, etc.)

2 planes at right orothoclase

pink or white 5–6
angles (feldspar)
Table 1. Nonmetallic Luster—Light Color

2 planes at right Na-plagioclase

white 5–6
angles (feldspar)

2 planes at right Ca-plagioclase

white to gray 5–6
angles (feldspar)

variable 4 4 planes fluorite

3 planes at odd
colorless or white 3 calcite
angles
Table 1. Nonmetallic Luster—Light Color

3 planes at odd
pink or white 3 dolomite
angles

3 planes at odd
colorless or white 2.5–3 halite
angles

colorless or white 2.5 1 plane muscovite

2 planes at right
colorless or white 2 gypsum
angles
Table 1. Nonmetallic Luster—Light Color

variable 1 1 plane talc

uneven (turns to
white <1 kaolinite
powder)
Table 2. Nonmetallic Luster—Dark Color

Typical Color Hardness Cleavage/Fracture Mineral Name Photo of Mineral

green 5–6 irregular olivine

red 5–6 irregular garnet

red 3–6 irregular hematite

2 planes at right
dark green 3–6 pyroxene
angles
Table 2. Nonmetallic Luster—Dark Color

2 planes at odd hornblende

black 4.5–6
angles (amphibole)

black 2.5 1 plane biotite

green 2 1 plane chlorite

Table 3. Metallic Luster

Typical Color Hardness Cleavage/Fracture Mineral Name Photo of Mineral

black or dark
6 irregular magnetite
gray

brassy yellow 6 irregular pyrite

coppery yellow 4 irregular chalcopyrite

Table 3. Metallic Luster

3 planes at right
silver 3 galena
angles

How to Identify Minerals

First, you need good light and a hand lens or magnifying glass. A
hand lens is a small, double-lens magnifying glass that has a
magnification power of at least 8× and can be purchased at some
bookstores and nature stores.

Minerals are identified on the basis of their physical properties,

which have been described in the the previous section. To identify a
mineral, you look at it closely. At a glance, calcite and quartz look
similar. Both are usually colorless, with a glassy luster. However,
their other properties they are completely different. Quartz is much
harder, hard enough to scratch glass. Calcite is soft, and will not
scratch glass. Quartz has no mineral cleavage and fractures the
same irregular way glass breaks. Calcite has three cleavage
directions which meet at angles other than 90°, so it breaks into solid
pieces with perfectly flat, smooth, shiny sides.
 When identifying a mineral, you must:

1. Look at it closely on all visible sides to see how it reflects

light

2. Test its hardness

3. Identify its cleavage or fracture
4. Name its luster

5. Evaluate any other physical properties necessary to

determine the mineral’s identity

In the minerals tables that accompanies this section, the minerals

are grouped according to their luster and color. They are also
classified on the basis of their hardness and their cleavage or
fracture. If you can identify several of these physical properties, you
can identify the mineral.

A simple lesson on how to identify minerals is seen in this video.

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 Self Check: Identifying Minerals

Check Your Understanding

Answer the question(s) below to see how well you understand the
topics covered in the previous section. This short quiz
does not count toward your grade in the class, and you can retake it
an unlimited number of times.

Use this quiz to check your understanding and decide whether to

(1) study the previous section further or (2) move on to the next
section.

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 Outcome: Most Common Elements

Identify the most common elements in the Earth’s crust

and their order of abundance.

This section will introduce you to the most common elements

present in the Earth’s crust that directly influence types of minerals
formed.

What You’ll Learn to Do

Identify the eight most common elements in Earth’s crust.

Organize the eight most common elements in Earth’s crust
by order of abundance.

Learning Activities

The learning activities for this section include the following:

Reading: Abundance of Elements in Earth’s Crust

Reading: Silicate Minerals and the Silicate Tetrahedron

Self Check: Most Common Elements

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 Reading: Abundance of Elements in Earth's
Crust

The table shows the abundance of elements in Earth’s crust.

The Elite Eight Elements

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 Reading: Silicate Minerals and the Silicate
Tetrahedron

Most of the minerals in the earth are silicate minerals. The building
block of silicate minerals—the essential component that makes them
silicate minerals—is the silicate tetrahedron. The silicate tetrahedron
consists of four oxygen atoms arranged as close as they can get
around a central silicon atom. The result is a pyramidal shape known
as a tetrahedron, with an oxygen atom at each of its four apices.
(The apices are the points on the tetrahedron where three corners
come together.)

The silicon atom by itself has four electrons in its outer shell. In the
silicate tetrahedron each of those four electrons is being shared with
one of the four attached oxygen atoms. In turn, each oxygen atom is
sharing one of the 6 electrons it has in its outer shell.

The result is that the silicon at the center of the tetrahedron has, in
effect, a full outer shell with eight electrons in it. Those eight
electrons are shared, in pairs, with the four oxygen atoms of the
tetrahedron. Each oxygen atom in the tetrahedron, in turn, will have
seven electrons in its outer shell—if there is nothing more to the
system than the one silicon atom bonded to the four oxygen atoms.
This would leave each oxygen atom one electron short of having a
full outer shell of electrons.

However, oxygen is a strongly electronegative element, which

means that it has the strength to attract electrons from other
elements to its nucleus in most situations. In a mineral, each oxygen
atom in the silicate tetrahedron will actually have eight electrons: the
six electrons that each oxygen atom had in its outer electron shell to
begin with, the electron it gained by sharing a pair of electrons in a
covalent bond with the silicon atom in the tetrahedron, and one more
electron from another atom (or another small group of atoms) in the
mineral, outside the tetrahedron.

Silicate tetrahedra are able to bond with many common elements

in many different crystal lattice arrangements. In addition, silicate
tetrahedra are able to bond with other silicate tetrahedra in a variety
of geometric arrangements, including rings, sheets, chains, and
three-dimensional networks.

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 Self Check: Most Common Elements

Check Your Understanding

Answer the question(s) below to see how well you understand the
topics covered in the previous section. This short quiz
does not count toward your grade in the class, and you can retake it
an unlimited number of times.

Use this quiz to check your understanding and decide whether to

(1) study the previous section further or (2) move on to the next
section.

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 Putting It Together: Rock Forming Minerals

Summary

In this section, you learned the following:

1. The basic chemistry involved with mineral formation

2. The most common mineral forming elements

3. Common techniques used to identify minerals

4. How to use these techniques to identify common minerals
5. What a mineralogist does and where they work

Synthesis

In this module we took a closer look at minerals. Minerals are very

complex, and they form in a variety of ways and in a variety of
settings. We examined some of the ways the mineralogist identifies
minerals; some of the methods were very simple while others were a
bit more complex (some of these include cleavage and reaction to
acid). We can now understand why mineralogists need the firm
foundation in chemistry and geology. In mineralogy, chemistry and
geology are very tightly woven together. We saw just how those
elements go into making up minerals. We stated earlier that
elements make up minerals and minerals make up rocks, but we can
also look at it in a different more familiar way: chocolate makes up
chocolate chips and then the chocolate chips make up the cookie
(along with the dough of course). Now that we have an insight into
minerals, we can move on to the next concept—ROCKS!

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MODULE 3: ROCKS AND THE
ROCK CYCLE
 Why It Matters: Rocks and the Rock Cycle

Identify processes of the rock cycle and the different

rock types associated with each step.

Introduction

In this section we will learn about the rock cycle and the different
types of rocks. Please watch this short video for an introduction:

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As you can see, the rock cycle is never ending. The

video explained how rocks change from one rock type to another,
and—just as important—it showed the processes that cause those
changes.

Learning the rock cycle and understanding the processes involved

helps all of us. For example, you saw in the video how all rocks are
eroded into fine particles. This is how soil forms, through the
breakdown of rocks. We need soil to survive—imagine trying to grow
vegetables without it. This is an immediate connection to the food
chain. The rock cycle also gives scientists and engineers an idea on
where energy sources (mainly fossil fuels, which are found only in
sedimentary rock) and building materials such as marble or granite
may be located. We will see throughout the course how this cycle
plays into just about every aspect of geology.

Here’s a visual representation of the rock cycle:

 As you continue through the module, refer back to this image.
Remember that all the processes of the rock cycle are
interconnected.
Learning Outcomes

Identify igneous rocks and the steps of the rock cycle

related to their formation.
Identify sedimentary rocks and the steps of the rock cycle
related to their formation.
Identify metamorphic rocks and the steps of the rock cycle
related to their formation.

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 Outcome: Igneous Rocks

Identify igneous rocks and the steps of the rock cycle

related to their formation.

We’ll start by learning about igneous rocks and their formation.

What You’ll Learn to Do

Define the characteristics of an igneous rock.

Discuss the role of melting and subsequent cooling in the

rock cycle.

Learning Activities

The learning activities for this section include the following:

Reading: Characteristics of Igneous Rocks

Reading: How Are Igneous Rocks Classified?

Reading: Identifying Igneous Rocks

Uses of Igneous Rocks

Self Check: Igneous Rocks
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 Reading: Characteristics of Igneous Rocks

Magma is molten rock inside the earth. It is the source of all igneous
rock. Because the earth was largely molten at its origin, magma may
be considered the beginning of the rock cycle. Igneous rocks contain
information about how they originate. By carefully analyzing igneous
rocks and interpreting the information they contain, we can deduce
processes that take place within the earth and we can understand
volcanic processes that take place on the earth’s surface.

The study of igneous rocks enables us to understand the igneous

part of geologic history. For example, at the end of the Triassic
period, 245 million years ago, the greatest mass extinction ever
known took place, wiping out more life forms on earth than the mass
extinction that led to the demise of dinosaurs 65 million years ago at
the end of the Cretaceous. At the end of the Triassic, a huge amount
of basalt erupted onto the earth. Many geologists think that the
gases and particles released into the atmosphere by those eruptions
may have been a major factor in the end of Triassic mass extinction.
Those scientists are studying the information contained in the
basalts of that age to further test their hypotheses.

Igneous rocks contain three essential sources of information: their

minerals, their overall chemical composition, and their igneous
texture. Igneous rock names are based on specific combinations of
these features. Igneous rocks also contain isotopic information that
is used in determining absolute ages and in further characterizing
the origin of the magma. Special equipment and expertise is required
to conduct isotopic and precise chemical analyses. Fortunately, with
some basic training and practice anyone can learn to identify the
minerals, composition and texture of an igneous rock; name the
rock; and interpret key information about its origins.

All igneous rocks, other than pure volcanic glass, contain minerals.
The minerals provide details on the chemical composition of the
rock, and on the conditions in which the magma originated, cooled,
and solidified. Geologists conduct chemical analyses of minerals to
determine the temperatures and pressures at which they formed and
to identify the dissolved gases and chemical elements that were
present in the magma.

Most magmas are predominantly silicate liquids, composed largely

of silica tetrahedra that have not yet bonded together to become
silicate minerals. The chemical composition of an igneous rock tells
us about the origin of the magma, beginning with which type of rock
melted within the earth to form the magma in the first place, and how
deep in the earth the melting occurred. Once magma has formed
inside the earth, its composition may be modified. Minerals can grow
from the magma and separate from it, changing the chemistry of the
remaining liquid. Or, one body of magma can mix with another that
has a different composition.

Magmas come in a range of compositions, from rich in silica and

poor and iron and magnesium (felsic) to moderate in silica and high
in iron and magnesium (mafic). Felsic igneous rocks, as a whole
rock, tend to have light colors or shades: white, pink, light brown,
light gray. Mafic igneous rocks, on the whole, tend to be dark
colored, commonly black or dark gray. Most mafic magma originates
by melting of rocks in the mantle that are extremely rich in iron and
magnesium. Felsic magma usually originates in the crust or by the
shedding of mafic minerals as magma rises through the crust.

The igneous texture tells us how the magma cooled and solidified.
Magma can solidify into igneous rock in several different ways, each
way resulting in a different igneous texture. Magma may stay within
the earth, far below ground level, and crystallize into plutonic
igneous rock (also known as intrusive igneous rock). Or, magma
may flow out onto surface of the earth as a lava flow. Another way
that igneous rock forms is by magma erupting explosively into the air
and falling to earth in pieces known as pyroclastic material, also
called tephra. Lava flows and pyroclastic material are volcanic
igneous rock (also known as extrusive igneous rock).

The igneous texture of a rock is not how it feels in your hand, not
whether it is rough or smooth. The igneous texture describes
whether the rock has mineral crystals or is glassy, the size of the
mineral grains, and the rock’s porosity (empty spaces).

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 Reading: How Are Igneous Rocks Classified?

This page focuses on igneous rocks and gives you the background
needed to understand the terms used in the igneous rock
classification table (at the bottom of this page).

Intrusive and Extrusive Igneous Rocks

Igneous rocks are called intrusive when

they cool and solidify beneath the surface.
Intrusive rocks form plutons and so are also
called plutonic. A pluton is an igneous
intrusive rock body that has cooled in the
crust. When magma cools within the Earth,
the cooling proceeds slowly. Slow cooling Figure 2. Granite is made of four
minerals, all visible to the naked
allows time for large crystals to form, so eye: feldspar (white), quartz
(translucent), hornblende (black),
intrusive igneous rocks have visible and biotite (black, platy).
crystals. Granite is the most common
intrusive igneous rock (see figure 2 for an
example).

Igneous rocks make up most of the rocks on Earth. Most igneous

rocks are buried below the surface and covered with sedimentary
rock, or are buried beneath the ocean water. In some places,
geological processes have brought igneous rocks to the surface.
Figure 3 below shows a landscape in California’s Sierra Nevada
made of granite that has been raised to create mountains.

Figure 3. California’s Sierra Nevada is intrusive igneous rock exposed at Earth’s

surface.

Igneous rocks are called extrusive when they cool and solidify
above the surface. These rocks usually form from a volcano, so they
are also called volcanic rocks (figure 4).
 Figure 4. Extrusive igneous rocks form after lava cools above the surface.

Extrusive igneous rocks cool much more

rapidly than intrusive rocks. There is little
time for crystals to form, so extrusive
igneous rocks have tiny crystals (figure 5).

Figure 5. Cooled lava forms

Classifying Igneous Rocks basalt with no visible crystals.
Why are there no visible
crystals?
As we just learned, there are two main
types of igneous rocks: intrusive rocks (also
known as plutonic rocks) and extrusive
rocks (also known as volcanic rocks). Volcanic rocks break down into
two more categories: (a) lava flows and (b) tephra (pyroclastic
material).
 Igneous rocks are classified on the basis of their composition and
their texture. Magma, and the igneous rock it becomes, has a range
of chemical compositions. For example, basalt is a mafic lava flow
rock which originates from melting of the upper mantle. The way that
magma turns into a solid rock gives it a distinctive igneous texture.
For example, magma that becomes a pluton by slowly crystallizing
(growing minerals) within the crust will develop a very different
texture from magma that becomes an ash flow tuff as a result of
semi-molten volcanic ash spewing across a landscape and then
settling down and welding itself together into solid rock.

Igneous Rock Textures

Igneous textures include the rock textures occurring in igneous

rocks. Igneous textures are used by geologists in determining the
mode of origin igneous rocks and are used in rock classification.
There are six main types of textures; phaneritic, aphanitic,
porphyritic, glassy, pyroclastic and pegmatitic.

Aphanitic (a = not, phaner = visible) rocks in contrast to phaneritic

rocks, typically form from lava which crystallize rapidly on or near
Earth’ surface. Because extrusive rocks make contact with the
atmosphere they cool quickly, so the minerals do not have time to
form large crystals. The individual crystals in an aphanitic igneous
rock are not distinguishable to the naked eye. Examples of aphanitic
igneous rock include basalt, andesite andrhyolite.
 Glassy or vitreous textures occur during some volcanic eruptions
when the lava is quenched so rapidly that crystallization cannot
occur. The result is a natural amorphous glass with few or no
crystals. Examples includeobsidian and pumice.

Pegmatitic texture occurs during magma cooling when some

minerals may grow so large that they become massive (the size
ranges from a few centimetres to several metres). This is typical of
pegmatites.

Phaneritic (phaner = visible) textures are typical of intrusive

igneous rocks, these rocks crystallized slowly below Earth’s surface.
As magma cools slowly the minerals have time to grow and form
large crystals. The minerals in a phaneritic igneous rock are
sufficiently large to see each individual crystal with the naked eye.
Examples of phaneritic igneous rocks are gabbro, diorite and granite.

Porphyritic textures develop when conditions during cooling of a

magma change relatively quickly. The earlier formed minerals will
have formed slowly and remain as large crystals, whereas, sudden
cooling causes the rapid crystallization of the remainder of the melt
into a fine grained (aphanitic) matrix. The result is an aphanitic rock
with some larger crystals (phenocrysts) imbedded within its matrix.
Porphyritic texture also occurs when magma crystallizes below a
volcano but is erupted before completing crystallization thus forcing
the remaining lava to crystallize more rapidly with much smaller
crystals.

Pyroclastic (pyro = igneous, clastic = fragment) textures occur

when explosive eruptions blast the lava into the air resulting in
fragmental, typically glassy material which fall as volcanic ash, lapilli
and volcanic bombs.

Figure 1. Different cooling rate and gas content resulted in these different
textures.

Volcanic Rocks

Let us start with textures associated with rocks formed by lava flows.
Magmas that erupt as lava onto the earth’s surface cool and solidify
rapidly. Rapid cooling results in an aphanitic igneous texture, in
which few or none of the individual minerals are big enough to see
with the naked eye. This is sometimes referred to as a fine-grained
igneous texture.

Some lava flows, however, are not purely fine-grained. If some

mineral crystals start growing while the magma is still underground
and cooling slowly, those crystals grow to a large enough size to be
easily seen, and the magma then erupts as a lava flow, the resulting
texture will consist of coarse-grained crystals embedded in a fine-
grained matrix. This texture is called porphyritic.

If lava has bubbles of gas escaping from it as it solidifies, it will

end up with “frozen bubble holes” in it. These “frozen bubble holes”
are called vesicles, and the texture of a rock containing them is said
to be vesicular.

If so many bubbles are escaping from lava that it ends up

containing more bubble holes than solid rock, the resulting texture is
said to be frothy. Pumice is the name of a type of volcanic rock with
a frothy texture.

If lava cools extremely quickly, and has very little water dissolved
in it, it may freeze into glass, with no minerals (glass by definition is
not a mineral, because it does not have a crystal lattice). Such a rock
is said to have a glassy texture. Obsidian is the common rock that
has a glassy texture, and is essentially volcanic glass. Obsidian is
usually black.

Now let us briefly consider textures of tephra or pyroclastic rocks.

Like lava flow rocks, these are also extrusive igneous rocks.
However, instead of originating from lava that flowed on the earth’s
surface, tephra is volcanic material that was hurled through the air
during a volcanic eruption.

A pyroclastic rock made of fine-grained volcanic ash may be said

to have a fine-grained, fragmental texture. Volcanic ash consists
mainly of fine shards of volcanic glass. It may be white, gray, pink,
brown, beige, or black in color, and it may have some other fine
crystals and rock debris mixed in. The term “fine-grained,
fragmental” is easy to confuse with the term fine-grained (aphanitic).
An equivalent term that is less ambiguous is tuffaceous. Rocks made
of volcanic ash are called tuff.

A pyroclastic rock with many big chunks of material in it that were

caught up in the explosive eruption is said to have a coarse-grained,
fragmental texture. However, a better word that will avoid confusion
is to say it has a brecciated texture, and the rock is usually called a
volcanic breccia. The bigger chunks of material in a volcanic breccia
are more than 1 cm (5/8 inch) across, and sometimes are much
bigger.
Plutonic Rocks

When magma cools slowly underground and solidifies there, it

usually grows crystals big enough to be seen easily with the naked
eye. These visible crystals comprise the whole rock, not just part of it
as in a porphyritic, fine-grained igneous rock. The texture of an
igneous rock made up entirely of crystals big enough to be easily
seen with the naked eye is phaneritic. Phaneritic texture is
sometimes referred to as coarse-grained igneous texture. Granite,
the most well known example of an intrusive igneous rock, has a
phaneritic texture.

Sometimes an intrusion of magma that is crystallizing slowly

underground releases large amounts of hot water. The water is
released from the magma as extremely hot fluid with lots of chemical
elements dissolved in it. This hydrothermal fluid gets into cracks and
voids in the earth’s crust, and as it cools it may grow very large
minerals from the dissolved chemical elements. A rock consisting of
such large minerals is said to have a pegmatitic texture, which
means the average mineral size is greater than 1 cm in diameter
(and sometimes is much larger). The name of an igneous rock with a
pegmatitic texture is pegmatite. Pegmatites are commonly found in
or near the margins of bodies of granite.

Igneous Rock Compositions

The most common igneous compositions can be summarized in

three words: mafic (basaltic), intermediate (andesitic), and felsic
(granitic).

Felsic composition is higher in silica (SiO2) and low in iron (Fe)

and magnesium (Mg). Mafic composition is higher in iron and
magnesium and lower in silica. Intermediate compositions contain
silica, iron, and magnesium in amounts that are intermediate to felsic
and mafic compositions.

Composition and Color

Composition influences the color of igneous rocks. Felsic rocks tend

to be light in color (white, pink, tan, light brown, light gray). Mafic
rocks tend to be dark in color (black, very dark brown, very dark
gray, dark green mixed with black). The color distinction comes from
the differences in iron and magnesium content. Iron and, to a lessor
extent, magnesium give minerals a darker color. Intermediate
igneous rocks tend to have intermediate shades or colors (green,
gray, brown).

The association between color and composition is useful because

before you can name and interpret an igneous rock you need to
determine both its texture AND its composition. If you have an
aphanitic igneous rock, which has no crystals big enough to see
without a microscope, you can estimate its composition based on its
color: pink or nearly white, felsic; medium gray, intermediate; very
dark or black, mafic.

This color rule works most of the time but there are two problems
that you need to keep in mind. First, the rule does not work for
glassy igneous rocks. Obsidian, which is volcanic glass, is usually
black, even though it has a felsic composition. That is because a tiny
amount of iron, too little to color minerals very darkly, can color glass
darkly.

The second problem is that when igneous rocks have been

exposed to air and water for a long time, they start to weather, which
changes their color. Geologists working in the field carry a rock
hammer, so they can break off the weathered, outer parts of rocks to
see the “fresh,” unweathered rock inside.

If you can see and identify the minerals in an igneous rock, you
can gain further information about the igneous composition. Igneous
rocks with quartz in them are usually felsic. Igneous rocks with
olivine in them are usually mafic. Igneous rocks with neither quartz
nor olivine in them are most commonly intermediate.

Origins of Igneous Rocks

Once you have determined the texture and composition of an

igneous rock, you can name it and you can also say something
important about how it formed. For example, a coarse-grained, felsic
igneous rock is not only a granite, it is an intrusive igneous rock that
formed from slow cooling and crystallization of a body of magma
within the earth’s crust. The intrusion of large bodies of granite—
batholiths—is usually part of the origin of a mountain range.
Similarly, a fine-grained, mafic igneous rock is not only a basalt, it is
an extrusive igneous rock that formed from rapid cooling and
crystallization of a lava flow at earth’s surface.

Igneous Rock Classification

Pegmatitic Texture (Extremely Coarse-Grained)
Originates from water-rich intrusions, which cool and crystallize underground

Composition Most Common Minerals Rock Name

Na-plagioclase, orthoclase, quartz, biotite, amphibole,

felsic pegmatite
muscovite

Phanertitic Texture (Coarse-Grained)

Originates in deep intrusions, which cool and crystallize slowly underground
Composition Most Common Minerals Rock Name

Na-plagioclase, orthoclase, quartz, biotite, amphibole,

felsic granite
muscovite

Na-plagioclase, quartz, orthoclase, amphibole, biotite granodiorite

intermediate
Na-plagioclase, amphibole, pyroxene, biotite diorite

mafic Ca-plagioclase, pyroxene, olivine, amphibole gabbro

Aphanitic Texture (Fine-Grained)
Originates in lava flows (or very shallow intrusions), which cool rapidly

Composition Most Common Minerals Rock Name

Na-plagioclase, orthoclase, quartz, biotite, amphibole,
felsic rhyolite
muscovite
Na-plagioclase, quartz, orthoclase, amphibole, biotite dacite
intermediate
Na-plagioclase, amphibole, pyroxene, biotite andesite

mafic Ca-plagioclase, pyroxene, olivine, amphibole basalt

Frothy Texture (Porous, Pumiceous)

Originates in gas-charged volcanic eruptions, commonly pyroclastic
Composition Most Common Minerals Rock Name
felsic glass (may contain a few minerals typical of felsic rocks) pumice

mafic glass (may contain a few mineral typical of mafic rocks) scoria
Note: Basalt with fewer holes, known as vesicles, is called vesicular basalt. Scoria has
more holes and may be black or red in color.

Glassy Texture
Originates from cooling too rapid to allow crystal lattices to form
Composition Most Common Minerals Rock Name
felsic to mafic glass (no minerals) obsidian
Note: Obsidian that is transparent at thin edges and has good conchoidal fracture is
probably felsic.
Fragmental Texture—Coarse (Contains Large Rock Fragments)
Originates from pyroclastic (explosive) eruptions
Composition Most Common Minerals Rock Name
volcanic
felsic to mafic variable (depending on rock fragments and ash content)
breccia
Fragmental Texture—Fine (Mainly Volcanic Ash)
Originates from pyroclastic (explosive) eruptions
Composition Most Common Minerals Rock Name

felsic may contain a few minerals typical of felsic rocks rhyolitic tuff
medium may contain a few minerals typical of intermediate rocks andesitic tuff
mafic may contain a few minerals typical of mafic rocks

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Ph.D. and Cheryl D. Dawes. Provided by: Wenatchee
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 Reading: Identifying Igneous Rocks

Igneous rocks can be distinguished from sedimentary rocks by the

lack of beds, lack of fossils, and lack of rounded grains in igneous
rocks, and the presence of igneous textures. A granite, for example,
can be distinguished from a sandstone because rather than being a
mixture of weathered, rounded grains compressed and cemented
together, granite consists of a small number of minerals in shiny
black, white, or pink colors, with excellent crystal forms, grown
together into a completely interlocking pattern. Sandstones, by
contrast, have sedimentary bedding (layers) and consist of rounded
grains with some spaces between the grains, which you can see with
a hand lens or magnifying glass.

Igneous rocks can be distinguished from most regional

metamorphic rocks by the lack of foliation (layering) in igneous
rocks. Unfoliated metamorphic rocks lack igneous textures and
usually contain minerals not found in igneous rocks.

Granite may look like gneiss at first glance, but granite has no
layering, no preferred orientation of the minerals. The minerals in a
granite grow randomly in all directions, rather than tending to grow
parallel to each other.
 Igneous rocks are classified on the basis of their texture and their
composition. See the previous sections for descriptions of the
different igneous textures and compositions.

The igneous rock classification tables that accompany this section

are arranged on the basis of igneous textures first, and further
broken down on the basis of igneous composition. Remember that
igneous composition is estimated on the basis of color: light = felsic
composition, medium = intermediate composition, and dark = mafic
composition.

Watch this video for an example of identifying igneous rocks:

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Ph.D. and Cheryl D. Dawes. Provided by: Wenatchee
Valley College. Located at:
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 s.html. Project: Geology 101 - Introduction to Physical
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Identifying Rocks : Identifying Igneous Rocks. Authored

by: eHow. Located at: https://youtu.be/Q0XtLjE3siE.
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 Reading: Uses of Igneous Rocks

Igneous rocks have a wide variety

of uses. One important use is as
stone for buildings and statues.
Diorite was used extensively by
ancient civilizations for vases and
other decorative artwork and is still
used for art today (Figure 1).

Granite (figure 2) is used both in

building construction and for Figure 1. This diorite statue was made in
approximately 2090 BC.
statues. It is also a popular choice for
kitchen countertops. Peridotite is
sometimes mined for peridot, a type of olivine that is used in jewelry.

Pumice is commonly used as an abrasive. Pumice is used to

smooth skin or scrape up grime around the house. When pumice is
placed into giant washing machines with newly manufactured jeans
and tumbled, the result is “stone-washed” jeans. Ground up pumice
stone is sometimes added to toothpaste to act as an abrasive
material to scrub teeth.
 Figure 2. Granite is an igneous rock used commonly in statues and building
materials.

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Revision and Adaptation. Authored by: Kimberly Schulte

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License: CC BY: Attribution

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Public domain content

Statue of Gudea. Authored by: Unknown. Provided by:

Metropolitan Museum of Art. Located at:
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-_MET_-_59.2.jpg. License: Public Domain: No Known
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 Self Check: Igneous Rocks

Check Your Understanding

Answer the question(s) below to see how well you understand the
topics covered in the previous section. This short quiz
does not count toward your grade in the class, and you can retake it
an unlimited number of times.

Use this quiz to check your understanding and decide whether to

(1) study the previous section further or (2) move on to the next
section.

An interactive or media element has been excluded from this

version of the text. You can view it online here:
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 Outcome: Sedimentary Rocks

Identify sedimentary rocks and the steps of the rock

cycle related to their formation.

Let’s move onto sedimentary rocks and their formation.

What You’ll Learn to Do

Define the characteristics of an sedimentary rock.

Discuss the role of weathering, deposition, and erosion in

the rock cycle.

Learning Activities

The learning activities for this section include the following:

Reading: Characteristics of Sedimentary Rocks

Self Check: Sedimentary Rocks

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 Reading: Characteristics of Sedimentary Rocks

The White House (shown in

figure 1) is the official home and
workplace of the President of
the United States of America.
Why do you think the White
House is white? If you
answered, “Because it is made
of white rock,” you would be Figure 1. The White House of the USA is made of
a sedimentary rock called sandstone.
only partially correct.
Construction for the White
House began in 1792. Its
outside walls are made of the sedimentary rock sandstone. This
sandstone is very porous and is easily penetrated by rainwater.
Water damage was common in the early days of construction for the
building. To stop the water damage, workers covered the sandstone
in a mixture of salt, rice, and glue, which help to give the White
House its distinctive white color.

Lithification—Sediments to Sedimentary rocks

Sedimentary rocks are rocks made of lithified sediment. Sediments

are grains of rocks, minerals, or mineraloids deposited on the
surface of the earth. Reflect on the rock cycle for an indication of the
relationships between the rocks that erode to become sediments and
sedimentary rocks. For sediment to become sedimentary rock, it
usually undergoes burial, compaction, and cementation.

Clastic sedimentary rocks are the result of weathering and erosion

of source rocks, which turns them into pieces—clasts—of rocks and
minerals. Once they become pieces, these clasts are free to move
away from their source rock and they usually do. They are most
often transported by water and deposited as layers of sediment.

The burial stage of lithification involves the deposition of more

sediment layers top of those that had been deposited earlier. In a
sedimentary basin where sediment is being deposited, it is common
for subsidence (lowering) of the basin to be taking place, either
because the crust and lithosphere beneath it are subsiding into the
mantle to some extent, or because the surrounding uplands are
undergoing uplift relative to the basin, or both. This allows thousands
of feet of burial, in some cases tens of thousands of feet of burial, to
occur.

As sediments are buried, the weight of overlying material exerts

pressure, causing compaction of the sediments. The pressure,
known as lithostatic pressure, “squeezes” the sediments from all
sides into a smaller volume. Lithostatic pressure packs the sediment
grains closer together and reduces the porosity – space between the
sediment grains.

Some chemical sedimentary rocks are rock as soon as the

sediments have been deposited by crystallization of minerals from
substances dissolved in water, at the earth’s surface. Examples
include rock salt and other evaporite deposits. These sediments of
salt crystals and other minerals form sedimentary rock without
having to undergo burial and compaction.

During burial and compaction, sediments will undergo some

amount of cementation. Cementation refers to the growth of new
minerals between the sediment grains. These new minerals bind the
sediment grains together. One form of cementation is growth of
quartz rims on the surfaces of pre-existing quartz grains in the
sediment. This new mineral growth is a result of water in the pore
spaces that dissolves and precipiates quartz. A second common
cementing mineral is hematite, a red or rust-colored iron oxide
mineral, which precipitates onto the sediment grains from a
combination of dissolved iron and oxygen from water in the pore
spaces. A third common cementing mineral is calcite, which also
precipitates from ions dissolved in the water in the pore spaces
during lithification. Although there are other cementing minerals,
quartz, hematite, and calcite are common cementing minerals that
grow between or on the surfaces of the original sedimentary grains.
 Generalized steps from source to sedimentary rock:
weathering >> erosion >> transport >> deposition >> burial >>
compaction >> cementation >> sedimentary rock

Minerals and Sedimentary Rocks

Any type of rock containing any type of mineral will undergo

weathering and erosion at the earth’s surface. However, some
minerals are more stable than others in earth’s surface environments
and are more likely to be found in sedimentary rocks.

Grains of clastic sediment, which are called clasts are winnowed

and modified during the weathering-to-deposition process.
Weathering of minerals will gradually eliminate the physically weaker
and chemically more reactive minerals, increasing the relative
abundance of more resistant minerals. Quartz tends to become
increasingly abundant during the process, due to its common
occurrence in the source rocks combined with its hardness and lack
of cleavage, which makes it resistant to breaking down physically.
Quartz is not easily dissolved or chemically altered, so it is resistant
to breakdown by chemical reactions as well. That is why beach sand
is often more rich in quartz than any other mineral. Sediments rich in
quartz are considered mineralogically “mature” because they have
been subjected to a longer interval of physical and chemical
modification during the erosion-to-deposition process. Mature
sediments are deposited farther from their source rocks in space
and/or time than immature sediments.

Feldspars are the most common type of mineral in earth’s crust

and are also abundant in many clastic sediments and sedimentary
rocks. Although feldspar is a fairly hard mineral, it does cleave (split
apart) and is chemically reactive, especially in the presence of water.
The most abundant product of chemical reaction of feldspar and
water is clay minerals. During the erosion-to-deposition process,
clastic sediments lose feldspar and gain a larger proportion of clay.
Other minerals such as amphiboles, micas, and carbonates are
relatively soft and chemically reactive and tend to be scarce or
absent as sediment grains in mature clastic sediments, although
calcite may be present in clastic sedimentary rocks as a secondary,
cementing mineral that grew during lithification.

Minerals in chemical sedimentary rocks precipitate from water and

usually remain in place or are not transported far before lithification.
Such mineral sediments are subjected to little, if any, erosion and
transportation. Therefore, the minerals in chemical sedimentary
rocks are not winnowed during the weathering-to-deposition process
as are the minerals in clastic sedimentary rocks. In some cases,
during the formation of chemical sediments, the minerals may
change as a result of chemical reactions. For example, dolostone is
a chemical sedimentary rock that forms in certain coastal
environments by alteration of precipitated calcite to dolomite.
 Besides minerals, mineraloid solids occur in some chemical
sedimentary rocks. For example, the carbonaceous material in coal
is an organic mineraloid rather than a mineral. Another example,
opal, is a chemical sedimentary rock that does not have a fully
developed crystal lattice and therefore is a mineraloid.

Sediments

Sandstone is one of the common types

of sedimentary rocks that form from
sediments. There are many other types.
Sediments may include:

fragments of other rocks that

often have been worn down into
small pieces, such as sand, silt,
or clay.
organic materials, or the remains
of once-living organisms.
Figure 2. Water erodes the land
chemical precipitates, which are surface in Alaska’s Valley of Ten
Thousand Smokes.
materials that get left behind after
the water evaporates from a
solution.

Rocks at the surface undergo mechanical and chemical

weathering. These physical and chemical processes break rock into
smaller pieces. Physical weathering simply breaks the rocks apart.
Chemical weathering dissolves the less stable minerals. These
original elements of the minerals end up in solution and new
minerals may form.

Sediments are removed and transported by water, wind, ice, or

gravity in a process called erosion (figure 2).

Streams carry huge amounts

of sediment (figure 3). The more
energy the water has, the larger
the particle it can carry. A
rushing river on a steep slope
might be able to carry boulders.
As this stream slows down, it no
longer has the energy to carry
large sediments and will drop Figure 3. A river dumps sediments along its bed
and on its banks.
them. A slower moving stream
will only carry smaller particles.

Sediments are deposited on beaches and deserts, at the bottom of

oceans, and in lakes, ponds, rivers, marshes, and swamps.
Avalanches drop large piles of sediment. Glaciers leave large piles
of sediments, too. Wind can only transport sand and smaller
particles. The type of sediment that is deposited will determine the
type of sedimentary rock that can form. Different colors of
sedimentary rock are determined by the environment where they are
deposited. Red rocks form where oxygen is present. Darker
sediments form when the environment is oxygen poor.

Sedimentary Rock Formation

Accumulated sediments
harden into rock by
lithification, as illustrated
in figure 4. Two important steps
are needed for sediments to
lithify.

1. Sediments are Figure 4. This cliff is made of sandstone. Sands

were deposited and then lithified.
squeezed together by
the weight of overlying
sediments on top of
them. This is called compaction. Cemented, non-organic
sediments become clastic rocks. If organic material is
included, they are bioclastic rocks.

2. Fluids fill in the spaces between the loose particles of

sediment and crystallize to create a rock by cementation.

The sediment size in clastic sedimentary rocks varies greatly (see

table 1).
Table 1. Sedimentary rock sizes and features
Rock Sediment Size Other Features

Conglomerate Large Rounded

Breccia Large Angular

Sandstone Sand-sized
Siltstone Silt-sized, smaller than sand

Shale Clay-sized, smallest

When sediments settle out of calmer

water, they form horizontal layers. One
layer is deposited first, and another layer is
deposited on top of it. So each layer is
younger than the layer beneath it. When
the sediments harden, the layers are
preserved. Sedimentary rocks formed by Figure 5. The evaporite, halite,
the crystallization of chemical precipitates on a cobble from the Dead Sea,
Israel.
are called chemical sedimentary rocks.
As discussed in the “Earth’s Minerals”
chapter, dissolved ions in fluids precipitate
out of the fluid and settle out, just like the halite in figure 5.

Biochemical sedimentary rocks form in the ocean or a salt lake.

Living creatures remove ions, such as calcium, magnesium, and
potassium, from the water to make shells or soft tissue. When the
organism dies, it sinks to the ocean floor to become a biochemical
sediment, which may then become compacted and cemented into
solid rock (figure 6).
 Figure 6. Fossils in a biochemical rock, limestone, in the Carmel Formation in
Utah.

Sedimentary Rock Textures

In clastic sediments the sedimentary texture includes the grain size,

rounding, and sorting of the grains, all of which are related to what
happened to the sediment during the weathering-to-deposition
process.Because the processes that lead to the formation of
chemical sedimentary rocks do not involve the weather-to-deposition
process, there is no widely agreed-upon texture scheme that applies
to chemical sedimentary rocks.
Clastic Textures

Clastic sedimentary textures are described in terms of the size of the

sediment grains, how round they are, and how well they are sorted.

Grain Characteristics

The diameter or width of a clastic sediment grain determines its grain

size. Specific ranges of grain size have specific names.

Gravel is an overall name for large sediment grain size,

which includes boulder, cobble, and pebble.

Sand includes sediment grains ranging in size from 2mm to

0.625 mm.

Silt is the name of a sediment grain that range in size from

0.625 mm to 0.0039 mm.
Mud is the smallest grain size and is also known as clay. It
is important to distinguish the grain size called clay from the
mineral called clay. Clay sized grains are too small to see
individually without the aid of a microscope.

Rounding

Clastic sediment grains can be round, angular, or in-between

(subangular or subrounded). Breccia is a clastic sedimentary rock
that by definition consists largely of angular grains of pebble size or
larger. Conglomerate, another sedimentary rock, consists largely of
rounded grains of pebble size or larger. The schematic diagram
below shows classes of rounding, from the left: angular, subangular,
subrounded, rounded. Not shown are very angular and well-rounded,
which are less common.

Sorting

The extent to which all the grains are the same size is known as
sorting. If all the grains are the same size, they are well sorted.
Some sandstones are well sorted, and some are not. Most
conglomerates are poorly sorted, and consist of a mixture of grain
sizes ranging from sand to pebble. The schematic diagrams below
represent poorly-sorted, moderately-sorted, and well-sorted
sediments.
Other Aspects of Texture

Other aspects of clastic sedimentary texture include the packing of

the grains, the porosity of the rock, and the hardness of the rock as a
whole.

The packing of the grains applies only to poorly sorted sediments

in which the finer clasts form a matrix around the coarser clasts. If
the large grains are touching each other, the packing is said to be
clast-supported. If the coarse grains are separate and not touching
each other, with the finer-grained sediment between them, the
packing is said to be matrix-supported.

The porosity of a rock or sediment is the amount of empty space

between the grains of sediment.

The hardness of the rock refers to how easily it breaks apart.

Shale is harder than claystone, for example.

How to Identify Sedimentary Rocks

Clastic Textures

The common names of clastic sedimentary rocks—conglomerate,

sandstone, siltstone, and shale—are based solely on grain size.
However, there are more precise names within these broader
categories that are based on clastic sediment features other than
grain size. Breccia is a clastic sedimentary rock distinguished from
conglomerate by the angularity of its clasts.

A clastic sedimentary rock simply made of sand-sized grains

qualifies as sandstone, regardless of what minerals the grains are
made of. More complete names for various sandstones are based on
their mineral composition. Some sandstones are made almost
entirely of quartz. Sandstone made virtually entirely of quartz is
called arenite. Other sandstones have lots of feldspar mixed with
quartz. Such sandstones are called arkose. Other sandstones are a
mixture of feldspar, quartz, clay, and small fragments of “lithics,”
dark-appearing minerals and rock fragments, which represent
mineralogically immature sediments. Such sandstones are
technically known as lithic wackes, although geologists often call
them by their old name, graywackes, and the rocks are sometimes
informally described as “dirty sandstones.”

In using the sedimentary rock classification table that

accompanies this section, you will see that the clastic sedimentary
rocks are classified on the basis of grain size. Sandstones are rocks
made of sand-size grains. Shale is layered sedimentary rock made
of fine mud-size grains too small to see with the naked eye.

Chemical Textures

The key to naming chemical sedimentary rocks is the minerals from

which they are made. For example, all limestones consist mostly of
the mineral calcite. Rock salt is made of salt minerals such as halite.
Gypsum rock is made of the mineral gypsum. Chalcedony is made of
microcrystalline quartz, quartz grains so tiny that they cannot be
distinguished even with a standard optical microscope.

Table 2 shows some common types of sedimentary rocks.

Biochemical Textures

Biochemical sedimentary rocks form with the help of past life. This
can be in the form of fossils, shells or plant remains. For example,
coal is made up of plant remains.
Table 2. Common Sedimentary Rocks

Picture Rock Name Type of Sedimentary Rock

Conglomerate Clastic (fragments of non-organic sediments)

Table 2. Common Sedimentary Rocks

Breccia Clastic

Sandstone Clastic
Table 2. Common Sedimentary Rocks
Table 2. Common Sedimentary Rocks

Siltstone Clastic

Shale Clastic
Table 2. Common Sedimentary Rocks
Table 2. Common Sedimentary Rocks

Rock Salt Chemical precipitate

Table 2. Common Sedimentary Rocks

Gypsum Chemical precipitate

Table 2. Common Sedimentary Rocks

Dolostone Chemical precipitate

Limestone Biochemical
Table 2. Common Sedimentary Rocks
Table 2. Common Sedimentary Rocks

Coal Biochemical

Sedimentary Rock Classification

Clastic Sedimentary Rocks
Grain Size Rounding Sorting Rock Name

gravel coarse angular poorly breccia

(> 2 mm) rounded poorly conglomerate
variable variable sandstone
well to quartz arenite—
rounded to subangular
moderately >90% quartz
sand medium
(0.0625–2 well to arkose— >25%
subrounded to angular
mm) moderately feldspar
graywacke—high
moderately to
subangular to angular % lithics, clay
poorly
matrix
silt fine
(0.004– variable well siltstone
0.0625 mm)
shale—breaks
along bedding
planes
clay extra
mudstone—lacks
fine not visible well
bedding planes
(< 0.004 mm)
claystone—pure
mineral clay, very
soft
Chemical & Biochemical Sedimentary Rocks
Common
Mineral Distinguishing Characteristics Rock Name Depositional
Environment
warm shallow
calcite softer than glass, reacts to HCl limestone
ocean
fossiliferous
visible fossils, softer than glass, warm shallow
calcite limestone
reacts to HCl ocean
(biochemical)

white to pink, softer than glass,

dolomite reacts to HCl only when dolostone saline lagoon
powdered
 gray or brown, porous, reacts to evaporated spring
calcite travertine
HCl or cave water
warm shallow
calcite white, powdery, reacts to HCl chalk
ocean
microscopic
conchoidal fracture chert deep ocean floor
quartz
microscopic
red, conchoidal fracture jasper deep ocean floor
quartz
microscopic nodules in
black, conchoidal fracture flint
quartz limestone
microscopic translucent, layered, conchoidal nodules in
agate
quartz fracture volcanic rocks
microscopic lakes in volcanic
white, powdery diatomite
quartz environments
coal heavily vegetated
carbon black, soft, low density
(biochemical) swamp
tastes like salt, cubic crystals evaporating water
halite rock salt
and cleavage body

evaporating water
gypsum softer than fingernail gypsum rock
body

Uses of Sedimentary Rocks

Sedimentary rocks are used as building stones, although they are

not as hard as igneous or metamorphic rocks. Sedimentary rocks
are used in construction. Sand and gravel are used to make
concrete; they are also used in asphalt. Many economically valuable
resources come from sedimentary rocks. Iron ore and aluminum are
two examples.

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 Self Check: Sedimentary Rocks

Check Your Understanding

Answer the question(s) below to see how well you understand the
topics covered in the previous section. This short quiz
does not count toward your grade in the class, and you can retake it
an unlimited number of times.

Use this quiz to check your understanding and decide whether to

(1) study the previous section further or (2) move on to the next
section.

An interactive or media element has been excluded from this

version of the text. You can view it online here:
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/geo/?p=2706

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 Outcome: Metamorphic Rocks

Identify metamorphic rocks and the steps of the rock

cycle related to their formation.

The last type of rock is metamorphic rocks. Let’s see what these
rocks are like and how they’re formed.

What You’ll Learn to Do

Define the characteristics of a metamorphic rock.

Discuss the effect of heat, pressure and deformation on
rocks.

Learning Activities

The learning activities for this section include the following:

Reading: Characteristics of Metamorphic Rocks

Video: Identifying Metamorphic Rocks

Self Check: Metamorphic Rocks

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Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution
 Reading: Characteristics of Metamorphic Rocks

A metamorphic rock used to be some other type of rock, but it was

changed inside the Earth to become a new type of rock. The word
metamorphism comes from ancient Greek words for “change” (meta)
and “form” (morph). The type of rock that a metamorphic rock used to
be, prior to metamorphism, is called the protolith. During
metamorphism the mineral content and texture of the protolith are
changed due to changes in the physical and chemical environment of
the rock. Metamorphism can be caused by burial, tectonic stress,
heating by magma, or alteration by fluids. At advanced stages of
metamorphism, it is common for a metamorphic rock to develop such a
different set of minerals and such a thoroughly changed texture that it is
difficult to recognize what the protolith was.

A rock undergoing metamorphism remains a solid rock during the

process. Rocks do not melt during most conditions of metamorphism.
At the highest grade of metamorphism, rocks begin to partially melt, at
which point the boundary of metamorphic conditions is surpassed and
the igneous part of the rock cycle is entered.

Even though rocks remain solid during metamorphism, fluid is

generally present in the microscopic spaces between the minerals. This
fluid phase may play a major role in the chemical reactions that are an
important part of how metamorphism occurs. The fluid usually consists
largely of water.

Metamorphic rocks provide a record of the processes that occurred

inside Earth as the rock was subjected to changing physical and
chemical conditions. This gives the geologist literally “inside
information” on what occurs within the Earth during such processes as
the formation of new mountain ranges, the collision of continents, the
subduction of oceanic plates, and the circulation of sea water into hot
oceanic crust. Metamorphic rocks are like probes that have gone down
into the Earth and come back, bringing an record of the conditions they
encountered on their journey in the depths of the Earth.

In the large outcrop of

metamorphic rocks in figure 1, the
rocks’ platy appearance is a result
of the process metamorphism.
Metamorphism is the addition of
heat and/or pressure to existing
rocks, which causes them to
change physically and/or
chemically so that they become a Figure 1. The platy layers in this large outcrop of
metamorphic rock show the effects of pressure on
new rock. Metamorphic rocks may rocks during metamorphism.
change so much that they may
not resemble the original rock.

Metamorphism
Any type of rock—igneous, sedimentary, or metamorphic—can become
a metamorphic rock. All that is needed is enough heat and/or pressure
to alter the existing rock’s physical or chemical makeup without melting
the rock entirely.

Rocks change during

metamorphism because the
minerals need to be stable under
the new temperature and
pressure conditions. The need for
stability may cause the structure
of minerals to rearrange and form
new minerals. Ions may move
between minerals to create
minerals of different chemical
composition. Hornfels, with its
alternating bands of dark and light
crystals, is a good example of
how minerals rearrange
Figure 2. A foliated metamorphic rock.
themselves during
metamorphism. Hornfels is shown
in table 1.

Extreme pressure may also lead to foliation, the flat layers that form
in rocks as the rocks are squeezed by pressure (figure 2). Foliation
normally forms when pressure is exerted in only one direction.
Metamorphic rocks may also be non-foliated. Quartzite and limestone,
shown in table 6, are nonfoliated.

The two main types of metamorphism are both related to heat within
Earth:

1. Regional metamorphism: Changes in enormous quantities

of rock over a wide area caused by the extreme pressure from
overlying rock or from compression caused by geologic
processes. Deep burial exposes the rock to high
temperatures.

2. Contact metamorphism: Changes in a rock that is in contact

with magma because of the magma’s extreme heat.

Factors that Control Metamorphism

The reason rocks undergo metamorphism is that the minerals in a rock

are only stable under a limited range of pressure, temperature, and
chemical conditions. When rocks are subjected to large enough
changes in these factors, the minerals will undergo chemical reactions
that result in their replacement by new minerals, minerals that are
stable in the new conditions.

Chemical Composition of the Protolith

The type of rock undergoes metamorphism is a major factor in

determing what type of metamorphic rock it becomes. In short the
identify of the protolith plays a big role the identity of the metamorphic
rock. A fluid phase may introduce or remove chemical substances into
or out of the rock during metamorphism, but in most metamorphic rock,
most of the atoms in the protolith are be present in the metamorphic
rock after metamorphism; the atoms will likely be rearranged into new
mineral forms within the rock. Therefore, not only does the protolith
determine the initial chemistry of the metamorphic rock, most
metamorphic rocks do not change their bulk (overall) chemical
compositions very much during metamorphism. The fact that most
metamorphic rocks retain most of their original atoms means that even
if the rock was so thoroughly metamorphosed that it no longer looks at
all like the protolith, the rock can be analyzed in terms of its bulk
chemical composition to determine what type of rock the protolith was.

Temperature

Temperature is another major factor of metamorphism. There are two

ways to think about how the temperature of a rock can be increased as
a result of geologic processes.

If rocks are buried within the Earth, the deeper they go, the higher
the temperatures they experience. This is because temperature inside
the Earth increases along what is called the geothermal gradient, or
geotherm for short. Therefore, if rocks are simply buried deep enough
enough sediment, they will experience temperatures high enough to
cause metamorphism. This temperature is about 200ºC (approximately
400ºF).
 Tectonic processes are another way rocks can be moved deeper
along the geotherm. Faulting and folding the rocks of the crust, can
move rocks to much greater depth than simple burial can.

Yet another way a rock in the Earth’s crust can have its temperature
greatly increased is by the intrusion of magma nearby. Magma intrusion
subjects nearby rock to higher temperature with no increase in depth or
pressure.

Pressure

Pressure is a measure of the stress, the physical force, being applied to

the surface of a material. It is defined as the force per unit area acting
on the surface, in a direction perpendicular to the surface.

Lithostatic pressure is the pressure exerted on a rock by all the

surrounding rock. The source of the pressure is the weight of all the
rocks above. Lithostatic pressure increases as depth within the Earth
increases and is a uniform stress—the pressure applies equally in all
directions on the rock.

If pressure does not apply equally in all directions, differential stress

occurs. There are two types of differential stress.

Normal stress compresses (pushes together) rock in one direction,

the direction of maximum stress. At the same time, in a perpendicular
direction, the rock undergoes tension (stretching), in the direction of
minimum stress.

Shear stress pushes one side of the rock in a direction parallel to the
side, while at the same time, the other side of the rock is being pushed
in the opposite direction.

Differential stress has a major influence on the the appearance of a

metamorphic rock. Differential stress can flatten pre-existing grains in
the rock, as shown in the diagram below.

Metamorphic minerals that grow under differential stress will have a

preferred orientation if the minerals have atomic structures that tend to
make them form either flat or elongate crystals. This will be especially
apparent for micas or other sheet silicates that grow during
metamorphism, such as biotite, muscovite, chlorite, talc, or serpentine.
If any of these flat minerals are growing under normal stress, they will
grow with their sheets oriented perpendicular to the direction of
maximum compression. This results in a rock that can be easily broken
along the parallel mineral sheets. Such a rock is said to be foliated, or
to have foliation.

Fluids

Any open space between the mineral grains in a rock, however

microscopic, may contain a fluid phase. Most commonly, if there is a
fluid phase in a rock during metamorphism, it will be a hydrous fluid,
consisting of water and things dissolved in the water. Less commonly, it
may be a carbon dioxide fluid or some other fluid. The presence of a
fluid phase is a major factor during metamorphism because it helps
determine which metamorphic reactions will occur and how fast they
will occur. The fluid phase can also influence the rate at which mineral
crystals deform or change shape. Most of this influence is due to the
dissolved ions that pass in and out of the fluid phase. If during
metamorphism enough ions are introduced to or removed from the rock
via the fluid to change the bulk chemical composition of the rock, the
rock is said to have undergone metasomatism. However, most
metamorphic rocks do not undergo sufficient change in their bulk
chemistry to be considered metasomatic rocks.

Time

Most metamorphism of rocks takes place slowly inside the Earth.

Regional metamorphism takes place on a timescale of millions of
years. Metamorphism usually involves slow changes to rocks in the
solid state, as atoms or ions diffuse out of unstable minerals that are
breaking down in the given pressure and temperature conditions and
migrate into new minerals that are stable in those conditions. This type
of chemical reaction takes a long time.

Grades of Metamorphism

Metamorphic grade refers to the general temperature and pressure

conditions that prevailed during metamorphism. As the pressure and
temperature increase, rocks undergo metamorphism at higher
metamorphic grade. Rocks changing from one type of metamorphic
rock to another as they encounter higher grades of metamorphism are
said to be undergoing prograde metamorphism.

Low-grade metamorphism takes place at approximately 200–320 ºC

and relatively low pressure. This is not far beyond the conditions in
which sediments get lithified into sedimentary rocks, and it is common
for a low-grade metamorphic rock to look somewhat like its protolith.
Low grade metamorphic rocks tend to characterized by an abundance
of hydrous minerals, minerals that contain water within their crystal
structure. Examples of low grade hydrous minerals include clay,
serpentine, and chlorite. Under low grade metamorphism many of the
metamorphic minerals will not grow large enough to be seen without a
microscope.

Medium-grade metamorphism takes place at approximately at 320–

450 ºC and at moderate pressures. Low grade hydrous minerals are
replaced by micas such as biotite and muscovite, and non-hydrous
minerals such as garnet may grow. Garnet is an example of a mineral
which may form porphyroblasts, metamorphic mineral grains that are
larger in size and more equant in shape (about the same diameter in all
directions), thus standing out among the smaller, flatter, or more
elongate minerals.

High-grade metamorphism takes place at temperatures above about

450 ºC. Micas tend to break down. New minerals such as hornblende
will form, which is stable at higher temperatures. However, as
metamorphic grade increases to even higher grade, all hydrous
minerals, which includes hornblende, may break down and be replaced
by other, higher-temperature, non-hydrous minerals such as pyroxene.

Index Minerals
Index minerals, which are indicators of metamorphic grade. In a given
rock type, which starts with a particular chemical composition, lower-
grade index minerals are replaced by higher-grade index minerals in a
sequence of chemical reactions that proceeds as the rock undergoes
prograde metamorphism. For example, in rocks made of
metamorphosed shale, metamorphism may prograde through the
following index minerals:

chlorite characterizes the lowest regional metamorphic grade

biotite replaces chlorite at the next metamorphic grade, which

could be considered medium-low grade
garnet appears at the next metamorphic grade, medium grade
staurolite marks the next metamorphic grade, which is
medium-high grade
sillimanite is a characteristic mineral of high grade
metamorphic rocks

Index minerals are used by geologists to map metamorphic grade in

regions of metamorphic rock. A geologist maps and collects rock
samples across the region and marks the geologic map with the
location of each rock sample and the type of index mineral it contains.
By drawing lines around the areas where each type of index mineral
occurs, the geologist delineates the zones of different metamorphic
grades in the region. The lines are known as isograds.

Types of Metamorphism
Regional Metamorphism

Regional metamorphism occurs where large areas of rock are

subjected to large amounts of differential stress for long intervals of
time, conditions typically associated with mountain building. Mountain
building occurs at subduction zones and at continental collision zones
where two plates each bearing continental crust, converge upon each
other.

Most foliated metamorphic rocks—slate, phyllite, schist, and gneiss—

are formed during regional metamorphism. As the rocks become
heated at depth in the Earth during regional metamorphism they
become ductile, which means they are relatively soft even though they
are still solid. The folding and deformation of the rock while it is ductile
may greatly distort the original shapes and orientations of the rock,
producing folded layers and mineral veins that have highly deformed or
even convoluted shapes. The diagram below shows folds forming
during an early stage of regional metamorphism, along with
development of foliation, in response to normal stress.
 The photograph below shows high-grade metamorphic rock that has
undergone several stages of foliation development and folding during
regional metamorphism, and may even have reached such a high
temperature that it began to melt.

Contact Metamorphism

Contact metamorphism occurs to solid rock next to an igneous intrusion

and is caused by the heat from the nearby body of magma. Because
contact metamorphism is not caused by changes in pressure or by
differential stress, contact metamorphic rocks do not become foliated.
Where intrusions of magma occur at shallow levels of the crust, the
zone of contact metamorphism around the intrusion is relatively narrow,
sometimes only a few m (a few feet) thick, ranging up to contact
metamorphic zones over 1000 m (over 3000 feet) across around larger
intrusions that released more heat into the adjacent crust. The zone of
contact metamorphism surrounding an igneous intrusion is called the
metamorphic aureole. The rocks closest to the contact with the
intrusion are heated to the highest temperatures, so the metamorphic
grade is highest there and diminishes with increasing distance away
from the contact. Because contact metamorphism occurs at shallow to
moderate depths in the crust and subjects the rocks to temperatures up
to the verge of igneous conditions, it is sometimes referred to as high-
temperature, low-pressure metamorphism. Hornfels, which is a hard
metamorphic rock formed from fine-grained clastic sedimentary rocks,
is a common product of contact metamorphism.

Hydrothermal Metamorphism

Hydrothermal metamorphism is the result of extensive interaction of

rock with high-temperature fluids. The difference in composition
between the existing rock and the invading fluid drives the chemical
reactions. The hydrothermal fluid may originate from a magma that
intruded nearby and caused fluid to circulate in the nearby crust, from
circulating hot groundwater, or from ocean water. If the fluid introduces
substantal amounts of ions into the rock and removes substantial
amounts of ions from it, the fluid has metasomatized the rock—
changed its chemical composition.

Ocean water that penetrates hot, cracked oceanic crust and

circulates as hydrothermal fluid in ocean floor basalts produces
extensive hydrothermal metamorphism adjacent to mid-ocean
spreading ridges and other ocean-floor volcanic zones. Much of the
basalt subjected to this type of metamorphism turns into a type of
metamorphic rock known as greenschist. Greenschist contains a set of
minerals, some of them green, which may include chlorite, epidote, talc,
Na-plagioclase, or actinolite. The fluids eventually escape through
vents in the ocean floor known as black smokers, producing thick
deposits of minerals on the ocean floor around the vents.

Burial Metamorphism

Burial metamorphism occurs to rocks buried beneath sediments to

depths that exceed the conditions in which sedimentary rocks form.
Because rocks undergoing burial metamorphism encounter the uniform
stress of lithostatic pressure, not differential pressure, they do not
develop foliation. Burial metamorphism is the lowest grade of
metamorphism. The main type of mineral that usually grows during
burial metamorphism is zeolite, a group of low-density silicate minerals.
It usually requires a strong microscope see the small grains of zeolite
minerals that form during burial metamorphism.

Subduction Zone Metamorphism

During subduction, a tectonic plate, consisting of oceanic crust and

lithospheric mantle, is recycled back into the deeper mantle. In most
subduction zones the subducting plate is relatively cold compared with
the high temperature it had when first formed at a mid-ocean spreading
ridge. Subduction takes the rocks to great depth in the Earth relatively
quickly. This produces a characteristic type of metamorphism,
sometimes called high-pressure, low-temperature (high-P, low-T)
metamorphism, which only occurs deep in a subduction zone. In
oceanic basalts that are part of a subducting plate, the high-P, low-T
conditions create a distinctive set of metamorphic minerals including a
type of amphibole, called glaucophane, that has a blue color.
Blueschist is the name given to this type of metamorphic rock.
Blueschist is generally interpreted as having been produced within a
subduction zone, even if the plate boundaries have subsequently
shifted and that location is no longer at a subduction zone.

Metamorphic Facies

Much as the minerals and textures of sedimentary rocks can be used

as windows to see into the environment in which the sediments were
deposited on the Earth’s surface, the minerals and textures of
metamorphic rocks provide windows through which we view the
conditions of pressure, temperature, fluids, and stress that occurred
inside the Earth during metamorphism. The pressure and temperature
conditions under which specific types of metamorphic rocks form has
been determined by a combination labratory experiments, physics-
based theoretical calculations, along with evidence in the textures of
the rocks and their field relations as recorded on geologic maps. The
knowledge of temperatures and pressures at which particular types of
metamorphic rocks form led to the concept of metamorphic facies.
Each metamorphic facies is represented by a specific type of
metamorphic rock that forms under a specific pressure and
temperature conditions.

Even though the name of the each metamorphic facies is taken from
a type of rock that forms under those conditions, that is not the only
type of rock that will form in those conditions. For example, if the
protolith is basalt, it will turn into greenschist under greenschist facies
conditions, and that is what facies is named for. However, if the protolith
is shale, a muscovite-biotite schist, which is not green, will form
instead. If it can be determined that a muscovite-biotite schist formed at
around 350ºC temperature and 400 MPa pressure, it can be stated that
the rock formed in the greenschist facies, even though the rock is not
itself a greenschist.

The diagram below shows metamorphic facies in terms of pressure

and temperature condiditons inside the Earth. Earth’s surface
conditions are near the top left corner of the graph at about 15ºC which
is the average temperature at Earth’s surface and 0.1 MPa
(megapascals), which is about the average atmospheric pressure on
the Earth’s surface. Just as atmospheric pressure comes from the
weight of all the air above a point on the Earth’s surface, pressure
inside the Earth comes from the weight of all the rock above a given
depth. Rocks are much denser than air and MPa is the unit most
commonly uses to express pressures inside the Earth. One MPa
equals nearly 10 atmospheres. A pressure of 1000 MPa corresponds to
a depth of about 35 km inside the Earth. Although pressure inside the
Earth is determined by the depth, temperature depends on more than
depth. Temperature depends on the heat flow, which varies from
location to location. The way temperature changes with depth inside
the Earth is called the geothermal gradient, geotherm for short. In the
diagram below, three different geotherms are marked with dashed
lines. The three geotherms represent different geological settings in the
Earth.

High-pressure, low-temperature geotherms occurs in subduction

zones. As the diagram shows, rocks undergoing prograde
metamorphism in subduction zones will be subjected to zeolite,
blueschist, and ultimately eclogite facies conditions.

High-temperature, low-pressure geotherms occur in the vicinity of

igneous intrusions in the shallow crust, underlying a volcanically active
area. Rocks that have their pressure and temperature conditions
increased along such a geotherm will metamorphose in the hornfels
facies and, if it gets hot enough, in the granulite facies.
 Blueschist facies and hornfels facies are associated with unusual
geothermal gradients. The most common conditions in the Earth are
found along geotherms between those two extremes. Most regional
metamorphic rocks are formed in conditions within this range of
geothermal gradients, passing through the greenschist facies to the
amphibolites facies. At the maximum pressures and temperatures the
rocks may encounter within the Earth in this range of geotherms, they
will enter either the granulite or eclogite facies. Regionally
metamorphosed rocks that contain hydrous fluids will begin to melt
before they pass beyond the amphibolite facies.

Types of Metamorphic Rocks

Metamorphic rock fall into two categories, foliated and unfoliated. Most
foliated metamorphic rocks originate from regional metamorphism.
Some unfoliated metamorphic rocks, such as hornfels, originate only by
contact metamorphism, but others can originate either by contact
metamorphism or by regional metamorphism. Quartz and marble are
prime examples of unfoliated that can be produced by either regional or
contact metamorphism. Both rock types consist of metamorphic
minerals that do not have flat or elongate shapes and thus cannot
become layered even if they are produced under differential stress.

A geologist working with metamorphic rocks collects the rocks in the

field and looks for the patterns the rocks form in outcrops as well as
how those outcrops are related to other types of rock with which they
are in contact. Field evidence is often required to know for sure whether
rocks are products of regional metamorphism, contact metamorphism,
or some other type of metamorphism. If only looking at rock samples in
a laboratory, one can be sure of the type of metamorphism that
produced a foliated metamorphic rock such as schist or gneiss, or a
hornfels, which is unfoliated, but one cannot be sure of the type of
metamorphism that produced an unfoliated marble or quartzite.

Foliated Metamorphic Rocks

Foliated metamorphic rocks are named for their style of foliation.

However, a more complete name of each particular type of foliated
metamorphic rock includes the main minerals that the rock comprises,
such as biotite-garnet schist rather than just schist.

slate—slates form at low metamorphic grade by the growth of

fine-grained chlorite and clay minerals. The preferred
orientation of these sheet silicates causes the rock to easily
break along parallel planes, giving the rock a slaty cleavage.
Some slate breaks into such extensively flat sheets of rock
that it is used as the base of pool tables, beneath a layer of
rubber and felt. Roof tiles are also sometimes made of slate.
phyllite—phyllite is a low-medium grade regional metamorphic
rock in which the clay minerals and chlorite have been at least
partly replaced by mica mica minerals, muscovite and biotite.
This gives the surfaces of phyllite a satiny luster, much
brighter than the surface of a piece of slate. It is also common
for the differential stresses under which phyllite forms to have
produced a set of folds in the rock, making the foliation
surfaces wavy or irregular, in contrast to the often perfectly flat
surfaces of slaty cleavage.
schist—the size of mineral crystals tends to grow larger with
increasing metamorphic grade. Schist is a product of medium
grades of metamorphism and is characterized by visibly
prominent, parallel sheets of mica or similar sheet silicates,
usually either muscovite or biotite, or both. In schist, the
sheets of mica are usually arranged in irregular planes rather
than perfectly flat planes, giving the rock a schistose foliation
(or simply schistosity). Schist often contains more than just
micas among its minerals, such as quartz, feldspars, and
garnet.

amphibolite—a poorly foliated to unfoliated mafic metamorphic

rock, usually consisting largely of the common black
amphibole known as hornblende, plus plagioclase, plus or
minus biotite and possibly other minerals; it usually does not
contain any quartz. Amphibolite forms at medium-high
metamorphic grades. Amphibolite is also listed below in the
section on unfoliated metamorphic rocks.
gneiss—like the word schist, the word gneiss is originated
from the German language; it is pronounced “nice.” As
metamorphic grade continue to increase, sheet silicates
become unstable and dark minerals such as hornblende or
pyroxene start to grow. The dark-colored minerals tend to form
separate bands or stripes in the rock, giving it a gneissic
foliation of dark and light streaks. Gneiss is a high-grade
metamorphic rock. Many types of gneiss look somewhat like
granite, except that the gneiss has dark and light stripes
 whereas in granite randomly oriented and distributed minerals
with no stripes or layers.
migmatite—a combination of high-grade regional metamorphic
rock – usually gneiss or schist – and granitic igneous rock.
The granitic rock in migmatite probably originated from partial
melting of some of the metamorphic rock, though in some
migmatites the granite may have intruded the rock from
deeper in the crust. In migmatite you can see metamorphic
rock that has reached the limits of metamorphism and begun
transitioning into the igneous stage of the rock cycle by
melting to form magma.

Names of different styles of foliation come from the common rocks

that exhibit such foliation:

slate has slaty foliation

phyllite has phyllitic foliation

schist has schistose foliation

gneiss has gneissic foliation (also called gneissose foliation)

Nonfoliated Metamorphic Rocks

Nonfoliated metamorphic rocks lack a planar (oriented) fabric, either

because the minerals did not grow under differential stress, or because
the minerals that grew during metamorphism are not minerals that have
elongate or flat shapes. Because they lack foliation, these rocks are
named entirely on the basis of their mineralogy.
hornfels—hornfels are very hard rocks formed by contact
metamorphism of shale, siltstone, or sandstone. The heat
from the nearby magma “bakes” the sedimentary rocks and
recrystallizes the minerals in them into a new texture that no
longer breaks easily along the original sedimentary bedding
planes. Depending on the composition of the rock and the
temperature reached, minerals indicative of high metamorphic
grade such as pyroxene may occur in some hornfels, though
many hornfels have minerals indicating medium grade
metamorphism.
amphibolite—amphibolites are dark-colored rocks with
amphibole, usually the common black amphibole known as
hornblende, as their most abundant mineral, along with
plagioclase and possibly other minerals, though usually no
quartz. Amphibolites are poorly foliated to unfoliated and form
at medium to medium-high grades of metamorphism from
basalt or gabbro.

quartzite—quartzite is a metamorphic rock made almost

entirely of quartz, for which the protolith was quartz arenite.
Because quartz is stable over a wide range of pressure and
temperature, little or no new minerals form in quartzite during
metamorphism. Instead, the quartz grains recrystallize into a
denser, harder rock than the original sandstone. If struck by a
rock hammer, quartzite will commonly break right through the
quartz grains, rather than around them as when quartz arenite
is broken.

marble—marble is a metamorphic rock made up almost

entirely of either calcite or dolomite, for which the protolith was
either limestone or dolostone, respectively. Marbles may have
bands of different colors which were deformed into convoluted
folds while the rock was ductile. Such marble is often used as
decorative stone in buildings. Some marble, which is
considered better quality stone for carving into statues, lacks
color bands.
Table 1. Common Metamorphic Rocks and Their Parent Rock

Type of
Picture Rock Name Metamorphic Comments
Rock

Slate Foliated Metamorphism of shale

Table 1. Common Metamorphic Rocks and Their Parent Rock

Metamorphism of slate, but

Phyllite Foliated under greater heat and
pressure than slate

Schist Foliated Often derived from

metamorphism of claystone
or shale; metamorphosed
under more heat and
pressure than phyllite
Table 1. Common Metamorphic Rocks and Their Parent Rock
Table 1. Common Metamorphic Rocks and Their Parent Rock

Metamorphism of various
different rocks, under
Gneiss Foliated
extreme conditions of heat
and pressure

Hornfels Non-foliated Contact metamorphism of

various different rock types
Table 1. Common Metamorphic Rocks and Their Parent Rock
Table 1. Common Metamorphic Rocks and Their Parent Rock

Metamorphism of
Quartzite Non-foliated
sandstone
Table 1. Common Metamorphic Rocks and Their Parent Rock

Marble Non-foliated Metamorphism of limestone

Metaconglomerate Non-foliated Metamorphism of

conglomerate
Table 1. Common Metamorphic Rocks and Their Parent Rock

Metamorphic Rock Classification

Foliated Metamorphic Rocks

Crystal Rock
Mineralogy Protolith Metamorphism
Size Name

low grade
very fine clay minerals shale slate
regional

low grade
fine clay minerals, biotite, muscovite shale phyllite
regional

medium biotite, muscovite, quartz, garnet, shale, medium grade

schist
to coarse plagioclase basalt regional

amphibolite
medium medium grade (Note: may
amphibole, plagioclase, biotite basalt
to coarse regional be
unfoliated)
basalt,
medium plagioclase, orthoclase, quartz, high grade
granite, gneiss
to coarse biotite, amphibole, pyroxene regional
shale

Unfoliated Metamorphic Rocks

Crystal Rock
Mineralogy Protolith Metamorphism
Size Name

fine to regional or
quartz sandstone quartzite
coarse contact

fine to regional or
calcite limestone marble
coarse contact

fine pyroxene, amphibole, plagioclase shale contact hornfels

Note that not all minerals listed in the mineralogy column will be
present in every rock of that type and that some rocks may have
minerals not listed here.

Uses of Metamorphic Rocks

Quartzite and marble are commonly used for building materials and
artwork. Marble is beautiful for statues and decorative items such as
vases (see an example in figure 3). Ground up
marble is also a component of toothpaste, plastics,
and paper.

Quartzite is very hard and is often crushed and

used in building railroad tracks (see figure 4). Schist
and slate are sometimes used as building and
landscape materials. Graphite, the “lead” in pencils, Figure 3. Marble is used
for decorative items and
is a mineral commonly found in metamorphic rocks. in art.

Figure 4. Crushed quartzite is sometimes placed under railroad tracks because it is

very hard and durable.

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 Video: Identifying Metamorphic Rocks

This video discusses how to identify a metamorphic rocks:

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 Self Check: Metamorphic Rocks

Check Your Understanding

Answer the question(s) below to see how well you understand the
topics covered in the previous section. This short quiz
does not count toward your grade in the class, and you can retake it
an unlimited number of times.

Use this quiz to check your understanding and decide whether to

(1) study the previous section further or (2) move on to the next
section.

An interactive or media element has been excluded from this

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 Putting It Together: Rocks and the Rock Cycle

Summary

In this section, you learned the following:

1. The three rock types and how they are classified

2. How each of the different rock types form

3. The techniques geologist use to identify different rocks

4. How to use these techniques to identify common rocks
5. How the rock cycle works

Synthesis

In the rock cycle, illustrated in figure 1, the three main rock types—
igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic—are shown. Arrows
connecting the three rock types show the processes that change one
rock type into another. The cycle has no beginning and no end.
Rocks deep within the Earth are right now becoming other types of
rocks. Rocks at the surface are lying in place before they are next
exposed to a process that will change them.
 Figure 1. The Rock Cycle.

The rock cycle is a continuous and dynamic cycle that has no

starting or stopping point and no set progression. Rocks can move
through different paths within the cycle. The rock cycle explains how
each rock type forms and the processes involved. We saw how the
processes within the cycle influence everything from soil formation to
recording the history of the Earth to the role deformation plays in
rocks. It is easy to see how the rock cycle influences our dynamic
and ever changing earth.

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MODULE 4: WEATHERING AND
SOIL FORMATION
 Why It Matters: Weathering and Soil Formation

Explain the formation of soils, different weathering

processes and erosion.

Introduction

When most people think about the resources we use, most of them
will immediately think about water and air and fossil fuels. However,
one resource that is absolutely vital to our existence (and other
species as well) is soil. In this section, we will see how soil is formed,
we will see why all soils are not the same, and we will see what the
soil looks like in different biomes.

You may recall from the rock cycle that soil is formed from the
weathering of rocks, but this is just one piece of what goes into soil
formation. If we stop and think about soil for just a minute, we can
come up with an impressive resume of what soil does:

1. The most obvious area where soil is important is in

agriculture and growing food to feed our population. But on
a more personal level, do you like to garden? Do you grow
your own vegetables? Imagine what would happen without
this vital resource.
 2. Soils are also an important part of the water cycle. They
help regulate the flow and quality of water. What would
happen without soil in areas that get a lot of rainfall?
3. Did you know there are more organisms in just 1
tablespoon of soil than there are people on the planet? The
soil is home to billions of different species. Where would
these species be without soil?

These are just a few examples of why soil is essential as a

resource. So, let’s see how soil forms and why there are so many
different types of soil.

Learning Outcomes

Describe types and processes of weathering and erosion.

Describe and compare typical soil profiles and basic soil

types.
Discuss the importance of soil conservation.

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 Outcome: Weathering and Erosion

Describe types and processes of weathering and

erosion.

This section introduces you to weathering and erosion, both

important parts of the rock cycle. You will learn how different rocks
are weathered and eroded and the implications of this weathering.

What You’ll Learn to Do

Identify the ways mechanical weathering alters materials on

Earth.

Identify the ways chemical weathering alters materials on

Earth.

Identify several influences on weathering.

Learning Activities

The learning activities for this section include the following:

Reading: What Is Weathering?

Reading: Mechanical Weathering

 Reading: Chemical Weathering

Reading: Influences on Weathering

Self Check: Weathering and Erosion

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 Reading: What Is Weathering?

The footprints that astronauts left on the Moon will be there forever.
Why? This is because the Moon has no atmosphere and, as a result,
has no weathering. Weathering is one of the forces on Earth that
destroy rocks and landforms. Without weathering, geologic features
would build up but would be less likely to break down.

What is Weathering?

Weathering is the process that changes solid rock into sediments.

Sediments were described in the Rocks chapter. With weathering,
rock is disintegrated. It breaks into pieces.

Once these sediments are separated from the rocks, erosion is the
process that moves the sediments. Erosion is the next chapter’s
topic. The four forces of erosion are water, wind, glaciers, and
gravity.

Water is responsible for most erosion. Water can move

most sizes of sediments, depending on the strength of the
force.
 Wind moves sand-sized and smaller pieces of rock through
the air.

Glaciers move all sizes of sediments, from extremely large

boulders to the tiniest fragments.

Gravity moves broken pieces of rock, large or small,

downslope.

While plate tectonics forces

work to build huge mountains
and other landscapes, the
forces of weathering gradually
wear those rocks and
landscapes away. Together with
erosion, tall mountains turn into
hills and even plains. The
Appalachian Mountains along Figure 1. A once smooth road surface has cracks
and fractures, plus a large pothole.
the east coast of North America
were once as tall as the
Himalayas.

No human being can watch for millions of years as mountains are

built, nor can anyone watch as those same mountains gradually are
worn away. But imagine a new sidewalk or road. The new road is
smooth and even. Over hundreds of years, it will completely
disappear, but what happens over one year? What changes would
you see (figure 1)? What forces of weathering wear down that road,
or rocks or mountains over time?

Follow this link to view some animations of different types of

weathering processes.

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 Reading: Mechanical Weathering

Mechanical weathering (also called physical weathering) breaks

rock into smaller pieces. These smaller pieces are just like the bigger
rock, just smaller. That means the rock has changed physically
without changing its composition. The smaller pieces have the same
minerals, in just the same proportions as the original rock.

There are many ways that rocks can be broken apart into smaller
pieces. Ice wedging is the main form of mechanical weathering in
any climate that regularly cycles above and below the freezing point
(figure 2). Ice wedging works quickly, breaking apart rocks in areas
with temperatures that cycle above and below freezing in the day
and night, and also that cycle above and below freezing with the
seasons.
 Figure 2. Ice wedging.

Ice wedging breaks apart so much rock that large piles of broken
rock are seen at the base of a hillside, as rock fragments separate
and tumble down. Ice wedging is common in Earth’s polar regions
and mid latitudes, and also at higher elevations, such as in the
mountains. Abrasion is another form of mechanical weathering. In
abrasion, one rock bumps against another rock.

Gravity causes abrasion as a rock tumbles down a

mountainside or cliff.

Moving water causes abrasion as particles in the water

collide and bump against one another.

Strong winds carrying pieces of sand can sandblast

surfaces.

Ice in glaciers carries many bits and pieces of rock. Rocks

embedded at the bottom of the glacier scrape against the
 rocks below.

Abrasion makes rocks with

sharp or jagged edges smooth
and round. If you have ever
collected beach glass or
cobbles from a stream, you
have witnessed the work of
Figure 3. Rocks on a beach are worn down by
abrasion (figure 3). abrasion as passing waves cause them to strike
each other.

Now that you know what

mechanical weathering is, can
you think of other ways it could happen? Plants and animals can do
the work of mechanical weathering (figure 4). This could happen
slowly as a plant’s roots grow into a crack or fracture in rock and
gradually grow larger, wedging open the crack. Burrowing animals
can also break apart rock as they dig for food or to make living
spaces for themselves.
 Figure 4. (a) Human activities are responsible for enormous amounts of
mechanical weathering, by digging or blasting into rock to build homes, roads,
subways, or to quarry stone. (b) Salt weathering of building stone on the island
of Gozo, Malta.

Mechanical weathering increases the rate of chemical weathering.

As rock breaks into smaller pieces, the surface area of the pieces
increases figure 5. With more surfaces exposed, there are more
surfaces on which chemical weathering can occur.

Figure 5. Mechanical weathering may increase the rate of chemical weathering.

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 Reading: Chemical Weathering

Chemical weathering is the other important type of weathering.

Chemical weathering is different from mechanical weathering
because the rock changes, not just in size of pieces, but in
composition. That is, one type of mineral changes into a different
mineral. Chemical weathering works through chemical reactions that
cause changes in the minerals.

Most minerals form at high

pressure or high temperatures
deep in the crust, or sometimes
in the mantle. When these
rocks reach the Earth’s surface,
they are now at very low
temperatures and pressures.
This is a very different Figure 1. Deforestation in Brazil reveals the
underlying clay-rich soil.
environment from the one in
which they formed and the
minerals are no longer stable.
In chemical weathering, minerals that were stable inside the crust
must change to minerals that are stable at Earth’s surface.
 Remember that the most common minerals in Earth’s crust are the
silicate minerals. Many silicate minerals form in igneous or
metamorphic rocks. The minerals that form at the highest
temperatures and pressures are the least stable at the surface. Clay
is stable at the surface and chemical weathering converts many
minerals to clay (figure 1).

There are many types of chemical weathering because there are

many agents of chemical weathering. Water is the most important
agent of chemical weathering. Two other important agents of
chemical weathering are carbon dioxide and oxygen.

Chemical Weathering by Water

A water molecule has a very simple chemical formula, H2O, two

hydrogen atoms bonded to one oxygen atom. But water is pretty
remarkable in terms of all the things it can do. Remember from the
Earth’s Minerals chapter that water is a polar molecule. The positive
side of the molecule attracts negative ions and the negative side
attracts positive ions. So water molecules separate the ions from
their compounds and surround them. Water can completely dissolve
some minerals, such as salt. Follow this link to check out this
animation of how water dissolves salt.

Hydrolysis is the name of the chemical reaction between a

chemical compound and water. When this reaction takes place,
water dissolves ions from the mineral and carries them away. These
elements have undergone leaching. Through hydrolysis, a mineral
such as potassium feldspar is leached of potassium and changed
into a clay mineral. Clay minerals are more stable at the Earth’s
surface.

Chemical Weathering by
Acid Rain

Carbon dioxide (CO2) combines

with water as raindrops fall
through the atmosphere. This
makes a weak acid, called
carbonic acid. Carbonic acid is Figure 7. This statue has been damaged by acid
a very common in nature where rain.

it works to dissolve rock.

Pollutants, such as sulfur and nitrogen, from fossil fuel burning,

create sulfuric and nitric acid. Sulfuric and nitric acids are the two
main components of acid rain, which accelerate chemical weathering
(figure 7). Acid rain is discussed in the Human Actions and the
Atmosphere chapter.

Chemical Weathering by Oxygen

Oxidation is a chemical reaction that takes place when oxygen

reacts with another element.
Oxygen is very strongly
chemically reactive. The most
familiar type of oxidation is
when iron reacts with oxygen to
create rust (figure 8). Minerals
that are rich in iron break down
as the iron oxidizes and forms
new compounds. Iron oxide
produces the red color in soils.

Figure 8. When iron rich minerals oxidize, they

produce the familiar red color found in rust.
Now that you know what
chemical weathering is, can you
think of some other ways
chemical weathering might occur? Chemical weathering can also be
contributed to by plants and animals. As plant roots take in soluble
ions as nutrients, certain elements are exchanged. Plant roots and
bacterial decay use carbon dioxide in the process of respiration.

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 Reading: Influences on Weathering

Weathering rates depend on several factors. These include the

composition of the rock and the minerals it contains as well as the
climate of a region.

Rock and Mineral Type

Different rock types weather

at different rates. Certain types
of rock are very resistant to
weathering. Igneous rocks,
especially intrusive igneous
rocks such as granite, weather
slowly because it is hard for
water to penetrate them. Other
types of rock, such as
Figure 1. Devil’s Tower is the central plug of
limestone, are easily weathered resistant lava from which the surrounding rock
because they dissolve in weak weathered and eroded away.

acids.

Rocks that resist weathering remain at the surface and form ridges
or hills. Devil’s Tower in Wyoming is an igneous rock from beneath a
volcano (figure 1). As the surrounding less resistant rocks were worn
away, the resistant center of the volcano remained behind.

Different minerals also weather at different rates. Some minerals in

a rock might completely dissolve in water but the more resistant
minerals remain. In this case, the rock’s surface becomes pitted and
rough. When a less resistant mineral dissolves, more resistant
mineral grains are released from the rock.

Climate

A region’s climate strongly influences weathering. Climate is

determined by the temperature of a region plus the amount of
precipitation it receives. Climate is weather averaged over a long
period of time. Chemical weathering increases as:

Temperature increases: Chemical reactions proceed more

rapidly at higher temperatures. For each 10oC increase in
average temperature, the rate of chemical reactions
doubles.

Precipitation increases: More water allows more chemical

reactions. Since water participates in both mechanical and
chemical weathering, more water strongly increases
weathering.

So how do different climates influence weathering? A cold, dry

climate will produce the lowest rate of weathering. A warm, wet
climate will produce the highest
rate of weathering. The warmer
a climate is, the more types of
vegetation it will have and the
greater the rate of biological
weathering (figure 2). This
happens because plants and
bacteria grow and multiply Figure 2. Wet, warm tropical areas have the most
weathering.
faster in warmer temperatures.

Some resources are

concentrated by weathering processes. In tropical climates, intense
chemical weathering carries away all soluble minerals, leaving
behind just the least soluble components. The aluminum oxide,
bauxite, forms this way and is our main source of aluminum ore.

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 Self Check: Weathering and Erosion

Check Your Understanding

Answer the question(s) below to see how well you understand the
topics covered in the previous section. This short quiz
does not count toward your grade in the class, and you can retake it
an unlimited number of times.

Use this quiz to check your understanding and decide whether to

(1) study the previous section further or (2) move on to the next
section.

An interactive or media element has been excluded from this

version of the text. You can view it online here:
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 Outcome: Soil Profiles and Types

Describe and compare typical soil profiles and basic soil

types.

This section provides information on the different types of soil and

soil profiles. You will become familiar with different soil types, their
components and common locations.

What You’ll Learn to Do

Identify the measurable components of soil: sand, silt, and

clay.

Identify the primary soil horizons: organic, topsoil, subsoils,

and C horizon.

Identify three common (and important!) types of soil:

pedalfer, pedocal, and laterite.

Learning Activities

The learning activities for this section include the following:

Reading: Soil Texture and Composition

Reading: Soil Horizons and Profiles
 Reading: Types of Soils

Self Check: Soil Profiles and Types

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 Reading: Soil Texture and Composition

The inorganic portion of soil

is made of many different size
particles, and these different
size particles are present in
different proportions. The
combination of these two
factors determines some of the Figure 1. A loam field.

properties of the soil.

A permeable soil allows water to flow through it easily

because the spaces between the inorganic particles are
large and well connected. Sandy or silty soils are
considered ‘light’ soils because they are permeable, water-
draining types of soils.
Soils that have lots of very small spaces are water-holding
soils. For example, when clay is present in a soil, the soil is
heavier, holds together more tightly, and holds water.
When a soil contains a mixture of grain sizes, the soil is
called a loam (figure 1).

When soil scientists want to precisely determine soil type, they

measure the percentage of sand, silt, and clay. They plot this
information on a triangular diagram, with each size particle at one
corner (figure 2). The soil type can then be determined from the
location on the diagram. At the top, a soil would be clay; at the left
corner, it would be sand, and at the right corner it would be silt. Soils
in the lower middle with less than 50% clay are loams.

Figure 2. Soil types by particle size.

Using the chart as a guide, what is the composition of a sandy clay

loam? If you would like to determine soil type by feel, here’s a chart
from the USDA to help you.

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 Reading: Soil Horizons and Profiles

A residual soil forms over many years, as mechanical and chemical

weathering slowly change solid rock into soil. The development of a
residual soil may go something like this.

1. The bedrock fractures

because of weathering
from ice wedging or
another physical
process.
2. Water, oxygen, and
carbon dioxide seep
into the cracks to
cause chemical
Figure 1. Soil is an important resource. Each soil
weathering. horizon is distinctly visible in this photograph.

3. Plants, such as lichens

or grasses, become
established and produce biological weathering.
4. Weathered material collects until there is soil.

5. The soil develops soil horizons, as each layer becomes

progressively altered. The greatest degree of weathering is
in the top layer. Each successive, lower layer is altered just
 a little bit less. This is because the first place where water
and air come in contact with the soil is at the top.

A cut in the side of a hillside shows each of the different layers of

soil. All together, these are called a soil profile (figure 1).

The simplest soils have three horizons: topsoil (A horizon), subsoil

(B horizon), and C horizon.

Topsoil

Called the A horizon, the topsoil is usually

the darkest layer of the soil because it has the
highest proportion of organic material. The
topsoil is the region of most intense biological
activity: insects, worms, and other animals
burrow through it and plants stretch their roots
down into it. Plant roots help to hold this layer
of soil in place. In the topsoil, minerals may Figure 2. A soil profile is
the complete set of soil
dissolve in the fresh water that moves through it layers. Each layer is called
to be carried to lower layers of the soil. Very a horizon.

small particles, such as clay, may also get

carried to lower layers as water seeps down
into the ground.

Subsoil
The B horizon or subsoil is where soluble minerals and clays
accumulate. This layer is lighter brown and holds more water than
the topsoil because of the presence of iron and clay minerals. There
is less organic material. Look at figure 2.

C horizon

The C horizon is a layer of partially altered bedrock. There is some

evidence of weathering in this layer, but pieces of the original rock
are seen and can be identified.

Not all climate regions develop soils, and not all regions develop
the same horizons. Some areas develop as many as five or six
distinct layers, while others develop only very thin soils or perhaps
no soils at all.

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 Reading: Types of Soils

Although soil scientists recognize thousands of types of soil—each

with its own specific characteristics and name—let’s consider just
three soil types. This will help you to understand some of the basic
ideas about how climate produces a certain type of soil, but there are
many exceptions to what we will learn right now (figure 1).

Figure 1. Just some of the thousands of soil types.

Pedalfer
 Deciduous trees, the trees
that lose their leaves each
winter, need at least 65 cm of
rain per year. These forests
produce soils called pedalfers,
which are common in many
areas of the temperate, eastern
part of the United States (figure
2). Figure 2. A pedalfer is the dark, fertile type of soil
that will form in a forested region.

The word pedalfer comes

from some of the elements that are commonly found in the soil. The
Al in pedalfer is the chemical symbol of the element aluminum, and
the Fe in pedalfer is the chemical symbol for iron.

Pedalfers are usually a very fertile, dark brown or black soil. Not
surprising, they are rich in aluminum clays and iron oxides. Because
a great deal of rainfall is common in this climate, most of the soluble
minerals dissolve and are carried away, leaving the less soluble
clays and iron oxides behind.

Pedocal

Pedocal soils form in drier, temperate areas where grasslands

and brush are the usual types of vegetation (figure 3). The climates
that form pedocals have less than 65 cm rainfall per year, so
compared to pedalfers, there is
less chemical weathering and
less water to dissolve away
soluble minerals so more
soluble minerals are present
and fewer clay minerals are
produced. It is a drier region
with less vegetation, so the Figure 3. A pedocal is the alkaline type of soil that
forms in grassland regions.
soils have lower amounts of
organic material and are less
fertile.

A pedocal is named for the calcite enriched layer that forms. Water
begins to move down through the soil layers, but before it gets very
far, it begins to evaporate. Soluble minerals, like calcium carbonate,
concentrate in a layer that marks the lowest place that water was
able to reach. This layer is called caliche.

Laterite

In tropical rainforests where it rains literally every day, laterite

soils form (figure 4). In these hot, wet, tropical regions, intense
chemical weathering strips the soils of their nutrients. There is
practically no humus. All soluble minerals are removed from the soil
and all plant nutrients are carried away. All that is left behind are the
least soluble materials, like aluminum and iron oxides. These soils
are often red in color from the iron oxides.
Laterite soils bake as hard as a brick if they
are exposed to the sun.

Many climates types have not been

mentioned here. Each produces a Figure 4. A laterite is the type of
distinctive soil type that forms in the thick, nutrient poor soil that
forms in the rainforest.
particular circumstances found there.
Where there is less weathering, soils are
thinner but soluble minerals may be present. Where there is intense
weathering, soils may be thick but nutrient poor. Soil development
takes a very long time, it may take hundreds or even thousands of
years for a good fertile topsoil to form. Soil scientists estimate that in
the very best soil-forming conditions, soil forms at a rate of about
1mm/year. In poor conditions, soil formation may take thousands of
years!

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 Self Check: Soil Profiles and Types

Check Your Understanding

Answer the question(s) below to see how well you understand the
topics covered in the previous section. This short quiz
does not count toward your grade in the class, and you can retake it
an unlimited number of times.

Use this quiz to check your understanding and decide whether to

(1) study the previous section further or (2) move on to the next
section.

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 Outcome: Soil Conservation

Describe types and processes of weathering and

erosion.

This section introduces you to weathering and erosion, both

important parts of the rock cycle. You will learn how different rocks
are weathered and eroded and the implications of this weathering.

What You’ll Learn to Do

Identify causes of soil erosion and soil loss.

Identify strategies to conserve and replenish soil.

Learning Activities

The learning activities for this section include the following:

Reading: Causes of Soil Erosion

Video: The Dust Bowl

Reading: Avoiding Soil Loss

Self Check: Soil Conservation

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 Reading: Causes of Soil Erosion

The agents of soil erosion are the same as the agents of all types of
erosion: water, wind, ice, or gravity. Running water is the leading
cause of soil erosion, because water is abundant and has a lot of
power. Wind is also a leading cause of soil erosion because wind
can pick up soil and blow it far away.

Activities that remove vegetation, disturb the ground, or allow the

ground to dry are activities that increase erosion. What are some
human activities that increase the likelihood that soil will be eroded?

Farming

Agriculture is probably the most significant activity that accelerates

soil erosion because of the amount of land that is farmed and how
much farming practices disturb the ground (Figure 1). Farmers
remove native vegetation and then plow the land to plant new seeds.
Because most crops grow only in spring and summer, the land lies
fallow during the winter. Of course, winter is also the stormy season
in many locations, so wind and rain are available to wash soil away.
Tractor tires make deep grooves, which are natural pathways for
water. Fine soil is blown away by wind.
 The soil that is most likely to erode is the nutrient-rich topsoil,
which degrades the farmland.

Figure 1. (a) The bare areas of farmland are especially vulnerable to erosion. (b)
Slash-and-burn agriculture leaves land open for soil erosion and is one of the
leading causes of soil erosion in the world.

Grazing

Grazing animals (Figure 2) wander over large areas of pasture or

natural grasslands eating grasses and shrubs. Grazers expose soil
by removing the plant cover for an area. They also churn up the
ground with their hooves. If too many animals graze the same land
area, the animals’ hooves pull plants out by their roots. A land is
overgrazed if too many animals are living there.
 Grazing animals can cause erosion if they are allowed to overgraze and remove
too much or all of the vegetation in a pasture.

Logging and Mining

Logging removes trees that

protect the ground from soil
erosion. The tree roots hold the
soil together and the tree
canopy protects the soil from
hard falling rain. Logging results
Figure 3. Logging exposes large areas of land to
in the loss of leaf litter, or dead erosion.
leaves, bark, and branches on
the forest floor. Leaf litter plays
an important role in protecting forest soils from erosion (Figure 3).
 Much of the world’s original forests have been logged. Many of the
tropical forests that remain are currently the site of logging because
North America and Europe have already harvested many of their
trees (Figure 4). Soils eroded from logged forests clog rivers and
lakes, fill estuaries, and bury coral reefs.

Figure 4. Deforested swatches in Brazil show up as gray amid the bright red
tropical rainforest.

Surface mining disturbs the land (Figure 5) and leaves the soil
vulnerable to erosion.

Figure 5. (a) Disturbed land at a coal mine pit in Germany. (b) This coal mine in
West Virginia covers more than 10,000 acres (15.6 square miles). Some of the
exposed ground is being reclaimed by planting trees.

Construction

Constructing buildings and roads churns up the ground and exposes

soil to erosion. In some locations, native landscapes, such as forest
and grassland, are cleared, exposing the surface to erosion (in some
locations the land that will be built on is farmland). Near construction
sites, dirt, picked up by the wind, is often in the air. Completed
construction can also contribute to erosion (Figure 6).
 Figure 6. Urban areas and parking lots result in less water entering the ground.
Water runs off the parking lot onto nearby lands and speeds up erosion in those
areas.

Recreational Activities

Recreational activities may accelerate soil erosion. Off-road vehicles

disturb the landscape and the area eventually develops bare spots
where no plants can grow. In some delicate habitats, even hikers’
boots can disturb the ground, so it’s important to stay on the trail
(Figure 7).
 Figure 7. (a) ATVs churn up the soil, accelerating erosion. (b) Hiking trails may
become eroded.

Soil erosion is as natural as any other type of erosion, but human

activities have greatly accelerated soil erosion. In some locations soil
erosion may occur about 10 times faster than its natural rate. Since
Europeans settled in North America, about one-third of the topsoil in
the area that is now the United States has eroded away.

Summary

Although soil erosion is a natural process, human activities

have greatly accelerated it.

The agents of soil erosion are the same as of other types of

erosion: water, ice, wind, and gravity.

Soil erosion is more likely where the ground has been

disturbed by agriculture, grazing animals, logging, mining,
construction, and recreational activities.
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 Video: The Dust Bowl

What would cause such a tremendous dust storm?

Farmers were forced off their lands during the Dust Bowl in the
1930s when the rains stopped and the topsoil blew off these former
grasslands. A wind storm blew huge amounts of soil into the air in
Texas on April 14, 1935. This scene was repeated throughout the
central United States.

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Dust Storm Texas 1935. Authored by: George E. Marsh.
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 Reading: Avoiding Soil Loss

How does the terracing

shown in Figure 1 photo
prevent soil erosion?

Terracing keeps the soil from

moving very far downhill since it
will only get as far as the next
terrace downhill. Water will also Figure 1. Terraced fields in Sa Pa, Vietnam

be slowed by the terraces and

so will be less able to carry
tremendous amounts of soil downhill. Terracing is a great way to
preserve soil when farming is being done on hillsides.

Soil Erosion

Bad farming practices and a return to normal rainfall levels after an

unusually wet period led to the Dust Bowl. In some regions more
than 75% of the topsoil blew away. This is the most extreme example
of soil erosion the United States has ever seen.

Still, in many areas of the world, the rate of soil erosion is many
times greater than the rate at
which it is forming. Drought,
insect plagues, or outbreaks of
disease are natural cycles of
events that can negatively
impact ecosystems and the soil,
but there are also many ways in
which humans neglect or abuse
this important resource. Soils
can also be contaminated if too
much salt accumulates in the Figure 1. A farmer and his sons walk through a
dust storm in Cimarron County, Oklahoma in
soil or where pollutants sink into 1936.
the ground.

One harmful practice is removing the vegetation that helps to hold

soil in place. Sometimes just walking or riding your bike over the
same place will kill the grass that normally grows there. Land is also
deliberately cleared or deforested for wood. The loose soils then
may be carried away by wind or running water.

Soil Conservation

Soil is only a renewable resource if it is carefully managed. There

are many practices that can protect and preserve soil resources.

Organic Material
 Adding organic material to
the soil in the form of plant or
animal waste, such as compost
or manure, increases the fertility
of the soil and improves its
ability to hold on to water and
nutrients (Figure 3). Inorganic
fertilizer can also temporarily Figure 3. Organic material can be added to soil to
increase the fertility of a soil help increase its fertility.

and may be less expensive or

time consuming, but it does not
provide the same long-term improvements as organic materials.

Preventing Soil Erosion

Soil is a natural resource that is vitally important for sustaining

natural habitats and for growing food. Although soil is a renewable
resource, it is renewed slowly, taking hundreds or thousands of
years for a good fertile soil to develop.

Most of the best land for farming is already being cultivated. With
human populations continuing to grow, it is extremely important to
protect our soil resources. Agricultural practices such as rotating
crops, alternating the types of crops planted in each row, and
planting nutrient-rich cover crops all help to keep soil more fertile as
it is used season after season. Planting trees as windbreaks, plowing
along contours of the field, or
building terraces into steeper
slopes will all help to hold soil in
place (Figure 4). No-till or low-
tillage farming helps to keep soil
in place by disturbing the
ground as little as possible Figure 4. Steep slopes can be terraced to make
level planting areas and decrease surface water
when planting. runoff and erosion.

The rate of topsoil loss in the

United States and other developed countries has decreased recently
as better farming practices have been adopted. Unfortunately, in
developing nations, soil is often not protected.

The table below shows some steps that we can take to prevent
erosion. Some are things that can be done by farmers or developers.
Others are things that individual homeowners or community
members can implement locally.
Source of
Strategies for Prevention
Erosion

Leave leaf litter on the ground in the winter.

Grow cover crops, special crops grown in the winter to cover
the soil.
Plant tall trees around fields to buffer the effects of wind.
Drive tractors as little as possible.
Agriculture
Use drip irrigation that puts small amounts of water in the
ground frequently.
Avoid watering crops with sprinklers that make big water drops
on the ground.
Keep fields as flat as possible to avoid soil eroding down hill.

Move animals throughout the year, so they don’t consume all

Grazing the vegetation in one spot.
Animals Keep animals away from stream banks, where hills are
especially prone to erosion.

Reduce the amount of land that is logged and mined.

Reduce the number of roads that are built to access logging
Logging and areas.
Mining Avoid logging and mining on steep lands.
Cut only small areas at one time and quickly replant logged
areas with new seedlings.

Reduce the amount of land area that is developed into urban

areas, parking lots, etc.
Keep as much “green space” in cities as possible, such as
Development
parks or strips where plants can grow.
Invest in and use new technologies for parking lots that make
them permeable to water in order to reduce runoff of water.

Recreational Avoid using off-road vehicles on hilly lands.

Activities Stay on designated trails.
Source of
Strategies for Prevention
Erosion

Avoid building on steep hills.

Grade surrounding land to distribute water rather than collecting
Building it in one place.
Construction
Where water collects, drain to creeks and rivers.
Landscape with plants that minimize erosion.

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 Self Check: Soil Conservation

Check Your Understanding

Answer the question(s) below to see how well you understand the
topics covered in the previous section. This short quiz
does not count toward your grade in the class, and you can retake it
an unlimited number of times.

Use this quiz to check your understanding and decide whether to

(1) study the previous section further or (2) move on to the next
section.

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 Putting It Together: Weathering and Soil
Formation

Summary

In this section, you learned the following:

1. How weathering and erosion contribute to soil formation

2. How different processes alter rocks

3. The different types of soil
4. The different types of soil profiles

Synthesis

Wow, who knew soil was so complex and involved? It is easy to see
how soil is an important resource and why soils are different from
one place to another. The processes involved in soil formation are
very slow. It takes anywhere from 200–1,000 years (depending on
your location) for just one inch of soil to form. With the importance of
soil and the time it takes to form, soil is a resource that is just as
important as clean water and air. Watch this six minute video as a
review of the topics we learned in this section. (Just ignore the bad
jokes.)
 An interactive or media element has been excluded from this
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Science - Soil Formation and soil layers - English.

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MODULE 5: PLATE TECTONICS
 Why It Matters: Plate Tectonics

Recognize the ongoing development of, evidence for,

and large scale planetary effects of the Theory of Plate
Tectonics.

Introduction

Plate tectonics is often seen as the missing piece of the puzzle for
geologists. Plate tectonics explains, either directly or indirectly, just
about every topic discussed in geology. It is the glue that binds
everything together. Before plate tectonics, geologists had no
explanation for these (and other) questions:

1. What causes the tectonic plates to move the way they do?
2. Why is the oceanic crust younger than continental crust?

3. Why do the continents look the way they do, like puzzle
pieces or are positioned as they are?

4. Why are Japan and California so prone to earthquakes and

volcanoes?

5. How did the Himalayas form?

6. Why do we find evidence of aquatic species at the very top
of the Himalayas and other mountainous areas?
 7. How do mountains form?

8. Why do the oceans look the way they do?

9. What factors contributed to the occurrence of the ice ages?

10. Why the same species can be found on continents on
opposite sides of the oceans?

As you move through this section, keep in mind all of these

questions and make note of any other impacts the Theory of Plate
Tectonics has had on the field of geology.

Learning Outcomes

Describe Continental Drift including supporting evidence.

Critique and interpret major types of evidence supporting

the Theory of Plate Tectonics.

Describe different geological processes in relation to plate

tectonics.

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 Outcome: Continental Drift

Describe Continental Drift including supporting

evidence.

The continental drift hypothesis was developed in the early part of

the twentieth century, mostly by Alfred Wegener. Wegener said that
continents move around on Earth’s surface and that they were once
joined together as a single supercontinent. While Wegener was
alive, scientists did not believe that the continents could move.

In this outcome, we will discuss the basics of the hypothesis, as

well as the contributions of Alfred Wegener.

What You’ll Learn to Do

Identify key components and evidence of Continental Drift.

Know the shortcomings of Continental Drift.

Learning Activities

The learning activities for this section include the following:

Reading: Continental Drift

 Reading: Wegener and the Continental Drift Hypothesis

Self Check: Continental Drift

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 Reading: Continental Drift

The Continental Drift Idea

Find a map of the continents

and cut each one out. Better
yet, use a map where the edges
of the continents show the
continental shelf. That’s the true
size and shape of a continent.
Can you fit the pieces together?
The easiest link is between the
eastern Americas and western
Africa and Europe, but the rest
can fit together too (Figure 1). Figure 1. The continents fit together like pieces of
a puzzle. This is how they looked 250 million
years ago.
Alfred Wegener proposed
that the continents were once
united into a single supercontinent named Pangaea, meaning all
earth in ancient Greek. He suggested that Pangaea broke up long
ago and that the continents then moved to their current positions. He
called his hypothesis continental drift.
Evidence for Continental Drift

Besides the way the continents fit together, Wegener and his
supporters collected a great deal of evidence for the continental drift
hypothesis.

Identical rocks, of the same type and age, are found on

both sides of the Atlantic Ocean. Wegener said the rocks
had formed side-by-side and that the land had since moved
apart.

Mountain ranges with the same rock types, structures, and

ages are now on opposite sides of the Atlantic Ocean. The
Appalachians of the eastern United States and Canada, for
example, are just like mountain ranges in eastern
Greenland, Ireland, Great Britain, and Norway (figure 2).
Wegener concluded that they formed as a single mountain
range that was separated as the continents drifted.

Figure 2. The similarities between the Appalachian and the eastern

Greenland mountain ranges are evidences for the continental drift
hypothesis.
Ancient fossils of the same species of extinct plants and
animals are found in rocks of the same age but are on
continents that are now widely separated (figure 3).
Wegener proposed that the organisms had lived side by
side, but that the lands had moved apart after they were
dead and fossilized. He suggested that the organisms
would not have been able to travel across the oceans.

Fossils of the seed fern Glossopteris were too

heavy to be carried so far by wind.

Mesosaurus was a swimming reptile but could only

swim in fresh water.

Cynognathus and Lystrosaurus were land reptiles

and were unable to swim.
 Figure 3. Wegener used fossil evidence to support his
continental drift hypothesis. The fossils of these organisms
are found on lands that are now far apart.

Grooves and rock deposits left by ancient glaciers are

found today on different continents very close to the
equator. This would indicate that the glaciers either formed
in the middle of the ocean and/or covered most of the
Earth. Today glaciers only form on land and nearer the
poles. Wegener thought that the glaciers were centered
over the southern land mass close to the South Pole and
the continents moved to their present positions later on.

Coral reefs and coal-forming swamps are found in tropical

and subtropical environments, but ancient coal seams and
coral reefs are found in locations where it is much too cold
 today. Wegener suggested that these creatures were alive
in warm climate zones and that the fossils and coal later
had drifted to new locations on the continents.

Take a look at this animation showing that Earth’s climate belts

remain in roughly the same position while the continents move and
this animation showing how the continents split up.

Although Wegener’s evidence was sound, most geologists at the

time rejected his hypothesis of continental drift. Why do you think
they did not accept continental drift?

Scientists argued that there was no way to explain how solid

continents could plow through solid oceanic crust. Wegener’s idea
was nearly forgotten until technological advances presented even
more evidence that the continents moved and gave scientists the
tools to develop a mechanism for Wegener’s drifting continents.

Magnetic Polarity Evidence

Puzzling new evidence came in the 1950s from studies on the

Earth’s magnetic history (figure 4). Scientists used magnetometers,
devices capable of measuring the magnetic field intensity, to look at
the magnetic properties of rocks in many locations.

Magnetite crystals are like tiny magnets that point to the north
magnetic pole as they
crystallize from magma. The
crystals record both the
direction and strength of the
magnetic field at the time. The
direction is known as the field’s
magnetic polarity.

Magnetic Polarity on the Figure 4. Earth’s magnetic field is like a magnet

with its north pole near the geographic North Pole
Same Continent with Rocks and the south pole near the geographic South Pole.
of Different Ages

Geologists noted important

things about the magnetic polarity of different aged rocks on the
same continent:

Magnetite crystals in fresh volcanic rocks point to the

current magnetic north pole (figure 5) no matter what
continent or where on the continent the rocks are located.
 Figure 5. Earth’s current north magnetic pole is in northern Canada.

Older rocks that are the same age and are located on the
same continent point to the same location, but that location
is not the current north magnetic pole.

Older rock that are of different ages do not point to the

same locations or to the current magnetic north pole.

In other words, although the magnetite crystals were pointing to

the magnetic north pole, the location of the pole seemed to wander.
Scientists were amazed to find that the north magnetic pole changed
location through time (figure 6).

There are three possible explanations for this:

 1. The continents remained fixed and
the north magnetic pole moved.

2. The north magnetic pole stood still

and the continents moved.
3. Both the continents and the north
pole moved.

Magnetic Polarity on Different Figure 6. The location of the

north magnetic north pole 80
Continents with Rocks of the Same Age million years before present
(mybp), then 60, 40, 20, and
now.
Geologists noted that for rocks of the same
age but on different continents, the little
magnets pointed to different magnetic north
poles.

400-million-year-old magnetite in Europe pointed to a

different north magnetic pole than the same-aged magnetite
in North America.
250 million years ago, the north poles were also different for
the two continents.

The scientists looked again at the three possible explanations.

Only one can be correct. If the continents had remained fixed while
the north magnetic pole moved, there must have been two separate
north poles. Since there is only one north pole today, the only
reasonable explanation is that the north magnetic pole has remained
fixed but that the continents have moved.
 To test this, geologists fitted the continents together as Wegener
had done. It worked! There has only been one magnetic north pole
and the continents have drifted (figure 7). They named the
phenomenon of the magnetic pole that seemed to move but actually
did not apparent polar wander.

Figure 7. On the left: The apparent north pole for Europe and North America if
the continents were always in their current locations. The two paths merge into
one if the continents are allowed to drift.

This evidence for continental drift gave geologists renewed

interest in understanding how continents could move about on the
planet’s surface.

Lesson Summary

In the early part of the 20th century, scientists began to put

together evidence that the continents could move around
 on Earth’s surface.

The evidence for continental drift included the fit of the

continents; the distribution of ancient fossils, rocks, and
mountain ranges; and the locations of ancient climatic
zones.

Although the evidence for continental drift was extremely

strong, scientists rejected the idea because no mechanism
for how solid continents could move around on the solid
earth was developed.

The discovery of apparent polar wander renewed scientists

interest in continental drift.

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 Reading: Wegener and the Continental Drift
Hypothesis

Scientists still do not appear to understand sufficiently that all

earth sciences must contribute evidence toward unveiling the
state of our planet in earlier times, and that the truth of the matter
can only be reached by combing all this evidence. . . . It is only by
combing the information furnished by all the earth sciences that
we can hope to determine ‘truth’ here, that is to say, to find the
picture that sets out all the known facts in the best arrangement
and that therefore has the highest degree of probability. Further,
we have to be prepared always for the possibility that each new
discovery, no matter what science furnishes it, may modify the
conclusions we draw.

— Alfred L. Wegener, The Origins of Continents and Oceans, first

published in 1915.

Wegener put together a tremendous amount of evidence that the

continents had been joined. He advocated using scientific evidence
to find the “truth.” As his colleague, are you convinced? Let’s
explore.
Wegener’s Continental Drift Hypothesis

Wegener put his idea and his

evidence together in his book
The Origin of Continents and
Oceans, first published in 1915.
New editions with additional
evidence were published later
in the decade. In his book he
said that around 300 million Figure 1. Alfred Wegener suggested that
continental drift occurred as continents cut
years ago the continents had all through the ocean floor, in the same way as this
been joined into a single icebreaker plows through sea ice.

landmass he called Pangaea,

meaning “all earth” in ancient
Greek. The supercontinent later broke apart and the continents
having been moving into their current positions ever since. He called
his hypothesis continental drift.

The Problem with the Hypothesis

Wegener’s idea seemed so outlandish at the time that he was

ridiculed by other scientists. What do you think the problem was? To
his colleagues, his greatest problem was that he had no plausible
mechanism for how the continents could move through the oceans.
Based on his polar experiences, Wegener suggested that the
continents were like icebreaking ships plowing through ice sheets.
The continents moved by centrifugal and tidal forces. As Wegener’s
colleague, how would you go about showing whether these forces
could move continents? What observations would you expect to see
on these continents?

Scientists at the time

calculated that centrifugal and
tidal forces were too weak to
move continents. When one
scientist did calculations that
assumed that these forces were
strong enough to move
continents, his result was that if Figure 2. Early hypotheses proposed that
centrifugal forces moved continents. This is the
Earth had such strong forces same force that moves the swings outward on a
spinning carnival ride.
the planet would stop rotating in
less than one year. In addition,
scientists also thought that the
continents that had been plowing through the ocean basins should
be much more deformed than they are.

Wegener answered his question of whether Africa and South

America had once been joined. But a hypothesis is rarely accepted
without a mechanism to drive it. Are you going to support Wegener?
A very few scientists did, since his hypothesis elegantly explained
the similar fossils and rocks on opposite sides of the ocean, but most
did not.
Mantle Convection

Wegener had many thoughts

regarding what could be the
driving force behind continental
drift. Another of Wegener’s
colleagues, Arthur Holmes,
elaborated on Wegener’s idea
that there is thermal convection
in the mantle. Figure 3. Thermal convection occurs as hot rock
in the deep mantle rises towards the Earth’s
surface. This rock then spreads out and cools,
sinking back towards the core, where it can be
In a convection cell, heated again. This circulation of rock through the
material deep beneath the mantle creates convection cells.

surface is heated so that its

density is lowered and it rises.
Near the surface it becomes cooler and denser, so it sinks. Holmes
thought this could be like a conveyor belt. Where two adjacent
convection cells rise to the surface, a continent could break apart
with pieces moving in opposite directions. Although this sounds like a
great idea, there was no real evidence for it, either.

Alfred Wegener died in 1930 on an expedition on the Greenland

icecap. For the most part the continental drift idea was put to rest for
a few decades, until technological advances presented even more
evidence that the continents moved and gave scientists the tools to
develop a mechanism for Wegener’s drifting continents. Since you’re
on a virtual field trip, you get to go along with them as well.

Summary

Alfred Wegener published his idea that the continents had

been joined as a single landmass, which he called
Pangaea, about 300 million years ago.
Wegener’s idea was mostly ridiculed, in part because
Wegener could not develop a plausible mechanism for
continents moving through oceanic crust.
Calculations showed that his idea about centrifugal and
tidal forces powering the continents could not be right.

Wegener also thought about mantle convection an idea

expanded on by Arthur Holmes as the driving force for
continental drift. There was no evidence available to
support the idea at the time.

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 Self Check: Continental Drift

Check Your Understanding

Answer the question(s) below to see how well you understand the
topics covered in the previous section. This short quiz
does not count toward your grade in the class, and you can retake it
an unlimited number of times.

Use this quiz to check your understanding and decide whether to

(1) study the previous section further or (2) move on to the next
section.

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 Outcome: The Theory of Plate Tectonics

Critique and interpret major types of evidence

supporting the Theory of Plate Tectonics.

Plate tectonics is the most important concept in modern geology.

This section will introduce you to the concept of plate tectonics, how
it works, why it is important and how it is shaping the world today.

What You’ll Learn to Do

Describe and compare different types of plate motions,

rates of motion and the driving mechanisms and forces
involved with each.
Know the role of technology in Plate Tectonics.

Learning Activities

The learning activities for this section include the following:

Reading: Theory of Plate Tectonics

Reading: Developing the Theory

Self Check: Theory of Plate Tectonics

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 Reading: Theory of Plate Tectonics

When the concept of seafloor spreading came along, scientists

recognized that it was the mechanism to explain how continents
could move around Earth’s surface. Like the scientists before us, we
will now merge the ideas of continental drift and seafloor spreading
into the theory of plate tectonics.

Watch this video about continental drift and the mechanism of

seafloor spreading create plate tectonics.

Earth’s Tectonic Plates

Seafloor and continents move around on Earth’s surface, but what is

actually moving? What portion of the Earth makes up the “plates” in
plate tectonics? This question was also answered because of
technology developed during war times – in this case, the Cold War.
The plates are made up of the lithosphere.

During the 1950s and early 1960s, scientists set up seismograph

networks to see if enemy nations were testing atomic bombs. These
seismographs also recorded all of the earthquakes around the
planet. The seismic records could be used to locate an earthquake’s
epicenter, the point on Earth’s
surface directly above the place
where the earthquake occurs.

Earthquake epicenters outline

the plates. Mid-ocean ridges,
trenches, and large faults mark
Figure 1. Earthquakes outline the plates.
the edges of the plates, and this
is where earthquakes occur
(figure 1).

The lithosphere is divided into a dozen major and several minor

plates (figure 2). The plates’ edges can be drawn by connecting the
dots that mark earthquakes’ epicenters. A single plate can be made
of all oceanic lithosphere or all continental lithosphere, but nearly all
plates are made of a combination of both.
 Figure 2. The lithospheric plates and their names. The arrows show whether the
plates are moving apart, moving together, or sliding past each other.

Movement of the plates over Earth’s surface is termed plate

tectonics. Plates move at a rate of a few centimeters a year, about
the same rate fingernails grow.

How Plates Move

If seafloor spreading drives the plates, what drives seafloor

spreading? Picture two convection cells side-by-side in the mantle,
similar to the illustration in figure 3.
 1. Hot mantle from the
two adjacent cells
rises at the ridge axis,
creating new ocean
crust.

2. The top limb of the

convection cell moves Figure 3. Mantle convection drives plate tectonics.
Hot material rises at mid-ocean ridges and sinks at
horizontally away from deep sea trenches, which keeps the plates moving
the ridge crest, as along the Earth’s surface.

does the new seafloor.

3. The outer limbs of the

convection cells plunge down into the deeper mantle,
dragging oceanic crust as well. This takes place at the deep
sea trenches.
4. The material sinks to the core and moves horizontally.

5. The material heats up and reaches the zone where it rises

again.

Check out this animation of mantle convection and watch this

video:

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Plate Boundaries

Plate boundaries are the edges where two plates meet. Most
geologic activities, including volcanoes, earthquakes, and mountain
building, take place at plate boundaries. How can two plates move
relative to each other?

Divergent plate boundaries: the two plates move away

from each other.

Convergent plate boundaries: the two plates move

towards each other.
Transform plate boundaries: the two plates slip past each
other.

The type of plate boundary and the type of crust found on each
side of the boundary determines what sort of geologic activity will be
found there.

Divergent Plate Boundaries

Plates move apart at mid-ocean ridges where new seafloor forms.

Between the two plates is a rift valley. Lava flows at the surface cool
rapidly to become basalt, but deeper in the crust, magma cools more
slowly to form gabbro. So the entire ridge system is made up of
igneous rock that is either extrusive or intrusive. Earthquakes are
common at mid-ocean ridges since the movement of magma and
oceanic crust results in crustal shaking. The vast majority of mid-
ocean ridges are located deep below the sea (figure 4).

Figure 4. (a) Iceland is the one location where the ridge is located on land: the
Mid-Atlantic Ridge separates the North American and Eurasian plates; (b) The
rift valley in the Mid-Atlantic Ridge on Iceland.

Check out these animations:

Divergent plate boundary at mid-ocean ridge

Divergent plate boundary

Can divergent plate boundaries occur within a continent? What is

the result? Incontinental rifting (figure 5), magma rises beneath the
continent, causing it to become thinner, break, and ultimately split
apart. New ocean crust erupts in the void,
creating an ocean between continents.

Convergent Plate Boundaries

When two plates converge, the result

depends on the type of lithosphere the plates
are made of. No matter what, smashing two Figure 5. The Arabian, Indian,
enormous slabs of lithosphere together and African plates are rifting
apart, forming the Great Rift
results in magma generation and Valley in Africa. The Dead Sea
fills the rift with seawater.
earthquakes.

Ocean-Continent

When oceanic crust converges

with continental crust, the
denser oceanic plate plunges
beneath the continental plate.
This process, called
subduction, occurs at the Figure 6. Subduction of an oceanic plate beneath a
continental plate causes earthquakes and forms a
oceanic trenches (figure 6). The line of volcanoes known as a continental arc.

entire region is known as a

subduction zone. Subduction
zones have a lot of intense earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. The
subducting plate causes melting in the mantle. The magma rises and
erupts, creating volcanoes. These coastal volcanic mountains are
found in a line above the subducting plate (figure 7). The volcanoes
are known as a continental arc.

Figure 7. (a) At the trench lining the western margin of South America, the
Nazca plate is subducting beneath the South American plate, resulting in the
Andes Mountains (brown and red uplands); (b) Convergence has pushed up
limestone in the Andes Mountains where volcanoes are common.

The movement of crust and magma causes earthquakes. Look at

this map of earthquake epicenters at subduction zones. This
animation shows the relationship between subduction of the
lithosphere and creation of a volcanic arc.

The volcanoes of northeastern California—Lassen Peak, Mount

Shasta, and Medicine Lake volcano—along with the rest of the
Cascade Mountains of the Pacific Northwest are the result of
subduction of the Juan de Fuca plate beneath the North American
plate (figure 8). The Juan de Fuca plate is created by seafloor
spreading just offshore at the Juan de Fuca ridge.

Figure 8. The Cascade Mountains of the Pacific Northwest are a

continental arc.

If the magma at a continental arc is felsic, it may be too viscous

(thick) to rise through the crust. The magma will cool slowly to form
granite or granodiorite. These large bodies of intrusive igneous rocks
are called batholiths, which may someday be uplifted to form a
mountain range (figure 9).

Figure 9. The Sierra Nevada batholith cooled beneath a volcanic arc roughly 200
million years ago. The rock is well exposed here at Mount Whitney. Similar
batholiths are likely forming beneath the Andes and Cascades today.

Ocean-Ocean

When two oceanic plates converge, the older, denser plate will
subduct into the mantle. An ocean trench marks the location where
the plate is pushed down into the mantle. The line of volcanoes that
grows on the upper oceanic plate is an island arc. Do you think
earthquakes are common in these regions (figure 10)?
 Figure 10. (a) Subduction of an ocean plate beneath an ocean plate results in a
volcanic island arc, an ocean trench and many earthquakes. (b) Japan is an arc-
shaped island arc composed of volcanoes off the Asian mainland, as seen in this
satellite image.

Check out this animation of an ocean continent plate boundary.

Continent-Continent

Continental plates are too buoyant to subduct. What happens to

continental material when it collides? Since it has nowhere to go but
up, this creates some of the world’s largest mountains ranges
(figure 11). Magma cannot penetrate this thick crust so there are no
volcanoes, although the magma stays in the crust. Metamorphic
rocks are common because of the stress the continental crust
experiences. With enormous slabs of crust smashing together,
continent-continent collisions bring on numerous and large
earthquakes.

Figure 11. (a) In continent-continent convergence, the plates push upward to

create a high mountain range. (b) The world’s highest mountains, the Himalayas,
are the result of the collision of the Indian Plate with the Eurasian Plate, seen in
this photo from the International Space Station.

Check out this short animation of the Indian Plate colliding with the
Eurasian Plate.

Watch this animation of the Himalaya rising.

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The Appalachian Mountains are the remnants of a large mountain

range that was created when North America rammed into Eurasia
about 250 million years ago.

Transform Plate Boundaries

Transform plate boundaries are seen as transform faults, where

two plates move past each other in opposite directions. Transform
faults on continents bring massive earthquakes (figure 12).
 California is very geologically active. What are
the three major plate boundaries in or near
California (figure 13)?

1. A transform plate boundary between the

Pacific and North American plates
creates the San Andreas Fault, the
world’s most notorious transform fault. Figure 12. At the San
Andreas Fault in
2. Just offshore, a divergent plate California, the Pacific
Plate is sliding
boundary, Juan de Fuca ridge, creates northwest relative to the
the Juan de Fuca plate. North American plate,
which is moving
southeast. At the
3. A convergent plate boundary between northern end of the
the Juan de Fuca oceanic plate and the picture, the transform
boundary turns into a
North American continental plate creates subduction zone.
the Cascades volcanoes.
 Figure 13. This map shows the three major plate boundaries in
or near California.

A brief review of the three types of plate boundaries and the

structures that are found there is the subject of this wordless video.
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Earth’s Changing Surface

Geologists know that Wegener was right because the movements of

continents explain so much about the geology we see. Most of the
geologic activity that we see on the planet today is because of the
interactions of the moving plates.
 Figure 14. Mountain ranges of North America.

In the map of North America (figure 14), where are the mountain
ranges located? Using what you have learned about plate tectonics,
try to answer the following questions:

1. What is the geologic origin of the Cascades Range? The

Cascades are a chain of volcanoes in the Pacific
Northwest. They are not labelled on the diagram but they lie
between the Sierra Nevada and the Coastal Range.
 2. What is the geologic origin of the Sierra Nevada? (Hint:
These mountains are made of granitic intrusions.)
3. What is the geologic origin of the Appalachian Mountains
along the Eastern US?

Remember that Wegener

used the similarity of the
mountains on the west and east
sides of the Atlantic as evidence
for his continental drift
hypothesis. The Appalachian
Figure 15. About 200 million years ago, the
mountains formed at a Appalachian Mountains of eastern North America
were probably once as high as the Himalaya, but
convergent plate boundary as they have been weathered and eroded significantly
Pangaea came together since the breakup of Pangaea.

(figure 15).

Before Pangaea came together, the continents were separated by

an ocean where the Atlantic is now. The proto-Atlantic ocean shrank
as the Pacific ocean grew. Currently, the Pacific is shrinking as the
Atlantic is growing. This supercontinent cycle is responsible for
most of the geologic features that we see and many more that are
long gone (figure 16).
 Figure 16. Scientists think that the creation and breakup of a supercontinent
takes place about every 500 million years. The supercontinent before Pangaea
was Rodinia. A new continent will form as the Pacific ocean disappears.

This animation shows the movement of continents over the past

600 million years beginning with the breakup of Rodinia.

Lesson Summary

Plates of lithosphere move because of convection currents

in the mantle. One type of motion is produced by seafloor
spreading.
 Plate boundaries can be located by outlining earthquake
epicenters.

Plates interact at three types of plate boundaries: divergent,

convergent and transform.
Most of the Earth’s geologic activity takes place at plate
boundaries.
At a divergent boundary, volcanic activity produces a mid
ocean ridge and small earthquakes.

At a convergent boundary with at least one oceanic plate,

an ocean trench, a chain of volcanoes develops and many
earthquakes occur.
At a convergent boundary where both plates are
continental, mountain ranges grow and earthquakes are
common.
At a transform boundary, there is a transform fault and
massive earthquakes occur but there are no volcanoes.
Processes acting over long periods of time create Earth’s
geographic features.

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 Reading: Developing the Theory

In line with other previous and contemporaneous proposals, in 1912

the meteorologist Alfred Wegener amply described what he called
continental drift, expanded in his 1915 book The Origin of Continents
[1]
and Oceans , and the scientific debate started that would end up
[2]
fifty years later in the theory of plate tectonics. Starting from the
idea (also expressed by his forerunners) that the present continents
once formed a single land mass (which was called Pangea later on)
that drifted apart, thus releasing the continents from the Earth’s
mantle and likening them to “icebergs” of low density granite floating
[3]
on a sea of denser basalt.

Supporting evidence for the idea came from the dove-tailing

outlines of South America’s east coast and Africa’s west coast, and
from the matching of the rock formations along these edges.
Confirmation of their previous contiguous nature also came from the
fossil plants Glossopteris and Gangamopteris, and the therapsid or
mammal-like reptile Lystrosaurus, all widely distributed over South
America, Africa, Antarctica, India and Australia. The evidence for
such an erstwhile joining of these continents was patent to field
geologists working in the southern hemisphere. The South African
Alex du Toit put together a mass of such information in his 1937
publication Our Wandering Continents, and went further than
Wegener in recognising the strong links between the Gondwana
fragments.

Figure 1. Detailed map showing the tectonic plates with their movement vectors.
(Click on the image to open a larger version of the map.)

But without detailed evidence and a force sufficient to drive the

movement, the theory was not generally accepted: the Earth might
have a solid crust and mantle and a liquid core, but there seemed to
be no way that portions of the crust could move around.
Distinguished scientists, such as Harold Jeffreys and Charles
Schuchert, were outspoken critics of continental drift.

Despite much opposition, the view of continental drift gained

support and a lively debate started between “drifters” or “mobilists”
(proponents of the theory) and “fixists” (opponents). During the
1920s, 1930s and 1940s, the former reached important milestones
proposing that convection currents might have driven the plate
movements, and that spreading may have occurred below the sea
within the oceanic crust. Concepts close to the elements now
incorporated in plate tectonics were proposed by geophysicists and
geologists (both fixists and mobilists) like Vening-Meinesz, Holmes,
and Umbgrove.

One of the first pieces of geophysical evidence that was used to

support the movement of lithospheric plates came from
paleomagnetism. This is based on the fact that rocks of different
ages show a variable magnetic field direction, evidenced by studies
since the mid–nineteenth century. The magnetic north and south
poles reverse through time, and, especially important in
paleotectonic studies, the relative position of the magnetic north pole
varies through time. Initially, during the first half of the twentieth
century, the latter phenomenon was explained by introducing what
was called “polar wander” (see apparent polar wander), i.e., it was
assumed that the north pole location had been shifting through time.
An alternative explanation, though, was that the continents had
moved (shifted and rotated) relative to the north pole, and each
continent, in fact, shows its own “polar wander path”. During the late
1950s it was successfully shown on two occasions that these data
could show the validity of continental drift: by Keith Runcorn in a
[4]
paper in 1956, and by Warren Carey in a symposium held in March
[5]
1956.

The second piece of evidence in support of continental drift came

during the late 1950s and early 60s from data on the bathymetry of
the deep ocean floors and the nature of the oceanic crust such as
magnetic properties and, more generally, with the development of
marine geology which gave evidence for the association of seafloor
spreading along the mid-oceanic ridges and magnetic field reversals,
published between 1959 and 1963 by Heezen, Dietz, Hess, Mason,
[6]
Vine & Matthews, and Morley.

Simultaneous advances in early seismic imaging techniques in

and around Wadati-Benioff zones along the trenches bounding many
continental margins, together with many other geophysical (e.g.
gravimetric) and geological observations, showed how the oceanic
crust could disappear into the mantle, providing the mechanism to
balance the extension of the ocean basins with shortening along its
margins.

All this evidence, both from the ocean floor and from the
continental margins, made it clear around 1965 that continental drift
was feasible and the theory of plate tectonics, which was defined in
a series of papers between 1965 and 1967, was born, with all its
extraordinary explanatory and predictive power. The theory
revolutionized the Earth sciences, explaining a diverse range of
geological phenomena and their implications in other studies such as
paleogeography and paleobiology.

Continental Drift

In the late nineteenth and

early twentieth centuries,
geologists assumed that the
Earth’s major features were
fixed, and that most geologic
features such as basin
development and mountain
ranges could be explained by
Figure 2. Alfred Wegener in Greenland in the
vertical crustal movement, winter of 1912-13.
described in what is called the
geosynclinal theory. Generally,
this was placed in the context of a contracting planet Earth due to
heat loss in the course of a relatively short geological time.

It was observed as early as 1596 that the opposite coasts of the

Atlantic Ocean—or, more precisely, the edges of the continental
shelves—have similar shapes and seem to have once fitted together.
[7]

Since that time many theories were proposed to explain this

apparent complementarity, but the assumption of a solid Earth made
[8]
these various proposals difficult to accept.

The discovery of radioactivity and its associated heating properties

in 1895 prompted a re-examination of the apparent age of the Earth.
[9]
This had previously been estimated by its cooling rate and
[10]
assumption the Earth’s surface radiated like a black body. Those
calculations had implied that, even if it started at red heat, the Earth
would have dropped to its present temperature in a few tens of
millions of years. Armed with the knowledge of a new heat source,
scientists realized that the Earth would be much older, and that its
core was still sufficiently hot to be liquid.

[11]
By 1915, after having published a first article in 1912, Alfred
Wegener was making serious arguments for the idea of continental
[12]
drift in the first edition of The Origin of Continents and Oceans. In
that book (re-issued in four successive editions up to the final one in
1936), he noted how the east coast of South America and the west
coast of Africa looked as if they were once attached. Wegener was
not the first to note this (Abraham Ortelius, Antonio Snider-Pellegrini,
Eduard Suess, Roberto Mantovani and Frank Bursley Taylor
preceded him just to mention a few), but he was the first to marshal
significant fossil and paleo-topographical and climatological evidence
to support this simple observation (and was supported in this by
researchers such as Alex du Toit). Furthermore, when the rock strata
of the margins of separate continents are very similar it suggests that
these rocks were formed in the same way, implying that they were
joined initially. For instance, parts of Scotland and Ireland contain
rocks very similar to those found in Newfoundland and New
Brunswick. Furthermore, the Caledonian Mountains of Europe and
parts of the Appalachian Mountainsof North America are very similar
in structure and lithology.

However, his ideas were not taken seriously by many geologists,

who pointed out that there was no apparent mechanism for
continental drift. Specifically, they did not see how continental rock
could plow through the much denser rock that makes up oceanic
crust. Wegener could not explain the force that drove continental
drift, and his vindication did not come until after his death in 1930.

Floating Continents, Paleomagnetism, and Seismicity

Zones

As it was observed early that although granite existed on continents,

seafloor seemed to be composed of denser basalt, the prevailing
concept during the first half of the twentieth century was that there
were two types of crust, named “sial” (continental type crust) and
“sima” (oceanic type crust). Furthermore, it was supposed that a
static shell of strata was present under the continents. It therefore
looked apparent that a layer of basalt (sial) underlies the continental
rocks.

Figure 3. Global earthquake epicenters, 1963–1998

However, based on abnormalities in plumb line deflection by the

Andes in Peru, Pierre Bouguer had deduced that less-dense
mountains must have a downward projection into the denser layer
underneath. The concept that mountains had “roots” was confirmed
by George B. Airy a hundred years later, during study of Himalayan
gravitation, and seismic studies detected corresponding density
variations. Therefore, by the mid-1950s, the question remained
unresolved as to whether mountain roots were clenched in
surrounding basalt or were floating on it like an iceberg.

During the 20th century, improvements in and greater use of

seismic instruments such as seismographs enabled scientists to
learn that earthquakes tend to be concentrated in specific areas,
most notably along the oceanic trenches and spreading ridges. By
the late 1920s, seismologists were beginning to identify several
prominent earthquake zones parallel to the trenches that typically
were inclined 40–60° from the horizontal and extended several
hundred kilometers into the Earth. These zones later became known
as Wadati-Benioff zones, or simply Benioff zones, in honor of the
seismologists who first recognized them, Kiyoo Wadati of Japan and
Hugo Benioff of the United States. The study of global seismicity
greatly advanced in the 1960s with the establishment of the
[13]
Worldwide Standardized Seismograph Network (WWSSN) to
monitor the compliance of the 1963 treaty banning above-ground
testing of nuclear weapons. The much improved data from the
WWSSN instruments allowed seismologists to map precisely the
zones of earthquake concentration worldwide.

Meanwhile, debates developed around the phenomena of polar

wander. Since the early debates of continental drift, scientists had
discussed and used evidence that polar drift had occurred because
continents seemed to have moved through different climatic zones
during the past. Furthermore, paleomagnetic data had shown that
the magnetic pole had also shifted during time. Reasoning in an
opposite way, the continents might have shifted and rotated, while
the pole remained relatively fixed. The first time the evidence of
magnetic polar wander was used to support the movements of
[14]
continents was in a paper by Keith Runcorn in 1956, and
successive papers by him and his students Ted Irving (who was
actually the first to be convinced of the fact that paleomagnetism
supported continental drift) and Ken Creer.

This was immediately followed by a symposium in Tasmania in

[15]
March 1956. In this symposium, the evidence was used in the
theory of an expansion of the global crust. In this hypothesis the
shifting of the continents can be simply explained by a large increase
in size of the Earth since its formation. However, this was
unsatisfactory because its supporters could offer no convincing
mechanism to produce a significant expansion of the Earth. Certainly
there is no evidence that the moon has expanded in the past 3 billion
years; other work would soon show that the evidence was equally in
support of continental drift on a globe with a stable radius.

During the thirties up to the late fifties, works by Vening-Meinesz,

Holmes, Umbgrove, and numerous others outlined concepts that
were close or nearly identical to modern plate tectonics theory. In
particular, the English geologist Arthur Holmes proposed in 1920 that
plate junctions might lie beneath the sea, and in 1928 that
convection currents within the mantle might be the driving force.
[16]
Often, these contributions are forgotten because:

At the time, continental drift was not accepted.

Some of these ideas were discussed in the context of
abandoned fixistic ideas of a deforming globe without
continental drift or an expanding Earth.

They were published during an episode of extreme political

and economic instability that hampered scientific
communication.

Many were published by European scientists and at first not

mentioned or given little credit in the papers on sea floor
spreading published by the American researchers in the
1960s.

Mid-Oceanic Ridge Spreading and Convection

In 1947, a team of scientists led by Maurice Ewing utilizing the

Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution’s research vessel Atlantis
and an array of instruments, confirmed the existence of a rise in the
central Atlantic Ocean, and found that the floor of the seabed
beneath the layer of sediments consisted of basalt, not the granite
which is the main constituent of continents. They also found that the
oceanic crust was much thinner than continental crust. All these new
[17]
findings raised important and intriguing questions.

The new data that had been collected on the ocean basins also
showed particular characteristics regarding the bathymetry. One of
the major outcomes of these datasets was that all along the globe, a
system of mid-oceanic ridges was detected. An important conclusion
was that along this system, new ocean floor was being created,
which led to the concept of the “Great Global Rift.” This was
[18]
described in the crucial paper of Bruce Heezen (1960), which
would trigger a real revolution in thinking. A profound consequence
of seafloor spreading is that new crust was, and still is, being
continually created along the oceanic ridges. Therefore, Heezen
advocated the so-called “expanding Earth” hypothesis of S. Warren
Carey (see above). So, still the question remained: how can new
crust be continuously added along the oceanic ridges without
increasing the size of the Earth? In reality, this question had been
solved already by numerous scientists during the forties and the
fifties, like Arthur Holmes, Vening-Meinesz, Coates and many others:
The crust in excess disappeared along what were called the oceanic
trenches, where so-called “subduction” occurred. Therefore, when
various scientists during the early sixties started to reason on the
data at their disposal regarding the ocean floor, the pieces of the
theory quickly fell into place.

The question particularly intrigued Harry Hammond Hess, a

Princeton University geologist and a Naval Reserve Rear Admiral,
and Robert S. Dietz, a scientist with the U.S. Coast and Geodetic
Survey who first coined the term seafloor spreading. Dietz and Hess
[19]
(the former published the same idea one year earlier in Nature, but
priority belongs to Hess who had already distributed an unpublished
[20]
manuscript of his 1962 article by 1960) were among the small
handful who really understood the broad implications of sea floor
spreading and how it would eventually agree with the, at that time,
unconventional and unaccepted ideas of continental drift and the
elegant and mobilistic models proposed by previous workers like
Holmes.

In the same year, Robert R. Coats of the U.S. Geological Survey

described the main features of island arc subduction in the Aleutian
Islands. His paper, though little noted (and even ridiculed) at the
time, has since been called “seminal” and “prescient.” In reality, it
actually shows that the work by the European scientists on island
arcs and mountain belts performed and published during the 1930s
up until the 1950s was applied and appreciated also in the United
States.

If the Earth’s crust was expanding along the oceanic ridges, Hess
and Dietz reasoned like Holmes and others before them, it must be
shrinking elsewhere. Hess followed Heezen, suggesting that new
oceanic crust continuously spreads away from the ridges in a
conveyor belt–like motion. And, using the mobilistic concepts
developed before, he correctly concluded that many millions of years
later, the oceanic crust eventually descends along the continental
margins where oceanic trenches—very deep, narrow canyons—are
formed, e.g. along the rim of the Pacific Ocean basin. The important
step Hess made was that convection currents would be the driving
force in this process, arriving at the same conclusions as Holmes
had decades before with the only difference that the thinning of the
ocean crust was performed using Heezen’s mechanism of spreading
along the ridges. Hess therefore concluded that the Atlantic Ocean
was expanding while the Pacific Ocean was shrinking. As old
oceanic crust is “consumed” in the trenches (like Holmes and others,
he thought this was done by thickening of the continental
lithosphere, not, as now understood, by underthrusting at a larger
scale of the oceanic crust itself into the mantle), new magma rises
and erupts along the spreading ridges to form new crust. In effect,
the ocean basins are perpetually being “recycled,” with the creation
of new crust and the destruction of old oceanic lithosphere occurring
simultaneously. Thus, the new mobilistic concepts neatly explained
why the Earth does not get bigger with sea floor spreading, why
there is so little sediment accumulation on the ocean floor, and why
oceanic rocks are much younger than continental rocks.

Magnetic Striping

Beginning in the 1950s, scientists like Victor Vacquier, using

magnetic instruments (magnetometers) adapted from airborne
devices developed during World War II to detect submarines, began
recognizing odd magnetic
variations across the ocean
floor. This finding, though
unexpected, was not entirely
surprising because it was
known that basalt—the iron-
rich, volcanic rock making up
the ocean floor—contains a
Figure 4. Seafloor magnetic striping.
strongly magnetic mineral
(magnetite) and can locally
distort compass readings. This
distortion was recognized by Icelandic mariners as early as the late
eighteenth century. More important, because the presence of
magnetite gives the basalt measurable magnetic properties, these
newly discovered magnetic variations provided another means to
study the deep ocean floor. When newly formed rock cools, such
magnetic materials recorded the Earth’s magnetic field at the time.

As more and more of the seafloor was mapped during the 1950s,
the magnetic variations turned out not to be random or isolated
occurrences, but instead revealed recognizable patterns. When
these magnetic patterns were mapped over a wide region, the ocean
floor showed a zebra-like pattern: one stripe with normal polarity and
the adjoining stripe with reversed polarity. The overall pattern,
defined by these alternating bands of normally and reversely
polarized rock, became known as magnetic striping, and was
published by Ron G. Mason and co-
workers in 1961, who did not find, though,
an explanation for these data in terms of
sea floor spreading, like Vine, Matthews
[21]
and Morley a few years later.

Figure 5. A demonstration of
The discovery of magnetic striping called magnetic striping. (The darker
the color is, the closer it is to
for an explanation. In the early 1960s normal polarity)

scientists such as Heezen, Hess and Dietz

had begun to theorise that mid-ocean
ridges mark structurally weak zones where the ocean floor was
being ripped in two lengthwise along the ridge crest (see the
previous paragraph). New magma from deep within the Earth rises
easily through these weak zones and eventually erupts along the
crest of the ridges to create new oceanic crust. This process, at first
denominated the “conveyer belt hypothesis” and later called seafloor
spreading, operating over many millions of years continues to form
new ocean floor all across the 50,000 km-long system of mid-ocean
ridges.

Only four years after the maps with the “zebra pattern” of magnetic
stripes were published, the link between sea floor spreading and
these patterns was correctly placed, independently byLawrence
[22]
Morley, and by Fred Vine and Drummond Matthews, in 1963, now
called the Vine-Matthews-Morley hypothesis. This hypothesis linked
these patterns to geomagnetic reversals and was supported by
[23]
several lines of evidence:

1. the stripes are symmetrical around the crests of the mid-

ocean ridges; at or near the crest of the ridge, the rocks are
very young, and they become progressively older away
from the ridge crest;
2. the youngest rocks at the ridge crest always have present-
day (normal) polarity;

3. stripes of rock parallel to the ridge crest alternate in

magnetic polarity (normal-reversed-normal, etc.),
suggesting that they were formed during different epochs
documenting the (already known from independent studies)
normal and reversal episodes of the Earth’s magnetic field.

By explaining both the zebra-like magnetic striping and the

construction of the mid-ocean ridge system, the seafloor spreading
hypothesis (SFS) quickly gained converts and represented another
major advance in the development of the plate-tectonics theory.
Furthermore, the oceanic crust now came to be appreciated as a
natural “tape recording” of the history of the geomagnetic field
reversals (GMFR) of the Earth’s magnetic field. Today, extensive
studies are dedicated to the calibration of the normal-reversal
patterns in the oceanic crust on one hand and known timescales
derived from the dating of basalt layers in sedimentary sequences
(magnetostratigraphy) on the other, to arrive at estimates of past
spreading rates and plate reconstructions.
Definition and Refining of the Theory

After all these considerations, Plate Tectonics (or, as it was initially

called “New Global Tectonics”) became quickly accepted in the
scientific world, and numerous papers followed that defined the
concepts:

In 1965, Tuzo Wilson who had been a promotor of the sea

floor spreading hypothesis and continental drift from the
[24]
very beginning added the concept of transform faults to
the model, completing the classes of fault types necessary
[25]
to make the mobility of the plates on the globe work out.

A symposium on continental drift was held at the Royal

Society of London in 1965 which must be regarded as the
official start of the acceptance of plate tectonics by the
scientific community, and which abstracts are issued as
Blacket, Bullard & Runcorn (1965). In this symposium,
Edward Bullard and co-workers showed with a computer
calculation how the continents along both sides of the
Atlantic would best fit to close the ocean, which became
known as the famous “Bullard’s Fit”.
In 1966 Wilson published the paper that referred to
previous plate tectonic reconstructions, introducing the
[26]
concept of what is now known as the “Wilson Cycle.”
In 1967, at the American Geophysical Union’s meeting, W.
Jason Morgan proposed that the Earth’s surface consists of
[27]
12 rigid plates that move relative to each other.
 Two months later, Xavier Le Pichon published a complete
model based on 6 major plates with their relative motions,
which marked the final acceptance by the scientific
[28]
community of plate tectonics.
In the same year, McKenzie and Parker independently
presented a model similar to Morgan’s using translations
[29]
and rotations on a sphere to define the plate motions.

1. Wegener, Alfred (1929). Die Entstehung der Kontinente und Ozeane (4 ed.).
Braunschweig: Friedrich Vieweg & Sohn Akt. Ges. ↵

2. Hughes, Patrick (8 February 2001). "Alfred Wegener (1880–1930): A Geographic

Jigsaw Puzzle." On the shoulders of giants. Earth Observatory, NASA. Retrieved
2007-12-26. ... on January 6, 1912, Wegener... proposed instead a grand vision

of drifting continents and widening seas to explain the evolution of Earth's

geography. ↵

3. Wegener, Alfred (1966). The origin of continents and oceans. Biram John
(translator). Courier Dover. p. 246; Hughes, Patrick (8 February 2001). "Alfred

Wegener (1880-1930): The origin of continents and oceans." On the Shoulders of

Giants. Earth Observatory, NASA. Retrieved 2007-12-26. "By his third edition
(1922), Wegener was citing geological evidence that some 300 million years ago
all the continents had been joined in a supercontinent stretching from pole to

pole. He called it Pangaea (all lands),..." ↵

4. Runcorn, S.K. (1956). "Paleomagnetic comparisons between Europe and North

America". Proceedings, Geological Association of Canada8 (1088): 7785. ↵

5. Carey, S. W. (1958). "The tectonic approach to continental drift." In Carey, S.W.

Continental Drift—A symposium, held in March 1956. Hobart: Univ. of Tasmania.
pp. 177–363. Expanding Earth from p. 311 to p. 349. ↵
 6. Korgen, Ben J. (1995). "A voice from the past: John Lyman and the plate

tectonics story" (PDF). Oceanography (The Oceanography Society) 8 (1): 19–20;

Spiess, Fred; Kuperman, William (2003). "The Marine Physical Laboratory at
Scripps" (PDF). Oceanography (The Oceanography Society) 16 (3): 45–54. ↵

7. Kious, W. Jacquelyne; Tilling, Robert I. (February 2001) [1996]. "Historical

perspective." This Dynamic Earth: the Story of Plate Tectonics (Online ed.). U.S.
Geological Survey. Retrieved 2008-01-29. "Abraham Ortelius in his work
Thesaurus Geographicus... suggested that the Americas were 'torn away from

Europe and Africa . . . by earthquakes and floods. . . . The vestiges of the rupture
reveal themselves, if someone brings forward a map of the world and considers
carefully the coasts of the three [continents].'" ↵

8. Frankel, H. (1987). "The Continental Drift Debate." In H.T. Engelhardt Jr and A.L.

Caplan. Scientific Controversies: Case Solutions in the resolution and closure of

disputes in science and technology. Cambridge University Press. ↵

9. Joly, John (1909). Radioactivity and Geology: An Account of the Influence of

Radioactive Energy on Terrestrial History. London: Archibald Constable. p. 36. ↵

10. Thomson, W (1863). "On the secular cooling of the earth." Philosophical
Magazine 4 (25): 1–14 (inactive 2015-01-09). ↵

11. Wegener, Alfred (6 January 1912). "Die Herausbildung der Grossformen der
Erdrinde (Kontinente und Ozeane), auf geophysikalischer Grundlage" (PDF).
Petermanns Geographische Mitteilungen63: 185–195, 253–256, 305–309. ↵

12. Wegener 1929. ↵

13. Stein, Seth; Wysession, Michael (2009). An Introduction to Seismology,

Earthquakes, and Earth Structure. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons. ↵

14. Runcorn, 1956 ↵

15. Carey, S. W. (1958). "The tectonic approach to continental drift". In Carey, S.W.
Continental Drift—A symposium, held in March 1956. Hobart: Univ. of Tasmania.
pp. 177–363. Expanding Earth from p. 311 to p. 349; see also Quilty, Patrick G.;
Banks, Maxwell R. (2003). "Samuel Warren Carey, 1911–2002." Biographical

memoirs. Australian Academy of Science. Retrieved 2010-06-19. This memoir

was originally published in Historical Records of Australian Science (2003) 14 (3).
↵

16. Holmes, Arthur (1928). "Radioactivity and Earth movements." Transactions of the
Geological Society of Glasgow18: 559–606; see also Holmes, Arthur (1978).
Principles of Physical Geology (3 ed.). Wiley. pp. 640–641; Frankel, Henry (July
1978). "Arthur Holmes and continental drift." The British Journal for the History of

Science11 (2): 130–150. doi: 10.1017/S0007087400016551. ↵

17. Lippsett, Laurence (2001). "Maurice Ewing and the Lamont-Doherty Earth
Observatory." Living Legacies. Retrieved 2008-03-04; Lippsett, Laurence (2006).
"Maurice Ewing and the Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory". In William

Theodore De Bary, Jerry Kisslinger and Tom Mathewson. Living Legacies at

Columbia. Columbia University Press. pp. 277–297. ↵

18. Heezen, B. (1960). "The rift in the ocean floor." Scientific American 203 (4): 98–

110. doi: 10.1038/scientificamerican1060-98. ↵

19. Dietz, Robert S. (June 1961). "Continent and Ocean Basin Evolution by
Spreading of the Sea Floor". Nature190 (4779): 854–857. ↵

20. Hess, H. H. (November 1962). "History of Ocean Basins" (PDF). In A. E. J.

Engel, Harold L. James, and B. F. Leonard. Petrologic studies: a volume to honor
of A. F. Buddington. Boulder, CO: Geological Society of America. pp. 599–620. ↵

21. Mason, Ronald G.; Raff, Arthur D. (1961). "Magnetic survey off the west coast of

the United States between 32°N latitude and 42°N latitude." Bulletin of the
Geological Society of America72 (8): 1259–1266. ↵
 22. Vine, F.J.; Matthews, D.H. (1963). "Magnetic anomalies over oceanic
ridges." Nature199 (4897): 947–949. ↵

23. See summary in Heirtzler, James R.; Le Pichon, Xavier; Baron, J. Gregory
(1966). "Magnetic anomalies over the Reykjanes Ridge." Deep-Sea Research13
(3): 427–432. ↵

24. Wilson, J.T. (8 June 1963). "Hypothesis on the Earth's behaviour." Nature198

(4884): 849–865. ↵

25. Wilson, J. Tuzo (July 1965). "A new class of faults and their bearing on
continental drift." Nature207 (4995): 343–347. ↵

26. Wilson, J. Tuzo (13 August 1966). "Did the Atlantic close and then re-open?"

Nature211 (5050): 676–681. ↵

27. Morgan, W. Jason (1968). "Rises, Trenches, Great Faults, and Crustal

Blocks." Journal of Geophysical Research73 (6): 1959–1982. ↵

28. Le Pichon, Xavier (15 June 1968). "Sea-floor spreading and continental drift."
Journal of Geophysical Research73 (12): 3661–3697. ↵

29. Mc Kenzie, D.; Parker, R.L. (1967). "The North Pacific: an example of tectonics

on a sphere." Nature216 (5122): 1276–1280. ↵

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 Self Check: The Theory of Plate Tectonics

Check Your Understanding

Answer the question(s) below to see how well you understand the
topics covered in the previous section. This short quiz
does not count toward your grade in the class, and you can retake it
an unlimited number of times.

Use this quiz to check your understanding and decide whether to

(1) study the previous section further or (2) move on to the next
section.

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 Outcome: Geological Processes

Describe different geological processes in relation to

plate tectonics.

This section demonstrations the implications of plate tectonics. You

will be introduced to various formations and features that are
attributed to plate tectonics.

What You’ll Learn to Do

Describe the development of continents, continental rifting,

and supercontinents.

Describe the development volcanic arcs.

Describe the formation of ocean basins.
Interpret and explain hot spots and how they relate to plate
motion.

Learning Activities

The learning activities for this section include the following:

Reading: Supercontinents
 Reading: Volcanic Arcs

Video: Ocean Basins

Reading: Hot Spots

Self Check: Geological Processes

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 Reading: Supercontinents

Early Continents

The first crust was made of basaltic rock, like the current ocean
crust. Partial melting of the lower portion of the basaltic crust began
more than 4 billion years ago. This created the silica-rich crust that
became the felsic continents.

Craton

The earliest felsic continental

crust is now found in the
ancient cores of continents,
called the cratons. Rapid plate
motions meant that cratons
experienced many continental
collisions. Little is known about
Figure 1. Ice age glaciers scraped the Canadian
the paleogeography, or the Shield down to the 4.28 billion year old
ancient geography, of the early greenstone in Northwestern Quebec.

planet, although smaller

continents could have come
together and broken up.
 Geologists can learn many things about the Pre-Archean by
studying the rocks of the cratons.

Cratons also contain felsic igneous rocks, which are

remnants of the first continents.

Cratonic rocks contain rounded sedimentary grains. Of

what importance is this fact? Rounded grains indicate that
the minerals eroded from an earlier rock type and that rivers
or seas also existed.

One common rock type in the cratons is greenstone, a

metamorphosed volcanic rock (Figure 1). Since
greenstones are found today in oceanic trenches, what
does the presence of greenstones mean? These ancient
greenstones indicate the presence of subduction zones.

Shield

Places the craton crops out at the surface is known as a shield.

Cratons date from the Precambrian and are called Precambrian
shields. Many Precambrian shields are about 570 million years old
(Figure 2).
 Figure 2. The Canadian Shield is the ancient flat part of Canada that lies around
Hudson Bay, the northern parts of Minnesota, Wisconsin and Michigan and
much of Greenland.

Platform

In most places the cratons were covered by younger rocks, which

together are called a platform. Sometimes the younger rocks
eroded away to expose the Precambrian craton (Figure 3).
 Figure 3. The Precambrian craton is exposed in the Grand Canyon where the
Colorado River has cut through the younger sedimentary rocks.

Early Convection

During the Pre-Archean and Archean, Earth’s interior was warmer

than today. Mantle convection was faster and plate tectonics
processes were more vigorous. Since subduction zones were more
common, the early crustal plates were relatively small.

Since the time that it was completely molten, Earth has been
cooling. Still, about half the internal heat that was generated when
Earth formed remains in the planet and is the source of the heat in
the core and mantle today.
 The presence of water on ancient Earth is revealed in a zircon
crystal:

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Supercontinent Cycle

Look at Figure 4; is this Earth?

 Figure 4. Rodinia

The existence of Wegener’s supercontinent Pangaea is

completely accepted by geologists today. The movements of
continents explain so much about the geological activity we see. But
did it all begin with Pangaea? Or were there other supercontinents
that came before? What does the future of the continents hold?

Pangaea
 Wegener had lots of evidence for
his continental drift hypothesis. One
line of evidence was the similarity of
the mountains on the west and east
sides of the Atlantic. Those mountains
rose at convergent plate boundaries.
The continents on both sides of the
Figure 5. Pangea broke up to become our
ocean (where the Atlantic is now) modern continents.
smashed together to create Pangaea.
The proto-Atlantic ocean shrank as
the Pacific Ocean grew.

The Appalachian mountains of eastern North America formed at

this convergent plate boundary (Figure 6a). About 200 million years
ago, they were probably as high as the Himalayas.

Pangaea has been breaking apart since about 250 million years
ago. Divergent plate boundaries formed within the continents to
cause them to rift apart. The continents are still moving apart. The
Pacific is shrinking as the Atlantic is growing. The Appalachians
(Figure 6b) are now on a passive margin. The mighty mountains
have weathered and eroded to what they are today.
 Figure 6. (a) The Appalachian Mountains in New Hampshire. (b) The
Appalachians along the eastern U.S. These mountains began when North
America and Eurasia collided as Pangaea came together.

The Supercontinent Cycle

Back before Pangaea, there were earlier supercontinents. Rodinia

existed 750 million to 1.1 billion years ago. Columbia existed 1.5 to
1.8 billion years ago. If the continents continue in their current
directions, they will come together to create a supercontinent on the
other side of the planet in around 200 million years.

This is known as the supercontinent cycle. The continents

smash together on opposite side of the planet around every 500
million years. The creation of supercontinents is responsible for most
of the geologic features that we see. It is responsible for many
features that are long gone.

This animation shows the movement of continents over the past

600 million years, beginning with the breakup of Rodinia.

Summary

The ancient core of a continent, at and beneath the surface,

is its craton.
The cratonic rock that is seen at the surface is called the
shield. Where the shield is covered by younger sediments
is the platform.

Convection on early Earth was faster and so plate tectonics

was faster. Since then, Earth has been cooling.
Pangaea came together as a set of continent-continent
convergent plate boundaries.

Pangaea is still breaking up as the continents move apart.

The Atlantic Ocean is getting bigger, and the Pacific Ocean
is getting smaller.
The continents come together and break apart about every
500 million years. This is called the supercontinent cycle.

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Earth's First Rocks. Authored by: National Geographic.

Located at: https://youtu.be/V21hFmZP5zM. License: All
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Public domain content

Pangea Breaks Up. Provided by: USGS. Located at:

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License: Public Domain: No Known Copyright
 Reading: Volcanic Arcs

All subduction zones have, at some distance in from the edge of the
upper plate, arcs or chains of composite cone volcanoes. The
subducting plate, as it goes down deep into the mantle, releases
water. This changes the chemistry of the already hot rocks in the
mantle and causes them to melt, forming magma. The magma is
less dense than the solid rocks around it, so it rises upward,
culminating in volcanic eruptions at the earth’s surface.

The volcanic arc at an ocean-continent subduction zone is not only

a chain of volcanoes. The stress of plate convergence compresses
the crust there, causing it to thicken through a combination of folds
and thrust faults. Igneous intrusions and volcanic eruptions also
thicken the crust there. Deep within the crust, the igneous intrusions
solidify into batholiths of rocks such as granite, and the pre-existing
rocks that are intruded by the batholiths are regionally
metamorphosed into new rocks. The result is a high mountain range
with granitic and metamorphic rock at its core, folded and faulted
sedimentary and volcanic around its margins, and a chain of
composite cone volcanoes distributed along the crest of the range.

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Basic -- Plate Tectonics. Authored by: Ralph L. Dawes and
Cheryl D. Dawes. Provided by: Wenatchee Valley College.
Located at:
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onics.html. Project: Geology 101 - Introduction to Physical
Geology. License: CC BY: Attribution
 Video: Ocean Basins

This video provides an introduction to the Wilson cycle, a theory that

describes the lifecycle of the ocean basin:

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As you can see, it is very common for oceans to form and then
disappear. Continental rifting plays a key role in the formation of an
ocean. But how did the oceans form in the first place? Watch the
following video for some current theories:

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The low lying areas mentioned in the video are the ocean floors.
Oceanic crust is basalt and continental crust is composed granite.
Basalt is heavier so when they both rest on the top of the mantle,
oceanic crust sinks lower forming a basin for the water to drain into.

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Geology: Wilson Cycle. Authored by: mitartemis. Located

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Earth the Biography: Oceans. Authored by: National

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License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard
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 Reading: Hot Spots

In geology, the places known as hotspots or hot spots are volcanic

regions thought to be fed by underlying mantle that is anomalously
hot compared with the surrounding mantle. They may be on, near to,
or far from tectonic plate boundaries. Currently, there are two
hypotheses that attempt to explain their origins. One suggests that
they are due to hot mantle plumes that rise as thermal diapirs from
the core-mantle boundary. An alternative hypothesis postulates that
it is not high temperature that causes the volcanism, but lithospheric
extension that permits the passive rising of melt from shallow
depths. This hypothesis considers the term “hotspot” to be a
misnomer, asserting that the mantle source beneath them is, in fact,
not anomalously hot at all. Well known examples include Hawaii and
Yellowstone.

Background

The origins of the concept of hotspots lie in the work of J. Tuzo

Wilson, who postulated in 1963 that the Hawaiian Islands result from
the slow movement of a tectonic plate across a hot region beneath
the surface. It was later postulated that hotspots are fed by narrow
streams of hot mantle rising from the Earth’score-mantle boundary in
a structure called amantle plume. Whether or not such mantle
plumes exist is currently the subject of a major controversy in Earth
science. Estimates for the number of hotspots postulated to be fed
by mantle plumes has ranged from about 20 to several thousands,
over the years, with most geologists considering a few tens to exist.
Hawaii, Réunion, Yellowstone, Galápagos, and Iceland are some of
the currently most active volcanic regions to which the hypothesis is
applied.

Most hotspot volcanoes are basaltic (e.g., Hawaii, Tahiti). As a

result, they are less explosive than subduction zone volcanoes, in
which water is trapped under the overriding plate. Where hotspots
occur in continental regions, basaltic magma rises through the
continental crust, which melts to form rhyolites. These rhyolites can
form violent eruptions. For example, the Yellowstone Caldera was
formed by some of the most powerful volcanic explosions in geologic
history. However, when the rhyolite is completely erupted, it may be
followed by eruptions of basaltic magma rising through the same
lithospheric fissures (cracks in the lithosphere). An example of this
activity is the Ilgachuz Range in British Columbia, which was created
by an early complex series of trachyte and rhyolite eruptions, and
late extrusion of a sequence of basaltic lava flows.

The hotspot hypothesis is now closely linked to the mantle plume

hypothesis.

Comparison with island arc volcanoes

Hotspot volcanoes are considered to have a fundamentally different
origin from island arc volcanoes. The latter form over subduction
zones, at converging plate boundaries. When one oceanic plate
meets another, the denser plate is forced downward into a deep
ocean trench. This plate, as it is subducted, releases water into the
base of the over-riding plate, and this water mixes with the rock, thus
changing its composition causing some rock to melt and rise. It is
this that fuels a chain of volcanoes, such as the Aleutian Islands,
near Alaska.

Hotspot volcanic chains

The joint mantle plume/hotspot hypothesis envisages the feeder

structures to be fixed relative to one another, with the continents
and seafloor drifting overhead. The hypothesis thus predicts that
time-progressive chains of volcanoes are developed on the surface.
Examples are Yellowstone, which lies at the end of a chain of extinct
calderas, which become progressively older to the west. Another
example is the Hawaiian archipelago, where islands become
progressively older and more deeply eroded to the northwest.

Geologists have tried to use hotspot volcanic chains to track the

movement of the Earth’s tectonic plates. This effort has been vexed
by the lack of very long chains, by the fact that many are not time-
progressive (e.g. the Galápagos) and by the fact that hotspots do not
appear to be fixed relative to one another (e.g., Hawaii and Iceland.)
Postulated Hotspot Volcano Chains

Hawaiian-Emperor
seamount chain
(Hawaii hotspot)

Louisville seamount
chain (Louisville
hotspot)
Walvis Ridge (Gough
and Tristan hotspot) Figure 2. Kilauea is the most active shield volcano
in the world. The volcano has erupted nonstop
Kodiak–Bowie since 1983 and it is part of the Hawaiian-Emperor
seamount chain.
Seamount chain
(Bowie hotspot)
Cobb-Eickelberg
Seamount chain (Cobb hotspot)

New England Seamount chain (New England hotspot)

Anahim Volcanic Belt (Anahim hotspot)
Mackenzie dike swarm (Mackenzie hotspot)

Great Meteor hotspot track (New England hotspot)

St. Helena Seamount Chain – Cameroon Volcanic Line
(Saint Helena hotspot)

Southern Mascarene Plateau–Chagos-Maldives-Laccadive

Ridge (Réunion hotspot)
Ninety East Ridge (Kerguelen hotspot)

Tuamotu–Line Island chain (Easter hotspot)

 Austral–Gilbert–Marshall chain (Macdonald hotspot)

Juan Fernández Ridge (Juan Fernández hotspot)

Intraplate Activity

A small amount of geologic activity, known as intraplate activity,

does not take place at plate boundaries but within a plate instead.
Mantle plumes are pipes of hot rock that rise through the mantle.
The release of pressure causes melting near the surface to form a
hotspot. Eruptions at the hotspot create a volcano. Hotspot
volcanoes are found in a line (figure 3). Can you figure out why?
Hint: The youngest volcano sits above the hotspot and volcanoes
become older with distance from the hotspot.

Here is an animation of the creation of a hotspot chain.

 Figure 3. The Hawaiian Islands are a beautiful example of a hotspot chain.
Kilauea volcano lies above the Hawaiian hotspot. Mauna Loa volcano is older
than Kilauea and is still erupting, but at a lower rate. The islands get
progressively older to the northwest because they are further from the hotspot.
Loihi, the youngest volcano, is still below the sea surface.

Geologists use some hotspot chains to tell the direction and the
speed a plate is moving (figure 4).
 Figure 4. The Hawaiian chain continues into the Emperor Seamounts. The bend
in the chain was caused by a change in the direction of the Pacific plate 43
million years ago. Using the age and distance of the bend, geologists can figure
out the speed of the Pacific plate over the hotspot.

Hotspot magmas rarely penetrate through thick continental crust.

One exception is the Yellowstone hotspot (figure 5).
 Figure 5. Volcanic activity above the Yellowstone hotspot on the North American
Plate can be traced from 15 million years ago to its present location.

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Theory of Plate Tectonics. Provided by: CK-12. Located
at: http://www.ck12.org/book/CK-12-Earth-Science-For-
High-School/section/6.4/. License: CC BY-NC: Attribution-
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 Self Check: Geological Processes

Check Your Understanding

Answer the question(s) below to see how well you understand the
topics covered in the previous section. This short quiz
does not count toward your grade in the class, and you can retake it
an unlimited number of times.

Use this quiz to check your understanding and decide whether to

(1) study the previous section further or (2) move on to the next
section.

An interactive or media element has been excluded from this

version of the text. You can view it online here:
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 Putting It Together: Plate Tectonics

As you have seen, this section is absolutely essential to

understanding how the Earth works, why it looks the way it does,
what processes have shaped and continue to shape the Earth, and
the impact it has on us today. Everything from various geologic
hazards such as volcanoes, landslides, and earthquakes can be
explained—at least in part—by plate tectonics. You should now be
able to look back at the questions asked at the beginning of this
section and understand how plate tectonics has contributed to our
understanding. In fact, it is very difficult to think of an area or topic in
geology that has not been influenced by plate tectonics.

Plate Tectonics will be the base that the rest of the course is built
on. This theory has impacts on each of the following:

rock formations, geologic environments, mineral resources

landforms, mountain building processes

folds, faults, and earthquakes

volcanoes and their eruptions

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Authored by: Kimberly Schulte and Lumen Learning.
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MODULE 6: EARTH'S INTERIOR
 Why It Matters: Earth's Interior

Describe the Earth including the characteristics of the

various layers; learn the implications of the different
layers.

Introduction

Geologists cannot see directly into the interior of the Earth. They
have to rely on various techniques and methods to infer the
appearance and physical characteristics of earth’s interior. In this
section, we will see how the Earth is structured, what the physical
characteristics are, and just how this impacts us living on the Earth.

The Earth’s interior is the basis for geology. If you recall from the
Plate Tectonics section, earth exists as we see it today because of
plate tectonics. We also learned how plate tectonics is important in
the formation of rock, mountains, volcanoes and earthquakes.
Studying the interior of the Earth helps learn about all of these and
the processes that helped create the Earth and currently drive plate
tectonics.

Please watch this short video and take a trip through the various
layers of the Earth down to its core:

An interactive or media element has been excluded from this

version of the text. You can view it online here:
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Learning Outcomes

Analyze and compare the properties, material, and layers

within the Earth’s geosphere.
Understand how we know about the Earth’s interior and its
magnetism.

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Authored by: Kimberly Schulte and Lumen Learning.

Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution

All rights reserved content

Earth's Interior Isn't Quite What We Thought It Was.

Authored by: Talk Nerdy To Me. Located at:
https://youtu.be/IWZky7mXoO0. License: All Rights
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 Outcome: Layers of the Geosphere

Analyze and compare the properties, material, and layers

within the Earth’s geosphere.

This section will focus on the Earth’s interior: what it is made of, why
and how there are different layers of the Earth and where is each
layer located.

What You’ll Learn to Do

Understand the physical and chemical characteristics of the

two types of crust

Understand the physical and chemical characteristics of the

mantle

Understand the physical and chemical characteristics of

both the inner and outer core

Differentiate between the Lithosphere and the

Asthenosphere

Learning Activities

The learning activities for this section include the following:

 Reading: Characteristics of the Crust

Reading: Characteristics of the Mantle

Reading: Characteristics of the Inner and Outer Core

Reading: The Lithosphere and Asthenosphere

Self Check: Layers of the Geosphere

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Authored by: Kimberly Schulte and Lumen Learning.

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 Reading: Characteristics of the Crust

How does a loaf of bread resemble Earth?

A loaf of homemade bread could almost resemble Earth. The

raised parts of the crust are the continents and the depressed
parts are the oceans. The inside is gooier than the brittle exterior,
but it’s still solid. How is a loaf of bread not like Earth?

Earth’s outer surface is its crust, a cold, thin, brittle outer shell made
of rock. The crust is very thin relative to the radius of the planet.
There are two very different types of crust, each with its own
distinctive physical and chemical properties, which are summarized
in Table 1.

Crust Thickness Density Composition Rock Types

Oceanic 5–12 km (3–8 mi) 3.0 g/cm3 Mafic Basalt and gabbro

Continental Avg. 35 km (22 mi) 2.7 g/cm3 Felsic All types

Oceanic Crust

Oceanic crust is composed of

mafic magma that erupts on the
seafloor to create basalt lava
flows or cools deeper down to
create the intrusive igneous
rock gabbro (Figure 1).

Sediments, primarily mud and

the shells of tiny sea creatures,
coat the seafloor. Sediment is Figure 1. Gabbro from ocean crust

thickest near the shore, where it

comes off the continents in
rivers and on wind currents.

The oceanic crust is relatively thin and lies above the mantle. The
cross section of oceanic crust in Figure 2 shows the layers that
grade from sediments at the top to extrusive basalt lava, to the
sheeted dikes that feed lava to the surface, to deeper intrusive
gabbro, and finally to the mantle.

Figure 2. A cross-section of oceanic crust.

Continental Crust

Continental crust is made up of many different types of igneous,

metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks. The average composition is
granite, which is much less
dense than the mafic rocks of
the oceanic crust (Figure 3).
Because it is thick and has
relatively low density,
continental crust rises higher on
the mantle than oceanic crust,
which sinks into the mantle to
form basins. When filled with
water, these basins form the
Figure 3. This granite from Missouri is more than
planet’s oceans. 1 billion years old.

Summary

Oceanic crust is thinner and denser than continental crust.

Oceanic crust is more mafic, continental crust is more
felsic.

Crust is very thin relative to Earth’s radius.

Interactive Practice

Visit Annenberg Learner’s Dynamic Earth and click on the crust to

answer the questions below:

1. Describe the crust.

2. Where is the crust the thickest?
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 Reading: Characteristics of the Mantle

What is a diamond delivery system?

Some events happened when Earth was younger and hotter that
do not happen any more. Kimberlite pipes shot up from deep in
the mantle. These pipes are the most important source of
diamonds, which form at very high pressure. Most kimberlites
surfaced long ago.

The two most important things about the mantle are as follows:

1. It is made of semi-solid rock.

 2. It is hot.

Solid Rock

Scientists know that the

mantle is made of rock based
on evidence from seismic
waves, heat flow, and
meteorites. The properties fit
the ultramafic rock peridotite,
which is made of the iron- and
magnesium-rich silicate Figure 1. Peridotite is formed of crystals of olivine
(green) and pyroxene (black).
minerals (Figure 1). Peridotite is
rarely found at Earth’s surface.

Heat Flow

Scientists know that the mantle is extremely hot because of the heat
flowing outward from it and because of its physical properties.

Heat flows in two different ways within the Earth:

1. Conduction: Heat is transferred through rapid collisions of

atoms, which can only happen if the material is solid. Heat
flows from warmer to cooler places until all are the same
temperature. The mantle is hot mostly because of heat
conducted from the core.
 2. Convection: If a material is able to move, even if it moves
very slowly, convection currents can form.

Convection in the mantle is the same as convection in a pot of

water on a stove. Convection currents within Earth’s mantle form as
material near the core heats up. As the core heats the bottom layer
of mantle material, particles move more rapidly, decreasing its
density and causing it to rise. The rising material begins the
convection current. When the warm material reaches the surface, it
spreads horizontally. The material cools because it is no longer near
the core. It eventually becomes cool and dense enough to sink back
down into the mantle. At the bottom of the mantle, the material
travels horizontally and is heated by the core. It reaches the location
where warm mantle material rises, and the mantle convection cell is
complete (Figure 2).
 Figure 2. Convection

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Reading: Characteristics of the Inner and Outer
Core

Do you want to take a journey to the center of the earth?

Jules Verne’s imagined core was fiery. But we know that the outer
core is molten metal, as seen above. As hot as a journey to
Verne’s center of the earth might have been, a visit to the real
location would be worse.

At the planet’s center lies a dense metallic core. Scientists know

that the core is metal because:

1. The density of Earth’s

surface layers is much
less than the overall
density of the planet,
as calculated from the
planet’s rotation. If the
surface layers are less
Figure 1. An iron meteorite is the closest thing to
dense than average, the Earth’s core that we can hold in our hands.
then the interior must
be denser than
average. Calculations indicate that the core is about 85%
iron metal with nickel metal making up much of the
remaining 15%.

2. Metallic meteorites are thought to be representative of the

core. The 85% iron/15% nickel calculation above is also
seen in metallic meteorites (Figure 1).

If Earth’s core were not metal, the planet would not have a
magnetic field. Metals such as iron are magnetic, but rock, which
makes up the mantle and crust, is not.

Scientists know that the outer core is liquid and the inner core is
solid because:

1. S-waves do not go through the outer core.

 2. The strong magnetic field is caused by convection in the
liquid outer core. Convection currents in the outer core are
due to heat from the even hotter inner core.

The heat that keeps the outer core from solidifying is produced by
the breakdown of radioactive elements in the inner core.

Explore More

Use this resource to answer the questions that follow.

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1. What materials can P-waves travel through?

2. What materials can S-waves travel through?

3. How do we know the outer core is liquid?

4. What happens to P-waves when they go through a liquid?

5. What do P-waves tell about the inner core?

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INGE LEHMANN : How Inge Lehmann used Earthquakes

to discover the Earthu2019s inner core. Authored by:
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Reading: The Lithosphere and Asthenosphere

Can you think of a solid that can flow?

You use one twice a day! Toothpaste is a solid that can flow. Is the
asthenosphere made of toothpaste? Only if the toothpaste is
ultramafic in composition, and then it would only be able to flow if
it were really, really hot. Still the toothpaste analogy gives you a
good image of how the asthenosphere might behave if you
squeezed it!
Lithosphere

The lithosphere is composed of both the crust and the portion of the
upper mantle that behaves as a brittle, rigid solid. The lithosphere is
the outermost mechanical layer, which behaves as a brittle, rigid
solid. The lithosphere is about 100 kilometers thick. How are crust
and lithosphere different from each other?

The definition of the lithosphere is based on how Earth materials

behave, so it includes the crust and the uppermost mantle, which are
both brittle. Since it is rigid and brittle, when stresses act on the
lithosphere, it breaks. This is what we experience as an earthquake.

Although we sometimes refer to Earth’s plates as being plates of

crust, the plates are actually made of lithosphere.

Asthenosphere

The asthenosphere is solid upper mantle material that is so hot that

it behaves plastically and can flow. The lithosphere rides on the
asthenosphere.

Summary

The lithosphere is the brittle crust and uppermost mantle.

The asthenosphere is a solid but it can flow, like toothpaste.

 The lithosphere rests on the asthenosphere.

Explore More

Watch this video to answer the questions that follow:

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1. What does he mean by the mechanical properties of a

layer?

2. In the compositional model: What is the outermost layer?

What are the two types of this layer and what are their main
 features?

3. What is the next layer down? What are its main features?

4. What is the deepest layer? Why is this the densest layer?

5. What is the composition of this layer?

6. What is the lithosphere?

7. What are the mechanical properties of the material below
the lithosphere and what is the layer called?

8. What is the composition and mechanical property of the

mesosphere relative to the asthenosphere?

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Compositional and mechanical layers of the earth.
Authored by: Sal Khan. Provided by: Khan Academy.
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 Self Check: Layers of the Geosphere

Check Your Understanding

Answer the question(s) below to see how well you understand the
topics covered in the previous section. This short quiz
does not count toward your grade in the class, and you can retake it
an unlimited number of times.

Use this quiz to check your understanding and decide whether to

(1) study the previous section further or (2) move on to the next
section.

An interactive or media element has been excluded from this

version of the text. You can view it online here:
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/geo/?p=2734

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 Outcome: Understanding the Earth's Interior

Understand how we know about the Earth’s interior and

its magnetism.

This section extends the previous section by using models to

understand the Earth’s interior and its features.

What You’ll Learn to Do

Compare the different seismic waves and understand how

seismic waves help interpret the Earth’s interior.
Understand what the Earth’s magnetic field is and where it
originates.

Learning Activities

The learning activities for this section include the following:

Reading: Studying the Earth’s Interior

Self Check: Understanding the Earth’s Interior

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 Reading: Studying the Earth's Interior

The following table summarizes the physical layers of the earth.

Physical Layers of Earth

Layer Physical Behavior Thickness

Lithosphere rigid, brittle at shallow depths 5–200 km

Asthenosphere ductile 100–300 km

Upper Mesosphere rigid, not brittle, rapid increase in density with depth 300–400 km

Lower Mesosphere denser and more rigid than upper mesosphere 2,300 km
Outer Core liquid 2,300 km

Inner Core rigid, not brittle 1,200 km

Earth’s Magnetic Field Originates in the Core

The liquid outer core is the source of the earth’s magnetic field, as a
result of its metallic nature, which means it contains electrons not
attached to particular nuclei. Heat is transferred upward to the
mantle from the inner core via convective cells, in which the liquid in
the outer core flows in looping patterns. The combination of the
loose electrons and looping convective flow with the rotation of the
earth results in a geodynamo that produces a magnetic field.
Because the magnetic field is generated by a dynamically convecting
and rotating sphere of liquid, it is unstable. Every now and then, after
several hundred thousand to several million years, the earth’s
magnetic field becomes unstable to the point that it temporarily shuts
down. When it restarts, its north and south magnetic poles must
inevitably be reversed, according to the physics of magnetic fields
produced spontaneously from geodyamos. (For comparison, the
magnetic field of the Sun, which is also produces by convecting
electrical charges in a rotating sphere, becomes magnetically
unstable and reverses its magnetic field on a more regular basis,
every 11 years.)

Given that the inner core is a solid metallic sphere, made mostly of
iron and nickel, surrounded entirely by liquid, it can be pictured as a
giant ball bearing spinning in a pressurized fluid. Detailed studies of
earthquake waves passing though the inner core have found
evidence that it is spinning – rotating – just slightly faster than the
rest of the earth.

Beyond Simple Layers

The interior of the earth is not simply layered. Some of the layers,
particularly the crust and lithosphere, are highly variable in thickness.
The boundaries between layers are rough and irregular. Some layers
penetrate other layers at certain places. Variations in the thickness of
the earth’s layers, irregularities in layer boundaries, and
interpenetrations of layers, reflect the dynamic nature of the earth.
 For example, the lithosphere penetrates deep into the mesosphere
at subduction zones. Although it is still a matter of research and
debate, there is some evidence that subducted plates may penetrate
all the way into the lower mesosphere. If so, plate tectonics is
causing extensive mixing and exchange of matter in the earth, from
the bottom of the mantle to the top of the crust.

As another example, hot spots may be places where gases and

fluids rise from the core-mantle boundary, along with heat. Studies of
helium isotopes in hot spot volcanic rocks find evidence that much of
the helium comes from deep in the earth, probably from the lower
mesosphere.

How Do We Know?

We humans have no hands-on access to samples of the earth’s

interior from deeper than the upper mantle. The earth’s core is so
dense and so deep, it is completely inaccessible. Contrary to a
popular misconception, lava does not come from the earth’s core.
Magma and lava come from only the lithosphere and asthenosphere,
the upper 200 km of earth’s 6,400 km thickness. Attempts have been
made to drill through the crust to reach the mantle, without success.
Given the lack of actual pieces of the earth from deeper than the
asthenosphere, how do we know about the internal layers of the
earth, what they are made of, and what their properties and
processes are?
Igneous Rocks and Fault Blocks

There are two sources of rock samples from the lower lithosphere
and asthenosphere, igneous rocks and fault blocks. Some igneous
rocks contain xenoliths, pieces of solid rock that were adjacent to the
body of magma, became incorporated into the magma, and were
carried upward in the magma. From xenoliths in plutonic and
volcanic igneous rocks, many samples of the lower crust and upper
mantle have been identified and studied.

Another source of pieces of the lower crust and upper mantle is

fault zones and exposed orogenic zones (root zones of mountains
that have been exposed after much uplift and erosion). Some slabs
of thrust-faulted rock contain lithospheric mantle rock. In ophiolites,
ultramafic rock from the mantle part of the lithosphere is a defining
attribute. Most ophiolites and thrust-faulted slices of rock that contain
pieces of the upper mantle are related to either subduction zones or
transform plate boundaries.

Seismic Waves

The energy from earthquakes travels in waves. The study of seismic

waves is known as seismology. Seismologists use seismic waves to
learn about earthquakes and also to learn about the Earth’s interior.

One ingenious way scientists learn about Earth’s interior is by

looking at earthquake waves. Seismic waves travel outward in all
directions from where the ground breaks and are picked up by
seismographs around the world. Two types of seismic waves are
most useful for learning about Earth’s interior.

Body Waves

P-waves and S-waves are known as body waves because they

move through the solid body of the Earth. P-waves travel through
solids, liquids, and gases. S-waves only move through solids (Figure
1). Surface waves only travel along Earth’s surface. In an
earthquake, body waves produce sharp jolts. They do not do as
much damage as surface waves.

Figure 1. Body and Surface Waves

P-waves (primary waves) are fastest, traveling at about 6 to

7 kilometers (about 4 miles) per second, so they arrive first
at the seismometer. P-waves move in a
compression/expansion type motion, squeezing and
unsqueezing Earth
materials as they
travel. This produces a
change in volume for
the material. P-waves
bend slightly when
they travel from one
layer into another.
Seismic waves move
faster through denser
or more rigid material.
As P-waves encounter
the liquid outer core,
which is less rigid than
the mantle, they slow
Figure 2. How P-waves travel through Earth’s
down. This makes the interior.
P-waves arrive later
and further away than
would be expected. The result is a P-wave shadow zone.
No P-waves are picked up at seismographs 104o to 140o
from the earthquakes focus.
S-waves (secondary waves) are about half as fast as P-
waves, traveling at about 3.5 km (2 miles) per second, and
arrive second at seismographs. S-waves move in an up and
down motion perpendicular to the direction of wave travel.
This produces a change in shape for the Earth materials
they move through. Only solids resist a change in shape, so
 S-waves are only able to propagate through solids. S-
waves cannot travel through liquid.

Where seismic waves speed up or slow down, they refract,

changing the direction in which they are traveling. Where seismic
waves encounter an abrupt boundary between two very different
layers, some of the seismic wave energy is reflected, bouncing back
at the same angle it struck. The reflections and refractions of seismic
waves allow the layers and boundaries within the earth to be located
and studied.

By tracking seismic waves, scientists have learned what makes up

the planet’s interior (figure 2).

P-waves slow down at the mantle core boundary, so we

know the outer core is less rigid than the mantle.

S-waves disappear at the mantle core boundary, so the

outer core is liquid.
 Figure 3. Letters describe the path of an individual P-wave or S-wave. Waves
traveling through the core take on the letter K.

This animation shows a seismic wave shadow zone.

Here are some examples of what we have been able to distinguish

in the earth’s interior from the study of seismic waves and how they
travel through the layers of the earth:

1. The thickness of the crust. This is a measure of the

thickness of the crust based on the abrupt increase in
speed of seismic waves that occurs when they enter the
mantle. The boundary between the crust and mantle, as
 inferred from the change in the speed of P- and S-waves, is
called the Mohorovicic discontinuity, named after the
Croatian seismologist who first discerned it; usually it is
referred to simply as the Moho. It is mainly from seismic
waves that we know how thin oceanic crust is and how thick
continental crust is.

2. The thickness of the lithosphere. Where seismic waves

pass down from the lithosphere into the asthenosphere,
they slow down. This is because of the lower rigidity and
compressibility of the rocks in the layer below the
lithosphere. The zone below the lithosphere where seismic
waves travel more slowly is called the low velocity zone.
The low velocity zone is probably coincident with the
asthenosphere.

3. The boundary between the upper and lower mesosphere

(upper and lower mantle). This shows up as an increase in
seismic wave speed at a depth of 660 km.

4. The boundary between the mantle and the core. This is

marked by S-waves coming to an abrupt stop, presumably
because the outer core is liquid, and a sudden large
reduction in the speed of P-waves, as they enter the liquid
core where there is no rigidity to contribute to P-wave
speed.
5. The inner core. This was first recognized by refraction of P-
waves passing through this part of the core, due to an
abrupt increase in their speed, which was not shown by P-
waves traveling through only the outer part of the core.
 6. Seismic tomography: imaging slabs and masses at various
orientations in the earth, not just in layers. By combining
data from many seismometers, three-dimensional images
of zones in the earth that have higher or lower seismic
wave speeds can be constructed. Seismic tomography
shows that in some places there are masses of what may
be subducted plates that have penetrated below the
asthenosphere into the mesosphere and, in some cases,
penetrated into the lower mesosphere, the deepest part of
the mantle. In other places, subducted plates appear to
have piled up at the base of the upper mesosphere without
penetrating into the lower mesosphere.

Gravity

Isaac Newton was the first to calculate the total mass of the earth.
This gives us an important constraint on what the earth is made of,
because, by dividing the mass of the earth by the volume of the
earth, we know the average density of the earth. Whatever the earth
is made of, it must add up to the correct amount of mass. Gravity
measurements, and the earth’s mass, tell us that the interior of the
earth must be denser than the crust, because the average density of
earth is much higher than the density of the crust.

Because different parts of the crust, mantle, and core have

different thicknesses and densities, the strength of gravity over
particular points on earth varies slightly. These variations from the
average strength of earth’s gravity are called gravity anomalies.
Mapping and analyzing gravity anomalies, in some cases by using
satellites, and also be measuring the effect of gravity anomalies on
the surface shape of the ocean, has given us much insight into
subduction zones, mid-ocean spreading ridges, and mountain
ranges, including constraints on the depths of their roots.

Moment of Inertia

The earth’s gravity tells us how much total mass the earth has, but
does not tell us how the mass is distributed within the earth. A
property known as moment of inertia, which is the resistance (inertia)
of an object to changes in its spin (rotation), is determined by exactly
how matter is distributed in a spinning object, from its core to its
surface. The earth’s moment of inertia is measured by its effect on
other objects with which it interacts gravitationally, including the
Moon, and satellites. Knowing the earth’s moment of inertia provides
a way of checking and refining our understanding of the mass and
density of each of the earth’s internal layers.

Meteorites

Studies of meteorites, which are pieces of asteroids that have landed

on earth, along with astronomical studies of what the Sun, the other
planets, and orbiting asteroids are made of, give us a model for the
general chemical composition of objects in the inner solar system,
which are made mainly of elements that form rocks and metals, as
opposed to the outer planets such as Jupiter, which are made mostly
of light, gas-forming elements. The general compositional model of
the rocky and metallic part of the solar system has much higher
percentages of iron, nickel, and magnesium than is found in the
earth’s crust.

If the earth’s mantle is made of ultramafic rock, as is found in

actual samples of the upper mantle in xenoliths and ophiolites, that
would account for part of the missing iron, nickel, and magnesium.
But much more iron and nickel would still be missing. If the core is
made mostly of iron, and abundant nickel as well, it would give the
earth an overall composition similar to the composition of other
objects in the inner solar system, and similar to the proportions of
rock and metal-forming elements measured in the Sun.

A mantle with an ultramafic composition, and a core made mostly

of iron plus nickel, would make earth’s composition match the
composition of the rest of the solar system, and give those layers the
right densities to account for the earth’s moment of inertia and total
mass.

Experiments

Geology, like other sciences, is based on experiment along with

observation and theory. earth scientists and physicists have
developed experimental methods to study how materials behave at
the pressures and temperatures of the earth’s interior, including core
temperatures and pressures. They can measure such properties as
the density, the state of matter (liquid or solid), the rigidity, the
compressibility, and the speed at which seismic waves pass through
these materials at high pressures and temperatures. These studies
allow further refinement of our knowledge of what the interior of the
earth is made of and how it behaves. These experiments support the
theory that the mantle is ultramafic and the core is mostly iron and
nickel, because they show that materials with those compositions
have the same density and seismic wave speeds as have been
observed in the earth.

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 Self Check: Understanding the Earth's Interior

Check Your Understanding

Answer the question(s) below to see how well you understand the
topics covered in the previous section. This short quiz
does not count toward your grade in the class, and you can retake it
an unlimited number of times.

Use this quiz to check your understanding and decide whether to

(1) study the previous section further or (2) move on to the next
section.

An interactive or media element has been excluded from this

version of the text. You can view it online here:
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/geo/?p=2735

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 Putting It Together: Earth’s Interior

Summary

You should now have a better understanding of just important the

study of the Earth’s interior is and the impact it has on various
aspects of our lives. In particular, we have looked at these items:

1. The various layers of the Earth including where they are,

what they are made of and how they behave physically
2. How geologists use indirect methods to study earth’s
interior
3. Earth’s magnetic field including how it is generated and why
it’s important
4. The influence the interior has on plate tectonics

Examples

Did you enjoy the video through the layers of the Earth we watched
at the beginning of this outcome? It was a very short trip but very
informative. Now you know why geologists sometimes have issues
with Hollywood and the movies that we see sometimes. Journey to
the Center of the Earth may be a fun movie (acting aside), but it is
totally unrealistic. As you saw, the temperatures and pressures
inside the Earth make it impossible for us to actually visit there,
although I know a lot of geologists would love to make the trip!

Now that we have good understand of the interior of the Earth and
how plate tectonics work, let’s take an up-close look at earthquakes!

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MODULE 7: CRUSTAL
DEFORMATION
 Why It Matters: Crustal Deformation

Correlate structural geology as it pertains to crustal

deformation

Introduction

Understanding crustal
deformation helps explain the
forces necessary to bend and
fold rocks like those shown
above which help create
mountains. This section will
discuss the types of forces
needed to accomplish such a
powerful feat. Have you ever Figure 1. Chevron folds with flat-lying axial
planes, Millook Haven, North Cornwall, UK
wondered how strong those
forces would have to be? The
answer to that is beyond our
comprehension.

Along with these forces, we will investigate various types of folds

as well as different types of faults. If you recall from the plate
tectonics sections, earthquakes occur along active fault lines. This
section helps us better understand how faults work.

Learning Outcomes

Compare and contrast stress versus strain in the Earth’s

crust.

Identify geologic structures created by deformation.

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 Outcome: Stress and Strain

Compare and contrast stress versus strain in the Earth’s

crust

This section introduces you to the concepts of stress and strain. You
will learn their definitions and how they impact the Earth’s crust.

What You’ll Learn to Do

Differentiate between the types of stress: tension,

compression, shear.
Differentiate between the types of strain: elastic, ductile,
and fracture.

Learning Activities

The learning activities for this section include the following:

Reading: Stress In Earth’s Crust

Reading: Strain

Self Check: Stress and Strain

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 Reading: Stress In Earth's Crust

Introduction

Enormous slabs of lithosphere move unevenly over the planet’s

spherical surface, resulting in earthquakes. This chapter deals with
two types of geological activity that occur because of plate tectonics:
mountain building and earthquakes. First, we will consider what can
happen to rocks when they are exposed to stress.

Causes and Types of Stress

Stress is the force applied to an object.

In geology, stress is the force per unit area
that is placed on a rock. Four types of
stresses act on materials.

Figure 1. Stress caused these

A deeply buried rock is pushed rocks to fracture.
down by the weight of all the
material above it. Since the rock
cannot move, it cannot deform.
This is called confining stress.
Compression squeezes rocks together, causing rocks to
fold or fracture (break) (figure 1). Compression is the most
 common stress at convergent plate boundaries.

Rocks that are pulled apart are under tension. Rocks under
tension lengthen or break apart. Tension is the major type
of stress at divergent plate boundaries.

When forces are parallel but moving in opposite directions,

the stress is called shear (figure 2). Shear stress is the
most common stress at transform plate boundaries.

When stress causes a material to change

shape, it has undergone strain ordeformation.
Deformed rocks are common in geologically
active areas.

A rock’s response to stress depends on the

rock type, the surrounding temperature, and
pressure conditions the rock is under, the length Figure 2. Shearing in
rocks. The white quartz
of time the rock is under stress, and the type of vein has been elongated
by shear.
stress.

Rocks have three possible responses to increasing stress

(illustrated in figure 3):

elastic deformation: the rock returns to its original shape

when the stress is removed.

plastic deformation: the rock does not return to its original

shape when the stress is removed.
 fracture: the rock breaks.

Figure 3. With increasing stress, the rock undergoes: (1) elastic deformation, (2)
plastic deformation, and (3) fracture.

Under what conditions do you think a rock is more likely to

fracture? Is it more likely to break deep within Earth’s crust or at the
surface? What if the stress applied is sharp rather than gradual?

At the Earth’s surface, rocks usually break quite quickly, but

deeper in the crust, where temperatures and pressures are
higher, rocks are more likely to deform plastically.
 Sudden stress, such as a hit with a hammer, is more likely
to make a rock break. Stress applied over time often leads
to plastic deformation.

Geologic Structures

Sedimentary rocks are important for deciphering the geologic history

of a region because they follow certain rules.

1. Sedimentary rocks are formed with the oldest layers on the

bottom and the youngest on top.

2. Sediments are deposited horizontally, so sedimentary rock

layers are originally horizontal, as are some volcanic rocks,
such as ash falls.
3. Sedimentary rock layers that are not horizontal are
deformed.

You can trace the deformation a rock has experienced by seeing

how it differs from its original horizontal, oldest-on-bottom position
(figure 4a). This deformation produces geologic structures such as
folds, joints, and faults that are caused by stresses (figure 4b). Using
the rules listed above, try to figure out the geologic history of the
geologic column below.
 Figure 4. (a) In the Grand Canyon, the rock layers are exposed like a layer cake.
Each layer is made of sediments that were deposited in a particular environment
– perhaps a lake bed, shallow offshore region, or a sand dune. (b) In this
geologic column of the Grand Canyon, the sedimentary rocks of the “Layered
Paleozoic Rocks” column (layers 1 through 11) are still horizontal. Grand
Canyon Supergroup rocks (layers 12 through 15) have been tilted. Vishnu
Basement Rocks are not sedimentary (rocks 16 through 18). The oldest layers are
on the bottom and youngest are on the top.

Folds

Rocks deforming plastically under compressive stresses crumple

into folds (figure 5). They do not return to their original shape. If the
rocks experience more stress, they may undergo more folding or
even fracture.
 Figure 5. Snow accentuates the fold exposed in these rocks in Provo Canyon,
Utah.

Three types of folds are seen.

Mononcline: A monocline is a simple bend in the rock

layers so that they are no longer horizontal (see figure 6 for
an example).
 Figure 6. At Colorado National Monument, the rocks in a monocline
plunge toward the ground.

Anticline: An anticline is a fold that arches upward. The

rocks dip away from the center of the fold (figure 7). The
oldest rocks are at the center of an anticline and the
youngest are draped over them.

Figure 7. (a) Schematic of an anticline. (b) An anticline exposed in a

road cut in New Jersey.

When rocks arch upward to form a circular structure, that structure

is called a dome. If the top of the dome is sliced off, where are the
oldest rocks located?

Syncline: A syncline is a fold that bends downward. The

youngest rocks are at the center and the oldest are at the
outside (figure 8).

Figure 8. (a) Schematic of a syncline. (b) This syncline is in Rainbow

Basin, California.

When rocks bend downward in a circular structure, that structure

is called a basin (figure 9). If the rocks are exposed at the surface,
where are the oldest rocks located?

Faults

A rock under enough stress will fracture. If there is no movement on

either side of a fracture, the fracture is called a joint, as shown in
(figure 10).
 Figure 9. Basins can be
enormous. This is a geologic
map of the Michigan Basin,
which is centered in the state of
Michigan but extends into four
other states and a Canadian
province.

Figure 10. Granite rocks in Joshua Tree National Park showing horizontal and
vertical jointing. These joints formed when the confining stress was removed
from the granite.
 If the blocks of rock on one or both sides of a fracture move, the
fracture is called a fault (figure 11). Sudden motions along faults
cause rocks to break and move suddenly. The energy released is an
earthquake.

Figure 11. Faults are easy to recognize as they cut across bedded rocks.

Slip is the distance rocks move along a fault. Slip can be up or

down the fault plane. Slip is relative, because there is usually no way
to know whether both sides moved or only one. Faults lie at an angle
to the horizontal surface of the Earth. That angle is called the fault’s
dip. The dip defines which of two basic types a fault is. If the fault’s
dip is inclined relative to the horizontal, the fault is a dip-slip fault
(figure 12). There are two types of dip-slip faults. In normal faults,
the hanging wall drops down relative to the footwall. In reverse
faults, the footwall drops down relative to the hanging wall.

Figure 12. This diagram illustrates the two types of dip-slip faults: normal faults
and reverse faults. Imagine miners extracting a resource along a fault. The
hanging wall is where miners would have hung their lanterns. The footwall is
where they would have walked.

Here is an animation of a normal fault.

A thrust fault is a type of reverse fault in which the fault plane

angle is nearly horizontal. Rocks can slip many miles along thrust
faults (Figure 13).
 Figure 13. At Chief Mountain in Montana, the upper rocks at the Lewis
Overthrust are more than 1 billion years older than the lower rocks. How could
this happen?

Here is an animation of a thrust fault.

Normal faults can be huge. They are responsible for uplifting

mountain ranges in regions experiencing tensional stress (figure 14).
 Figure 14. The Teton Range in Wyoming rose up along a normal fault.

A strike-slip fault is a dip-slip fault in which the dip of the fault

plane is vertical. Strike-slip faults result from shear stresses (figure
15).
 Figure 15. Imagine placing one foot on either side of a strike-slip fault. One
block moves toward you. If that block moves toward your right foot, the fault is
a right-lateral strike-slip fault; if that block moves toward your left foot, the fault
is a left-lateral strike-slip fault.

California’s San Andreas Fault is the world’s

most famous strike-slip fault. It is a right-lateral
strike slip fault (figure 16).

Here is a strike-slip fault animation.

People sometimes say that California will fall

Figure 16. The San
into the ocean someday, which is not true. This Andreas is a massive
animation shows movement on the San Andreas transform fault.

into the future.

Stress and Mountain Building

Two converging continental plates smash upwards to create

mountain ranges (figure 17). Stresses from this uplift cause folds,
reverse faults, and thrust faults, which allow the crust to rise
upwards.

Figure 17. (a) The world’s highest mountain range, the Himalayas, is growing
from the collision between the Indian and the Eurasian plates. (b) The
crumpling of the Indian and Eurasian plates of continental crust creates the
Himalayas.

Subduction of oceanic lithosphere at convergent plate boundaries

also builds mountain ranges (figure 18).
 Figure 18. The Andes Mountains are a chain of continental arc volcanoes that
build up as the Nazca Plate subducts beneath the South American Plate.

When tensional stresses pull crust apart, it breaks into blocks that
slide up and drop down along normal faults. The result is alternating
mountains and valleys, known as a basin-and-range (figure 19).

Figure 19. (a) In basin-and-range, some blocks are uplifted to form ranges,
known as horsts, and some are down-dropped to form basins, known as grabens.
(b) Mountains in Nevada are of classic basin-and-range form.
 This is a very quick animation of movement of blocks in a basin-
and-range setting.

Lesson Summary

Stress is the force applied to a rock and may cause

deformation. The three main types of stress are typical of
the three types of plate boundaries: compression at
convergent boundaries, tension at divergent boundaries,
and shear at transform boundaries.
Where rocks deform plastically, they tend to fold. Brittle
deformation brings about fractures and faults.

The two main types of faults are dip-slip (the fault plane is
inclined to the horizontal) and strike-slip (the fault plane is
perpendicular to the horizontal).

The world’s largest mountains grow at convergent plate

boundaries, primarily by thrust faulting and folding.

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 Reading: Strain

As we’ve just learned, the earth’s crust is constantly subjected to

forces that push, pull, or twist it. These forces are called stress. In
response to stress, the rocks of the earth undergo strain, also
known as deformation.

Strain is any change in volume or shape.There are four general

types of stress. One type of stress is uniform, which means the force
applies equally on all sides of a body of rock. The other three types
of stress, tension, compression and shear, are non-uniform, or
directed, stresses.All rocks in the earth experience a uniform stress
at all times. This uniform stress is called lithostatic pressure and it
comes from the weight of rock above a given point in the earth.
Lithostatic pressure is also called hydrostatic pressure. (Included in
lithostatic pressure are the weight of the atmosphere and, if beneath
an ocean or lake, the weight of the column of water above that point
in the earth. However, compared to the pressure caused by the
weight of rocks above, the amount of pressure due to the weight of
water and air above a rock is negligible, except at the earth’s
surface.) The only way for lithostatic pressure on a rock to change is
for the rock’s depth within the earth to change.Because lithostatic
pressure is a uniform stress, a change in lithostatic pressure does
not cause fracturing and slippage along faults. Nevertheless, it may
be the cause of certain types of earthquakes. In subducting tectonic
plates, the increased pressure of greater depth within the earth may
cause the minerals in the plate to metamorphose spontaneously into
a new set of denser minerals that are stable at the higher pressure.
This is thought to be the likely cause of certain types of deep
earthquakes in subduction zones, including the deepest earthquakes
ever recorded.

Rocks are also subjected to the three types of directed (non-

uniform) stress – tension, compression, and shear.

Tension is a directed (non-uniform) stress that pulls rock

apart in opposite directions. The tensional (also called
extensional) forces pull away from each other.

Compression is a directed (non-uniform) stress that

pushes rocks together. The compressional forces push
towards each other.

Shear is a directed (non-uniform) stress that pushes one

side of a body of rock in one direction, and the opposite
side of the body of rock in the opposite direction. The shear
forces are pushing in opposite ways.

In response to stress, rock may undergo three different types of

strain – elastic strain, ductile strain, or fracture.
 Elastic strain is reversible. Rock that has undergone only
elastic strain will go back to its original shape if the stress is
released.
Ductile strain is irreversible. A rock that has undergone
ductile strain will remain deformed even if the stress stops.
Another term for ductile strain is plastic deformation.
Fracture is also called rupture. A rock that has ruptured
has abruptly broken into distinct pieces. If the pieces are
offset—shifted in opposite directions from each other—the
fracture is a fault.

Ductile and Brittle Strain

Earth’s rocks are composed of a variety of minerals and exist in a

variety of conditions. In different situations, rocks may act either as
ductile materials that are able to undergo an extensive amount of
ductile strain in response to stress, or as brittle materials, which will
only undergo a little or no ductile strain before they fracture. The
factors that determine whether a rock is ductile or brittle include:
 Composition—Some minerals, such as quartz, tend to be
brittle and are thus more likely to break under stress. Other
minerals, such as calcite, clay, and mica, tend to be ductile
and can undergo much plastic deformation. In addition, the
presence of water in rock tends to make it more ductile and
less brittle.
Temperature—Rocks become softer (more ductile) at
higher temperature. Rocks at mantle and core temperatures
are ductile and will not fracture under the stresses that
occur deep within the earth. The crust, and to some extent
the lithosphere, are cold enough to fracture if the stress is
high enough.

Lithostatic pressure—The deeper in the earth a rock is, the

higher the lithostatic pressure it is subjected to. High
lithostatic pressure reduces the possibility of fracture
because the high pressure closes fractures before they can
form or spread. The high lithostatic pressures of the earth’s
sub-lithospheric mantle and solid inner core, along with the
high temperatures, are why there are no earthquakes deep
in the earth.

Strain rate—The faster a rock is being strained, the greater

its chance of fracturing. Even brittle rocks and minerals,
such as quartz, or a layer of cold basalt at the earth’s
surface, can undergo ductile deformation if the strain rate is
slow enough.

Most earthquakes occur in the earth’s crust. A smaller number of

earthquakes occur in the uppermost mantle (to about 700 km deep)
where subduction is taking place. Rocks in the deeper parts of the
earth do not undergo fracturing and do not produce earthquakes
because the temperatures and pressures there are high enough to
make all strain ductile. No earthquakes originate from below the the
earth’s upper mantle.

Stress and Fault Types

The following correlations can be made between types of stress in

the earth, and the type of fault that is likely to result:

Tension leads to normal faults.

Compression leads to reverse or thrust faults.

Horizontal shear leads to strike-slip faults.

Correlations between type of stress and type of fault can have

exceptions. For example, zones of horizontal stress will likely have
strike-slip faults as the predominant fault type. However there may
be active normal and thrust faults in such zones as well, particularly
where there are bends or gaps in the major strike-slip faults.

To give another example, in a region of compression stress in the

crust, where sheets of rock are stacked on active thrust faults, strike-
slip faults commonly connect some of the thrust faults together.

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 Self Check: Stress and Strain

Check Your Understanding

Answer the question(s) below to see how well you understand the
topics covered in the previous section. This short quiz
does not count toward your grade in the class, and you can retake it
an unlimited number of times.

Use this quiz to check your understanding and decide whether to

(1) study the previous section further or (2) move on to the next
section.

An interactive or media element has been excluded from this

version of the text. You can view it online here:
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 Outcome: Geologic Structures

Identify geologic structures created by deformation.

Geologic structures such as faults and folds are the architecture of

the earth’s crust. Geologic structures influence the shape of the
landscape, determine the degree of landslide hazard, bring old rocks
to the surface, bury young rocks, trap petroleum and natural gas,
shift during earthquakes, and channel fluids that create economic
deposits of metals such as gold and silver.

Folds, faults, and other geologic structures accommodate large

forces such as the stress of tectonic plates jostling against each
other, and smaller forces such as the stress of gravity pulling on a
steep mountainside. An understanding of the structures that shape
the earth’s crust can help you see when and where the crust was
subjected to pushing or pulling, terrane accretion or crustal rifting.

What You’ll Learn to Do

Interpret and model common fold types: anticlines,

synclines, basins, and domes.

Interpret and model common fault types.

 Understand the process of deformation and the origin of
mountains

Learning Activities

The learning activities for this section include the following:

Reading: Folds

Reading: Faults
Reading: Mountains

Self Check: Geologic Structures

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Dawes and Cheryl D. Dawes. Provided by: Wenatchee
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 Reading: Folds

Ductile rocks behave plastically and become folded in response to

stress. Even in the shallow crust where rocks are cool and relatively
brittle, folding can occur if the stress is slow and steady and gives
the rock enough time to gradually bend. If the stress is applied too
quickly, rocks in the shallow crust will behave as brittle solids and
break. Deeper in the crust, where the rocks are more ductile, folding
happens more readily, even when the stress and strain occurs
rapidly.

Anticlines and Synclines

The most basic types of folds are anticlines and synclines. Imagine a
rug, the sides of which have been pushed toward each other forming
ridges and valleys – the ridges are “up” folds and the valleys are
“down” folds. In terms of geologic structures, the up folds are called
anticlines and the down folds are called synclines.

In block diagrams like those shown below, the top of the block is
the horizontal surface of the earth, the map view. The other two
visible sides of the box are cross-sections, vertical slices through the
crust. The colored layers represent stratified geologic formations that
were originally horizontal, such as sedimentary beds or lava flows.
Use the block diagrams to visualize the three-dimensional shapes of
the geologic structures. Keep in mind that erosion has stripped away
the upper parts of these structures so that map view reveals the
interior of these structures.

In map view, an anticline appears as parallel beds of the same rock

type that dip away from the center of the fold. In an anticline, the
oldest beds, the ones that were originally underneath the other beds,
are at the center, along the axis of the fold. The axis is an imaginary
line that marks the center of the fold on the map.

In map view, a syncline appears as a set of parallel beds that dip

toward the center. In a syncline the youngest beds, the ones that
were originally on top of the rest of the beds, are at the center, along
the axis of the fold.

Anticlines and synclines form in sections of the crust that are

undergoing compression, places where the crust is being pushed
together.
Plunging Anticlines and Synclines

A plunging anticline or a plunging syncline is one that has its axis

tilted from the horizontal so that the fold is plunging into the earth
along its length. Plunge direction is the direction in which the axis of
the fold tilts down into the earth.

In map view, a plunging anticline makes a U-shaped or V-shaped

pattern that points, or closes, in the direction of plunge. A cross-
section at a right angle to the axis of a plunging anticline looks the
same as an anticline.

In map view, a plunging syncline makes a U-shaped or V-shaped

pattern that opens in the direction of plunge.

Anticlines

In structural geology, an anticline is a fold that is convex up and

has its oldest beds at its core. The term is not to be confused with
antiform, which is a purely descriptive term for any fold that is convex
up. Therefore if age
relationships between various
strata are unknown, the term
antiform should be used.

On a geologic map, anticlines

are usually recognized by a
Figure 1. Diagram of an anticline.
sequence of rock layers that are
progressively older toward the
center of the fold because the uplifted core of the fold is
preferentially eroded to a deeper stratigraphic level relative to the
topographically lower flanks. The strata dip away from the center, or
crest, of the fold.

If an anticline plunges (i.e., is

inclined to the Earth’s surface),
the surface strata will form Vs
that point in the direction of
plunge. Anticlines are often
flanked by synclines although
faulting can complicate and
Figure 2. Anticline with syncline visible at far
obscure the relationship right. Note the man standing before the formation,
for scale.
between the two. Folds often
form during crustal deformation
as the result of shortening that
accompanies orogenic mountain building. In many cases anticlines
are formed by movement on non-planar faults during both shortening
and extension, such as ramp anticlines and rollover anticlines.

Terminology

Any fold whose form is convex upward is an antiform. Antiforms

containing progressively younger rocks from their core outwards are
anticlines.

An anticline or antiform has a crest, which is the highest point on a

given stratum along the top of the fold. A hinge in an anticline is the
locus of maximum curvature or bending in a given stratum in the
fold. An axis is an imaginary line connecting the hinges in the
different strata in a two-dimensional cross-section through the
anticline. Connecting the hinges or points of maximum curvature in
the different layers in three dimensions produces an axial plane or
axial surface. In a symmetrical anticline, a surface trace of the axial
plane coincides with the crest. With an asymmetrical anticline, the
surface trace of the axial plane or axis will be offset from the crest
toward the steeper flank of the fold. Anoverturned anticline is an
asymmetrical anticline with a flank or limb that has been tilted
beyond perpendicular so that the beds in that limb are upside-down.

A structure that plunges in all directions to form a circular or

elongate structure is a dome. Domes are generally formed from one
main deformation event, or via diapirism from underlying magmatic
intrusions or movement of upwardly mobile, mechanically ductile
material such as rock salt (salt dome) and shale (shale diapir). The
Richat Structure of the Sahara is considered a dome that has been
laid bare by erosion.

An anticline which plunges at both ends is termed a doubly

plunging anticline, and may be formed from multiple deformations, or
superposition of two sets of folds, or be related to the geometry of
the underlying detachment fault and the varying amount of
displacement along the surface of that detachment fault. The highest
point on a doubly plunging anticline (or any geologic structure for
that matter) is called the “culmination.”

An elongate dome which developed as the sediments were being

deposited is referred to as a pericline.

An anticlinorium is a series of anticlinal folds on a regional-scale

anticline. Examples include the Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous
Purcell Anticlinorium in British Columbia and the Blue Ridge
anticlinorium of northern Virginia and Maryland in the
Appalachians, or the Nittany Valley in central Pennsylvania.

Economic significance

Doubly plunging or faulted anticlines, culminations, and structural

domes are favored locations for oil and natural gas drilling; the low
density of petroleum causes it
to buoyantly migrate upward to
the highest parts of the fold,
until stopped by a low-
permeability barrier such as an
impermeable stratum or fault
zone. Examples of low-
permeability seals that contain Figure 3. Structural trap: anticlinal fold

the hydrocarbons, oil and gas,

in the ground include shale,
limestone, sandstone, and even salt domes. The actual type of
stratum does not matter as long as it has low permeability.

Periclines are important focal points for pooling of hot, metal-laden

formational brines, which can form manto ore deposits, Irish-type
lead-zinc deposits and uranium deposits, amongst others.

Culminations in folded strata which are cut by shears and faults

are favoured loci for deposition of saddle-reef style lode gold
deposits.

Synclines

In structural geology, a syncline is a fold with younger layers

closer to the center of the structure. A synclinorium
(plural synclinoriums or synclinoria) is a large syncline with
superimposed smaller
folds. Synclines are typically a
downward fold, termed a
synformal syncline (i.e. a
trough); but synclines that point
upwards, or perched, can be
found when strata have been
overturned and folded (an The Sideling Hill syncline as exposed in the
Interstate 68 roadcut to the west of Hancock,
antiformal syncline). Maryland, USA

Characteristics

On a geologic map, synclines are recognized by a sequence of rock

layers that grow progressively younger, followed by the youngest
layer at the fold’s center or hinge, and by a reverse sequence of the
same rock layers on the opposite side of the hinge. If the fold pattern
is circular or elongate circular the structure is a basin. Folds typically
form during crustal deformation as the result of compression that
accompanies orogenic mountain building.

Notable Examples

Powder River Basin, Wyoming, USA.

Sideling Hill roadcut along Interstate 68 in western
Maryland, USA, where the Rockwell Formation and
overlying Purslane Sandstone are exposed.
 Western Lake Superior, which occupies a basin created by
the Midcontinent Rift System

Saou, a commune in the Drôme department in

southeastern France

The Catlins, an area in the southeastern corner of the

South Island of New Zealand

Basins and Domes

A basin is a bowl-like depression in the strata (layers of rock). A

basin is similar to a syncline, but instead of an axis it has a single
point at the center. The strata all dip toward the center point and the
youngest rock is at the center. In map view, the strata form
concentric circles – a bull’s eye pattern – around the center point.

A dome is an bulge in strata. A dome is similar to an anticline, but

instead of an axis it has a single point at the center. The strata all dip
away from the center point and the oldest rock is at the center. In
map view, the strata form concentric circles – a bull’s eye pattern –
around the center point.

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 Reading: Faults

A fault is a planar surface within the earth, along which rocks have
broken and slid. Faults are caused by elastic strain that culminates in
brittle failure. The rocks on either side of a fault have shifted in
opposite directions, called the offset directions. If a fault is not
vertical, there are rocks above the fault and rocks beneath the fault.

The rocks above a fault are called the hanging wall.

The rocks beneath a fault are called the footwall.

Normal and Detachment Faults

In a normal fault, the hanging wall has moved down relative to the
footwall.
 A detachment fault is a particular kind
of normal fault that generally dips at a low angle. It separates rocks
that were deep in the crust and ductile (granite and gneiss) from
rocks of the upper crust (sedimentary or volcanic) that were brittle.
Detachment faults occur along the boundaries of metamorphic core
complexes (see below).

Normal and detachment faults form in sections of the crust that are
undergoing tension, places where the crust is being stretched apart.
A divergent plate boundary is a zone of large normal faults. Normal
faults also occur in other zones of crustal tension, such as in the
Basin and Range landscape region of the western United States.

Reverse and Thrust Faults

In a reverse or thrust fault, the hanging wall has moved up relative to

the footwall. The difference between a reverse fault and a thrust fault
is that a reverse fault has a steeper dip, more than 30°.
Reverse and thrust faults form in sections of the crust that are
undergoing compression. A convergent plate boundary is a zone of
major reverse and thrust faults. In fact, subduction zones are
sometimes referred to as mega-thrust faults. Reverse and thrust
faults also occur in other settings where the crust is being
compressed, such as the Transverse Mountain Ranges, just north of
Los Angeles.

Strike-Slip Faults

Strike-slip faults are steep or vertical faults along which the rocks on
either side have moved horizontally in opposite directions. A
transform plate boundary is a zone of large strike-slip faults. The San
Andreas fault is an example of a major strike-slip fault at a transform
boundary. Strike-slip faults also occur in other settings.

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 Reading: Mountains

How do plate motions create mountains?

Plate tectonic processes create some of the world’s most beautiful

places. The North Cascades Mountains in Washington State are a
continental volcanic arc. The mountains currently host some
glaciers and there are many features left by the more abundant
ice age glaciers. Changes in altitude make the range a habitable
place for many living organisms.
Converging Plates

Converging plates create the world’s largest mountain ranges. Each

combination of plate types—continent-continent, continent-ocean,
and ocean-ocean—creates mountains.

Converging Continental Plates

Two converging continental plates smash upwards to create gigantic

mountain ranges (Figure 1). Stresses from this uplift cause folds,
reverse faults, and thrust faults, which allow the crust to rise
upwards. As was stated previously there is currently no mountain
range of this type in the western U.S., but we can find one where
India is pushing into Eurasia.
 Figure 1. (a) The world’s highest mountain range, the Himalayas, is growing
from the collision between the Indian and the Eurasian plates. (b) The crumpling
of the Indian and Eurasian plates of continental crust creates the Himalayas.

Subducting Oceanic Plates

Subduction of oceanic lithosphere at convergent plate boundaries

also builds mountain ranges. This happens on continental crust, as
in the Andes Mountains (Figure 2), or on oceanic crust, as with the
Aleutian Islands, which we visited earlier. The Cascades Mountains
of the western U.S. are also created this way.

Diverging Plates

Amazingly, even divergence can create mountain ranges. When

tensional stresses pull crust apart, it breaks into blocks that slide up
and drop down along normal
faults. The result is alternating
mountains and valleys, known
as a basin-and-range (Figure
3). In basin-and-range, some
blocks are uplifted to form
ranges, known as horsts, and
some are down-dropped to form Figure 2. The Andes Mountains are a chain of
continental arc volcanoes that build up as the
basins, known as grabens. Nazca Plate subducts beneath the South American
Plate.

Figure 3. (a) Horsts and grabens. (b) Mountains in Nevada are of classic basin-
and-range form.

Watch this quick animation of movement of blocks in a basin-and-range setting.

Summary

Converging or diverging plates cause mountains to grow.

 Subduction of oceanic crust beneath a continental or
oceanic plate creates a volcanic arc.

Tensional forces bring about block faulting, which creates a

basin-and-range topography.

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 Self Check: Geologic Structures

Check Your Understanding

Answer the question(s) below to see how well you understand the
topics covered in the previous section. This short quiz
does not count toward your grade in the class, and you can retake it
an unlimited number of times.

Use this quiz to check your understanding and decide whether to

(1) study the previous section further or (2) move on to the next
section.

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 Putting It Together: Crustal Deformation

Summary

In this section, you learned the following:

1. The magnitude of forces needed to fold and deform the

Earth’s crust
2. The difference between stress and strain and what they can
produce

3. The different types of forces acting on the Earth: tension,

compression, and shearing

4. The different types of folds and forces associated with them

5. The different types of faults and forces associated with
them

6. What the outcomes are of crustal deformation

Synthesis

In this section, we learned that besides providing more spectacular

scenery, faults and folds help us interpret the history of the Earth,
help trap vital resources (such as oil and water), help us determine
the location and cause of earthquakes, and help us in our
understanding of the processes that shaped the Earth. Since we live
on a dynamic and ever changing planet, these forces will continue to
help shape our planet for a very long time.

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MODULE 8: EARTHQUAKES
 Why It Matters: Earthquakes

Interpret types, causes, effects, and scientific

measurements of earthquakes and seismic waves

Introduction

Have you ever wondered why California or Japan has so many

earthquakes? Have you ever been in an earthquake and felt the
solid ground shake beneath your feet?

Imagine you are going about your normal routine for the day and it
is time for you to wrap up your day to head home. As you start
gathering your things to take home and work your way out to your
car, the following happens (note that this video and the next contain
no significant audio):

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 This earthquake measured a 9.0 on the Richter scale and was the
most powerful earthquake to hit Japan and the fourth most powerful
recorded by humans. Aftershocks numbered over 1,000, with some
over a 6.0 on the Richter scale. Almost 16,000 people died, over
6,000 were injured, and 2,500 were missing. The earthquake also
damaged a nuclear facility causing major radioactive leaks. The
World Bank estimated the economic cost of damage at $235 billion!

Once the shaking subsided, the following happened:

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Learning Outcomes

Investigate the causes and common locations of

earthquakes

Compare and contrast properties and mechanics of

different types of waves

Define and compare magnitude versus intensity.

Understand the hazards of earthquakes and recognize our

limited ability to predict seismic activity.

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All rights reserved content

JAPAN - The Earthquake - 15 Minutes Live-Cam. Authored

by: zSpaceTV. Located at: https://youtu.be/jBdvvXyS-r4.
License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard
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Incredible footage of Incoming Tsunami Japan. Authored

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Outcome: Causes and Location of Earthquakes

Investigate the causes and common locations of

earthquakes

In this section, you will learn what causes earthquakes and why. You
will also learn the locations of common earthquakes.

What You’ll Learn to Do

Describe earthquakes and their features

Identify the causes of earthquakes

Identify where earthquakes commonly occur

Learning Activities

Reading: The Nature of Earthquakes

Reading: Causes of Earthquakes

Reading: Common Locations of Earthquakes

Reading: The Ring of Fire

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 Reading: The Nature of Earthquakes

Seismology

Seismology is the study of seismic waves. Seismology is also the

study of earthquakes, mainly through the waves they produce. By
measuring and analyzing seismic waves, seismologists can derive
such information as:

The epicenter of an earthquake

The depth of an earthquake focus

The magnitude (power) of an earthquake

The type of fault movement that produced an earthquake
Whether an earthquake beneath the ocean is likely to have
generated a tsunami (a set of giant ocean waves)

In addition to information about earthquakes and faults,

seismology gives us knowledge of the layers of the earth. Much of
what we know about the crust, lithosphere, asthenosphere, mantle,
and core comes from seismology. See the Earth’s interior Basics
page.

Seismology also gives us information about underground nuclear

testing that takes place anywhere on earth, allows possible oil
reservoirs to be located within the earth’s crust, and helps us predict
when a volcano is about to erupt.

Seismographs and seismometers are the instruments used to

measure seismic waves. The traditional analog seismograph utilizes
a pen (stylus) embedded in a heavy weight, which is suspended on
springs. When the earth moves during an earthquake, a piece of
paper rolling beneath the stylus moves with the earth, but the stylus,
with its weight suspended on springs, remains stationary, drawing
lines on the sheet of paper that show the seismic motions of the
earth. The USGS photo below shows a seismogram from a
seismograph located in Columbia, California that recorded the 1989
Loma Prieta Earthquake.

With modern technology, seismographs with pens and rolling

sheets of paper are being replaced by seismometers with electronic
sensors and computer screens. Seismographs and seismometers
both produce a seismogram, which is a graphic record of the seismic
waves, viewed either on paper or on a computer monitor.

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 Reading: Causes of Earthquakes

The following video explains the cause of earthquakes.

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version of the text. You can view it online here:
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OVERVIEW OF ELASTIC REBOUND THEORY

In an earthquake, the initial point where the rocks rupture in

the crust is called the focus. The epicenter is the point on the
land surface that is directly above the focus. In about 75% of
earthquakes, the focus is in the top 10 to 15 kilometers (6 to 9
miles) of the crust. Shallow earthquakes cause the most
damage because the focus is near where people live.
However, it is the epicenter of an earthquake that is reported
by scientists and the media (figure 1).
 Figure 1. In the vertical cross section of crust, there are two features
labeled—the focus and the epicenter, which is directly above the focus.

Watch this animation summarizing elastic rebound theory.

Tectonic earthquakes occur anywhere in the earth where there is

sufficient stored elastic strain energy to drive fracture propagation
along a fault plane. The sides of a fault move past each other
smoothly and aseismically only if there are no irregularities or
asperities along the fault surface that increase the frictional
resistance. Most fault surfaces do have such asperities and this
leads to a form of stick-slip behavior. Once the fault has locked,
continued relative motion between the plates leads to increasing
stress and therefore, stored strain energy in the volume around the
fault surface. This continues until the stress has
risen sufficiently to break through the asperity,
suddenly allowing sliding over the locked portion
[1]
of the fault, releasing the stored energy.

This energy is released as a combination of

radiated elastic strain seismic waves, frictional
heating of the fault surface, and cracking of the
rock, thus causing an earthquake. This process
of gradual build-up of strain and stress
punctuated by occasional sudden earthquake
failure is referred to as the elastic-rebound
theory. It is estimated that only 10 percent or less
Figure 2. Fault types
of an earthquake’s total energy is radiated as
seismic energy. Most of the earthquake’s energy
is used to power the earthquake fracture growth
or is converted into heat generated by friction. Therefore,
earthquakes lower the Earth’s available elastic potential energy and
raise its temperature, though these changes are negligible compared
to the conductive and convective flow of heat out from the Earth’s
[2]
deep interior.

Earthquake Fault Types

There are three main types of fault, all of which may cause an
interplate earthquake: normal, reverse (thrust) and strike-slip.
Normal and reverse faulting are examples of dip-slip, where the
displacement along the fault is in the direction of dip and movement
on them involves a vertical component. Normal faults occur mainly in
areas where the crust is being extended such as a divergent
boundary. Reverse faults occur in areas where the crust is being
shortened such as at a convergent boundary. Strike-slip faults are
steep structures where the two sides of the fault slip horizontally past
each other; transform boundaries are a particular type of strike-slip
fault. Many earthquakes are caused by movement on faults that
have components of both dip-slip and strike-slip; this is known as
oblique slip.

Reverse faults, particularly those along convergent plate

boundaries are associated with the most powerful earthquakes,
megathrust earthquakes, including almost all of those of magnitude 8
or more. Strike-slip faults, particularly continental transforms, can
produce major earthquakes up to about magnitude 8. Earthquakes
associated with normal faults are generally less than magnitude 7.
For every unit increase in magnitude, there is a roughly thirtyfold
increase in the energy released. For instance, an earthquake of
magnitude 6.0 releases approximately 30 times more energy than a
5.0 magnitude earthquake and a 7.0 magnitude earthquake releases
900 times (30 × 30) more energy than a 5.0 magnitude of
earthquake. An 8.6 magnitude earthquake releases the same
amount of energy as 10,000 atomic bombs like those used in World
War II.
 This is so because the
energy released in an
earthquake, and thus its
magnitude, is proportional to
the area of the fault that
ruptures2.0.CO;2." id="return-footnote-
2018-3" href="#footnote-2018-3">[3]
and
the stress drop. Therefore, the
Figure 3. Aerial photo of the San Andreas Fault in
longer the length and the wider the Carrizo Plain, northwest of Los Angeles
the width of the faulted area,
the larger the resulting
magnitude. The topmost, brittle part of the Earth’s crust, and the cool
slabs of the tectonic plates that are descending down into the hot
mantle, are the only parts of our planet which can store elastic
energy and release it in fault ruptures. Rocks hotter than about 300
degrees Celsius flow in response to stress; they do not rupture in
[4]
earthquakes. The maximum observed lengths of ruptures and
mapped faults (which may break in a single rupture) are
approximately 1000 km. Examples are the earthquakes in Chile,
1960; Alaska, 1957; Sumatra, 2004, all in subduction zones. The
longest earthquake ruptures on strike-slip faults, like the San
Andreas Fault (1857, 1906), the North Anatolian Fault in Turkey
(1939) and the Denali Fault in Alaska (2002), are about half to one
third as long as the lengths along subducting plate margins, and
those along normal faults are even shorter.
 The most important parameter controlling the maximum
earthquake magnitude on a fault is however not the maximum
available length, but the available width because the latter varies by
a factor of 20. Along converging plate margins, the dip angle of the
[5]
rupture plane is very shallow, typically about 10 degrees. Thus the
width of the plane within the top brittle crust of the Earth can become
50 to 100 km (Japan, 2011; Alaska, 1964), making the most powerful
earthquakes possible.

Strike-slip faults tend to be oriented near vertically, resulting in an

[6]
approximate width of 10 km within the brittle crust, thus
earthquakes with magnitudes much larger than 8 are not possible.
Maximum magnitudes along many normal faults are even more
limited because many of them are located along spreading centers,
as in Iceland, where the thickness of the brittle layer is only about 6
[7]
km.

In addition, there exists a hierarchy of stress level in the three fault

types. Thrust faults are generated by the highest, strike slip by
[8]
intermediate, and normal faults by the lowest stress levels. This
can easily be understood by considering the direction of the greatest
principal stress, the direction of the force that “pushes” the rock
mass during the faulting. In the case of normal faults, the rock mass
is pushed down in a vertical direction, thus the pushing force
(greatest principal stress) equals the weight of the rock mass itself.
In the case of thrusting, the rock mass “escapes” in the direction of
the least principal stress, namely upward, lifting the rock mass up,
thus the overburden equals the least principal stress. Strike-slip
faulting is intermediate between the other two types described
above. This difference in stress regime in the three faulting
environments can contribute to differences in stress drop during
faulting, which contributes to differences in the radiated energy,
regardless of fault dimensions.

Earthquakes away from Plate Boundaries

Where plate boundaries occur within the continental lithosphere,

deformation is spread out over a much larger area than the plate
boundary itself. In the case of the San Andreas fault continental
transform, many earthquakes occur away from the plate boundary
and are related to strains developed within the broader zone of
deformation caused by major irregularities in the fault trace (e.g., the
“Big bend” region). The Northridge earthquake was associated with
movement on a blind thrust within such a zone. Another example is
the strongly oblique convergent plate boundary between the Arabian
and Eurasian plates where it runs through the northwestern part of
the Zagros Mountains. The deformation associated with this plate
boundary is partitioned into nearly pure thrust sense movements
perpendicular to the boundary over a wide zone to the southwest
and nearly pure strike-slip motion along the Main Recent Fault close
to the actual plate boundary itself. This is demonstrated by
[9]
earthquake focal mechanisms.
 All tectonic plates have internal stress fields caused by their
interactions with neighboring plates and sedimentary loading or
[10]
unloading (e.g. deglaciation). These stresses may be sufficient to
cause failure along existing fault planes, giving rise to intraplate
[11]
earthquakes.

Shallow-Focus and Deep-Focus Earthquakes

The majority of tectonic

earthquakes originate at the
ring of fire in depths not
exceeding tens of kilometers.
Earthquakes occurring at a
depth of less than 70 km are
classified as shallow-focus
earthquakes, while those with a
focal-depth between 70 and
300 km are commonly termed
mid-focus or intermediate-
depth earthquakes. In
subduction zones, where older
Figure 4. Collapsed Gran Hotel building in the
and colder oceanic crust San Salvador metropolis, after the shallow 1986
San Salvador earthquake.
descends beneath another
tectonic plate, deep-focus
earthquakes may occur at much
[12]
greater depths (ranging from 300 up to 700 kilometers).
 These seismically active areas of subduction are known as
Wadati–Benioff zones. Deep-focus earthquakes occur at a depth
where the subducted lithosphere should no longer be brittle, due to
the high temperature and pressure. A possible mechanism for the
generation of deep-focus earthquakes is faulting caused by olivine
[13]
undergoing a phase transition into a spinel structure.

Earthquakes and Volcanic Activity

Earthquakes often occur in volcanic regions and are caused there,

both by tectonic faults and the movement of magma in volcanoes.
Such earthquakes can serve as an early warning of volcanic
[14]
eruptions, as during the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens.
Earthquake swarms can serve as markers for the location of the
flowing magma throughout the volcanoes. These swarms can be
recorded by seismometers and tiltmeters (a device that measures
ground slope) and used as sensors to predict imminent or upcoming
[15]
eruptions.

Rupture Dynamics

A tectonic earthquake begins by an initial rupture at a point on the

fault surface, a process known as nucleation. The scale of the
nucleation zone is uncertain, with some evidence, such as the
rupture dimensions of the smallest earthquakes, suggesting that it is
smaller than 100 m while other evidence, such as a slow component
revealed by low-frequency spectra of some earthquakes, suggest
that it is larger. The possibility that the nucleation involves some sort
of preparation process is supported by the observation that about
40% of earthquakes are preceded by foreshocks. Once the rupture
has initiated, it begins to propagate along the fault surface. The
mechanics of this process are poorly understood, partly because it is
difficult to recreate the high sliding velocities in a laboratory. Also the
effects of strong ground motion make it very difficult to record
[16]
information close to a nucleation zone.

Rupture propagation is generally modeled using a fracture

mechanics approach, likening the rupture to a propagating mixed
mode shear crack. The rupture velocity is a function of the fracture
energy in the volume around the crack tip, increasing with
decreasing fracture energy. The velocity of rupture propagation is
orders of magnitude faster than the displacement velocity across the
fault. Earthquake ruptures typically propagate at velocities that are in
the range 70–90% of the S-wave velocity, and this is independent of
earthquake size. A small subset of earthquake ruptures appear to
have propagated at speeds greater than the S-wave velocity. These
supershear earthquakes have all been observed during large strike-
slip events. The unusually wide zone of coseismic damage caused
by the 2001 Kunlun earthquake has been attributed to the effects of
the sonic boom developed in such earthquakes. Some earthquake
ruptures travel at unusually low velocities and are referred to as slow
earthquakes. A particularly dangerous form of slow earthquake is the
tsunami earthquake, observed where the relatively low felt
intensities, caused by the slow propagation speed of some great
earthquakes, fail to alert the population of the neighboring coast, as
[17]
in the 1896 Sanriku earthquake.

Earthquake Clusters

Most earthquakes form part of a sequence, related to each other in

[18]
terms of location and time. Most earthquake clusters consist of
small tremors that cause little to no damage, but there is a theory
[19]
that earthquakes can recur in a regular pattern.

Aftershocks

An aftershock is an earthquake that occurs after a previous

earthquake, the mainshock. An aftershock is in the same region of
the main shock but always of a smaller magnitude. If an aftershock is
larger than the main shock, the aftershock is redesignated as the
main shock and the original main shock is redesignated as a
foreshock. Aftershocks are formed as the crust around the displaced
[20]
fault plane adjusts to the effects of the main shock.

Earthquake Swarms

Earthquake swarms are sequences of earthquakes striking in a

specific area within a short period of time. They are different from
earthquakes followed by a series of aftershocks by the fact that no
single earthquake in the sequence is obviously the main shock,
therefore none have notable higher magnitudes than the other. An
example of an earthquake swarm is the 2004 activity at Yellowstone
[21]
National Park. In August 2012, a swarm of earthquakes shook
Southern California’s Imperial Valley, showing the most recorded
[22]
activity in the area since the 1970s.

Sometimes a series of earthquakes occur in what has been called

an earthquake storm, where the earthquakes strike a fault in
clusters, each triggered by the shaking or stress redistribution of the
previous earthquakes. Similar to aftershocks but on adjacent
segments of fault, these storms occur over the course of years, and
with some of the later earthquakes as damaging as the early ones.
Such a pattern was observed in the sequence of about a dozen
earthquakes that struck the North Anatolian Fault in Turkey in the
20th century and has been inferred for older anomalous clusters of
[23]
large earthquakes in the Middle East.

1. Ohnaka, M. (2013). The Physics of Rock Failure and Earthquakes. Cambridge

University Press. p. 148. ↵

2. Spence, William; S. A. Sipkin; G. L. Choy (1989). "Measuring the Size of an

Earthquake." United States Geological Survey. Retrieved 2006-11-03. ↵

3. Wyss, M. (1979). "Estimating expectable maximum magnitude of earthquakes

from fault dimensions". Geology7 (7): 336–340 doi:10.1130/0091-

7613(1979)7<336:EMEMOE>2.0.CO;2. ↵
 4. Sibson R. H. (1982) "Fault Zone Models, Heat Flow, and the Depth Distribution of
Earthquakes in the Continental Crust of the United States," Bulletin of the

Seismological Society of America, Vol 72, No. 1, pp. 151–163. See also Sibson,
R. H. (2002) "Geology of the crustal earthquake source," International handbook

of earthquake and engineering seismology, Volume 1, Part 1, page 455, eds.

W.H.K. Lee, H. Kanamori, P.C. Jennings, and C. Kisslinger, Academic Press. ↵

5. "Global Centroid Moment Tensor Catalog." Globalcmt.org. Retrieved 2011-07-24.

↵

6. "Instrumental California Earthquake Catalog." WGCEP. Retrieved 2011-07-24. ↵

7. Hjaltadóttir S., 2010, "Use of relatively located microearthquakes to map fault

patterns and estimate the thickness of the brittle crust in Southwest Iceland." See
also "Reports and publications | Seismicity | Icelandic Meteorological office."

En.vedur.is. Retrieved 2011-07-24. ↵

8. Schorlemmer, D.; Wiemer, S.; Wyss, M. (2005). "Variations in earthquake-size

distribution across different stress regimes." Nature 437 (7058): 539–

542. doi:10.1038/nature04094. ↵

9. Talebian, M; Jackson, J (2004). "A reappraisal of earthquake focal mechanisms

and active shortening in the Zagros mountains of Iran." Geophysical Journal

International156 (3): 506–526. doi:10.1111/j.1365-246X.2004.02092.x. ↵

10. Nettles, M.; Ekström, G. (May 2010). "Glacial Earthquakes in Greenland and
Antarctica." Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences38 (1): 467–
491. doi:10.1146/annurev-earth-040809-152414. ↵

11. Noson, Qamar, and Thorsen (1988). Washington State Earthquake Hazards:
Washington State Department of Natural Resources. Washington Division of
Geology and Earth Resources Information Circular 85. ↵
12. "M7.5 Northern Peru Earthquake of 26 September 2005" (PDF). National
Earthquake Information Center. 17 October 2005. Retrieved2008-08-01. ↵

13. Greene II, H. W.; Burnley, P. C. (October 26, 1989). "A new self-organizing

mechanism for deep-focus earthquakes." Nature341(6244): 733–737.

doi: 10.1038/341733a0. ↵

14. Foxworthy and Hill (1982). Volcanic Eruptions of 1980 at Mount St. Helens, The
First 100 Days: USGS Professional Paper 1249. ↵

15. Watson, John; Watson, Kathie (January 7, 1998). "Volcanoes and

Earthquakes." United States Geological Survey. Retrieved May 9,2009. ↵

16. National Research Council (U.S.). Committee on the Science of Earthquakes

(2003). "5. Earthquake Physics and Fault-System Science." Living on an Active

Earth: Perspectives on Earthquake Science. Washington D.C.: National
Academies Press. p. 418. Retrieved 8 July 2010. ↵

17. Ibid. ↵

18. "What are Aftershocks, Foreshocks, and Earthquake Clusters?" ↵

19. "Repeating Earthquakes." United States Geological Survey. January 29, 2009.

Retrieved May 11, 2009. ↵

20. "What are Aftershocks, Foreshocks, and Earthquake Clusters?" ↵

21. "Earthquake Swarms at Yellowstone." United States Geological Survey.

Retrieved 2008-09-15. ↵

22. Duke, Alan. "Quake 'swarm' shakes Southern California." CNN. Retrieved
27 August 2012. ↵

23. Amos Nur; Cline, Eric H. (2000). "Poseidon's Horses: Plate Tectonics and

Earthquake Storms in the Late Bronze Age Aegean and Eastern Mediterranean"
(PDF). Journal of Archaeological Science27 (1): 43–63. See also "Earthquake
Storms." Horizon. 1 April 2003. Retrieved 2007-05-02. ↵
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 Reading: Common Locations of Earthquakes

Earthquakes and Plate Boundaries

Most, but not all, earthquakes occur at or near plate boundaries. A

great deal of stress is concentrated and a great deal of strain, much
of it in the form of rupture of the earth, takes place at locations where
two plates diverge, transform, or converge relative to each other.

Tension is the dominant stress at divergent plate boundaries.

Normal faults and rift valleys as the predominant earthquake-related
structures at divergent plate boundaries. Earthquakes at divergent
plate boundaries are usually relatively shallow, and, though they can
be damaging, the most powerful earthquakes at divergent plate
boundaries are not nearly as powerful as the most powerful
earthquakes at convergent plate boundaries.

Transform plate boundaries are zones dominated by horizontal

shear, with strike-slip faults the most characteristic fault type. Most
transform plate boundaries cut through relatively thin oceanic crust,
part of the structure of the ocean floor, and produce relatively
shallow earthquakes that are only rarely of major magnitude.
However, where transform plate boundaries and their strike-slip
faults cut through the thicker crust of islands or the even thicker crust
of continents, more stress may need to build up before the thicker
masses of rock will rupture, and so the magnitudes of earthquakes
can be higher than in transform plate boundary zones confined to
thin oceanic crust. This is evident in such places as the San Andreas
fault zone of California, where a transform fault cuts through
continental crust and earthquakes there sometimes exceed 7.0 in
magnitude.

Convergent plate boundaries are dominated by compression. The

major faults found in convergent plate boundaries are usually
reverse or thrust faults, including a master thrust fault at the
boundary between the two plates and typically several more major
thrust faults running roughly parallel to the plate boundary. The most
powerful earthquakes that have been measured are subduction
earthquakes, up to greater than 9.0 in magnitude. All subduction
zones in the world are at risk of subduction earthquakes with
magnitudes up to or even greater than 9.0 in extreme cases, and are
likely to produce tsunamis. This includes the Cascadia subduction
zone of northern California and coastal Oregon and Washington, the
Aleutian subduction zone of southern Alaska, the Kamchatka
subduction zone of Pacific Russia, the Acapulco subduction zone of
southern Pacific Mexico, the Central American subduction zone, the
Andean subduction zone, the West Indian or Caribbean subduction
zone, and subduction zones of Indonesia, Japan, the Phillipines, and
several more subduction zones in the western and southwestern
Pacific Ocean.

Intraplate Earthquakes

Some earthquakes take place far away from plate boundaries.

Earthquakes can occur wherever there is sufficient stress in the
earth’s crust to drive rocks to rupture.

For example, Hawaii is thousands of km (thousands of miles) from

any plate boundary, but the volcanoes that compose the islands
have built up so rapidly that they are still undergoing gravitational
stabilization. Sectors of the Hawaiian islands occasionally slump
along normal faults, producing intraplate earthquakes. Most of the
earthquakes occur on the big island of Hawaii, which is composed of
the youngest, most recently built volcanoes. The geologic record
shows that parts of the older islands have undergone major
collapses in the last few million years, with sections of the islands
sliding out to the seafloor in landslides floored on shallow normal
faults.

Another example is the Basin and Range region of the western

United States, including Nevada and eastern Utah, where the crust
is subjected to tension. Earthquakes occur there on normal faults, far
inland from the plate boundaries on the West Coast. The tension in
the crust of the Basin and Range province may be partly due to a
mid-ocean ridge system that subducted beneath California and is
now located beneath the Basin and Range, causing tension in the
lithosphere.

The region around Yellowstone National Park also undergoes

occasional major earthquakes on normal faults. Earthquakes in that
area may be due to the Yellowstone hot spot causing differential
thermal expansion of the lithosphere in a broad zone round the hot
spot center.

Several East Coast cities, including Boston, New York, and

Charleston in South Carolina, have experienced damaging
earthquakes in the last two centuries. The faults beneath these cities
may date back to the rifting of Pangea and the opening up of the
Atlantic Ocean beginning around 200 million years ago.

In the area of the town of New Madrid, along the Mississippi River
in southeastern Missouri and western Tennessee, great earthquakes
occurred in 1811-1812. Minor to moderate earthquakes continue to
occur there, keeping active the possibility of damaging earthquakes
occurring there again in the future. The fault system beneath that
area may date from times of continental collision and continental
rifting in the distant geologic past, and recent stress in the crust
around New Madrid may be from the massive build-up of sediment in
the Mississippi River delta region, which spreads out to the south of
that area.
Earthquakes and Volcanoes

The connections between earthquakes and volcanoes are not

always obvious. However, when magma is moving up beneath a
volcano, and when a volcano is erupting, it produces earthquakes.
Volcanic earthquakes are distinct from the more common type of
earthquakes that occur by elastic rebound along faults.

Seismologists can use the patterns and signals of earthquakes

coming from beneath volcanoes to predict that the volcano is about
to erupt, and can use seismic waves to see that a volcano is
undergoing an eruption even if the volcano is at a remote location,
hidden in darkness, or hidden in storm clouds.

Volcanic vents, and volcanoes in general, are commonly located

along faults, or at the intersection of several faults. Major faults that
already exist in the crust may be natural paths to channel rising
magma. However, on major volcanic edifices, shallower faults are a
product of the development of the volcano. There are feedback
effects between the upward pressure of magma buoyancy in the
crust, the growth of faults in volcanic zones, and the venting of
volcanoes, which is not yet completely understood.

As was noted at the beginning of this section, not quite all

earthquakes are due to the slippage of solid blocks of rock along
faults. When a volcano undergoes a powerful pyroclastic eruption –
in other words, when a volcano explodes – it causes the earth to
shake. Earthquakes caused by an explosive volcanic eruptions
produce a different seismic signal than earthquakes caused by
slippage along faults.

Another example of earthquakes that are caused at least in part by

magma movement, rather than by slippage of entirely solid rock
along faults, is earthquakes set off by the movement of magma
upward beneath a volcano, or up to higher levels in the crust
whether or not there is a volcano on top. Such upward movement of
magma within the crust is sometimes called magma injection.
Seismologists are still researching the interactions between
movement of magma in the crust, and related slippage along faults
that may be caused by the pressure and movement of the magma.

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Cheryl D. Dawes. Provided by: Wenatchee Valley College.
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 Reading: The Ring of Fire

The Ring of Fire is an area where a large number of earthquakes

and volcanic eruptions occur in the basin of the Pacific Ocean. In a
40,000 km (25,000 mi) horseshoe shape, it is associated with a
nearly continuous series of oceanic trenches, volcanic arcs, and
volcanic belts and/or plate movements. It has 452 volcanoes and is
home to over 75% of the world’s active and dormant volcanoes. It is
sometimes called the circum-Pacific belt.
 Figure 1. The Pacific Ring of Fire

About 90% of the world’s earthquakes and 81% of the world’s

largest earthquakes occur along the Ring of Fire. The next most
seismically active region (5–6% of earthquakes and 17% of the
world’s largest earthquakes) is the Alpide belt, which extends from
Java to Sumatra through the Himalayas, theMediterranean, and out
into the Atlantic. The Mid-Atlantic Ridge is the third most prominent
earthquake belt.
 The Ring of Fire is a direct result of plate tectonics and the
movement and collisions of lithospheric plates. The eastern section
of the ring is the result of the Nazca Plate and the Cocos Plate being
subducted beneath the westward moving South American Plate. The
Cocos Plate is being subducted beneath theCaribbean Plate, in
Central America. A portion of the Pacific Plate along with the small
Juan de Fuca Plate are being subducted beneath the North
American Plate. Along the northern portion, the northwestward-
moving Pacific plate is being subducted beneath the Aleutian Islands
arc. Farther west, the Pacific plate is being subducted along the
Kamchatka Peninsula arcs on south past Japan. The southern
portion is more complex, with a number of smaller tectonic plates in
collision with the Pacific plate from the Mariana Islands, the
Philippines,Bougainville, Tonga, and New Zealand; this portion
excludes Australia, since it lies in the center of its tectonic plate.
Indonesia lies between the Ring of Fire along the northeastern
islands adjacent to and including New Guinea and the Alpide
belt along the south and west from Sumatra, Java, Bali, Flores, and
Timor. The famous and very active San Andreas Fault zone of
California is a transform faultwhich offsets a portion of the East
Pacific Rise under southwestern United Statesand Mexico. The
motion of the fault generates numerous small earthquakes, at
multiple times a day, most of which are too small to be felt. The
active Queen Charlotte Fault on the west coast of the Haida Gwaii,
British Columbia, Canada, has generated three large earthquakes
during the 20th century: a magnitude 7 event in 1929; a magnitude
8.1 in 1949 (Canada’s largest recorded earthquake); and a
magnitude 7.4 in 1970.

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 Self Check: Causes and Location of
Earthquakes

Check Your Understanding

Answer the question(s) below to see how well you understand the
topics covered in the previous section. This short quiz
does not count toward your grade in the class, and you can retake it
an unlimited number of times.

Use this quiz to check your understanding and decide whether to

(1) study the previous section further or (2) move on to the next
section.

An interactive or media element has been excluded from this

version of the text. You can view it online here:
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/geo/?p=2743

CC licensed content, Original

Authored by: Kimberly Schulte and Lumen Learning.

Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution
 Outcome: Types of Waves

Compare and contrast properties and mechanics of

different types of waves

When an earthquake occurs, some of the energy it releases is

turned into heat within the earth. Some of the energy is expended in
breaking and permanently deforming the rocks and minerals along
the fault. The rest of the energy, which is most of the energy, is
radiated from the focus of the earthquake in the form of seismic
waves.

Seismic waves fall into two general categories: body waves (P-
waves and S-waves), which travel through the interior of the earth,
and surface waves, which travel only at the earth’s surface.

What You’ll Learn to Do

Identify P-wave characteristics and behavior

Identify S-wave characteristics and behavior

Identify surface wave characteristics and behavior

Learning Activities
The learning activities for this section include the following:

Reading: Body Waves

Reading: Surface Waves

Self Check: Types of Waves

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Authored by: Kimberly Schulte and Lumen Learning.

Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution

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Seismic waves. Authored by: Ralph L. Dawes and Cheryl

D. Dawes. Provided by: Wenatchee Valley College.
Located at:
http://commons.wvc.edu/rdawes/G101OCL/Basics/earthqua
kes.html#waves. Project: Geology 101 - Introduction to
Physical Geology. License: CC BY: Attribution
 Reading: Body Waves

Body waves travel through the interior of the earth. There are two
types of body waves: P-waves and S-waves.

P-Waves

The P in P-waves stands for primary, because these are the fastest
seismic waves and are the first to be detected once an earthquake
has occurred. P-waves travel through the earth’s interior many times
faster than the speed of a jet airplane, taking only a few minutes to
travel across the earth.

P-waves are predominantly compressional waves. As a P-wave

passes, material compresses in the same direction the wave is
moving, and then extends back to its original thickness once the
wave has passed. The speed at which P-waves travel through
material is determined by:

rigidity—how strongly the material resists being bent

sideways and is able to straighten itself out once the
shearing force has passed – the more rigid the material, the
faster the P-waves
 compressibility—how much the material can be
compressed into a smaller volume and then recover its
previous volume once the compressing force has passed;
the more compressible the material, the faster the P-waves

density—how much mass the material contains in a unit of

volume; the greater the density of the material, the slower
the P-waves

The animations below show P-waves propagating across a plane

(left) and from a point source (right).
 P-waves travel through liquids and gases as well as through
solids. Although liquids and gases have zero rigidity, they have
compressibility, which enables them to transmit P-waves. Sound
waves are P-waves moving through the air.

Because the earth’s mantle becomes more rigid and compressible

as the depth below the asthenosphere increases, P-waves travel
faster as they go deeper in the mantle. The density of the mantle
also increases with depth below the asthenosphere. The higher
density reduces the speed of seismic waves. However, the effects of
increased rigidity and compressibility in the deep mantle are much
greater than the effect of the increased density.

P-waves travel
through materials
with rigidity and/or
compressiblity, and
density
faster
greater rigidity P-
waves
faster
greater
P-
compressibility
waves
slower
greater
P-
density
waves

S-Waves

The S in S-waves stands for secondary, because they are the

second-fastest seismic waves and the second type to be detected
once an earthquake has occurred. Although S-waves are slower
than P-waves, they still travel fast, over half the speed of P-waves,
moving at thousands of kilometers per hour through the earth’s crust
and mantle.

S-waves are shear waves (though that is not what the S stands
for). They move by material flexing or deforming sideways (shearing)
from the direction of wave travel, and then returning to the original
shape once the wave passes. The speed at which S-waves travel
through material is determined only by:

rigidity — how strongly the material resists being bent

sideways and is able to straighten itself out once the
shearing force has passed – the more rigid the material, the
faster the S-waves
density — how much mass the material contains in a unit of
volume – the greater the density of the material, the slower
the S-waves

The animations below show S-waves propogating across a plane

(left) and from a point source (right):
 S-waves can travel only through solids, because only solids have
rigidity. S-waves cannot travel through liquids or gases.

Because the earth’s mantle becomes more rigid as its depth below
the asthenosphere increases, S-waves travel faster as they go
deeper in the mantle. The density of the mantle also increases at
greater depth, which has the effect of reducing the speed of seismic
waves, but the increase in rigidity is much greater than the increase
in density, so S-waves speed up as they get deeper in the mantle, in
spite of the increased density.
S-waves travel
through materials
with rigidity and
density
greater faster S-
rigidity waves
greater slower S-
density waves

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Onde compression impulsion 1d (p-wave). Authored by:

Christophe Dang Ngoc Chan. Located at:
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Ondes compression 2d 20 (p-wave). Authored by:
Christophe Dang Ngoc Chan. Located at:
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0_petit.gif. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
Onde cisaillement impulsion 1d 30 (s-wave). Authored by:
Christophe Dang Ngoc Chan. Located at:
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Ondes cisaillement 2d 20 (s-wave). Authored by:
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_petit.gif. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
 Reading: Surface Waves

There are two types of surface waves, Rayleigh waves and Love
waves. Rayleigh waves are named after Lord Rayleigh (John Strutt),
an English aristocrat who, in his work as a scientist and
mathematician, developed a detailed mathematical accounting of the
type of surface wave named after him. Rayleigh waves are set off by
the combined effect of P- and S-waves on the earth’s surface.
Rayleigh waves are sometimes called rolling waves. In Rayleigh
waves the surface of the earth rises up and sinks down in crests and
troughs, similar to waves on the surface of water. People who are
outdoors during a major earthquake commonly see Rayleigh waves
moving across the surface of the earth, and can feel the ground
rising and falling as the waves pass beneath them.

Love waves, sometimes called L-waves, are named after

Augustus Love, an English mathematician and physicist who first
modeled them mathematically. Love waves involve the surface
shearing sideways and then returning to its original form as each
wave passes.

All surface waves travel slower than body waves and Rayleigh
waves are slower than Love waves.
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 Self Check: Types of Waves

Check Your Understanding

Answer the question(s) below to see how well you understand the
topics covered in the previous section. This short quiz
does not count toward your grade in the class, and you can retake it
an unlimited number of times.

Use this quiz to check your understanding and decide whether to

(1) study the previous section further or (2) move on to the next
section.

An interactive or media element has been excluded from this

version of the text. You can view it online here:
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/geo/?p=2744

CC licensed content, Original

Authored by: Kimberly Schulte and Lumen Learning.

Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution
 Outcome: Magnitude and Intensity

Define and compare magnitude versus intensity

This section introduces you to the magnitude and intensity of

earthquakes. You will learn how the two are similar and how they are
different.

What You’ll Learn to Do

Define earthquake magnitude.

Define earthquake intensity.

Learning Activities

The learning activities for this section include the following:

Reading: Measuring Earthquakes

Reading: Magnitude versus Intensity

Self Check: Magnitude and Intensity

CC licensed content, Original

Authored by: Kimberly Schulte and Lumen Learning.
Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution
 Reading: Measuring Earthquakes

People have always tried to quantify the size of and damage done by
earthquakes. Since early in the 20th century, there have been three
methods. What are the strengths and weaknesses of each?

Mercalli Intensity Scale. Earthquakes are described in

terms of what nearby residents felt and the damage that
was done to nearby structures.
Richter magnitude scale. Developed in 1935 by Charles
Richter, this scale uses a seismometer to measure the
magnitude of the largest jolt of energy released by an
earthquake.
Moment magnitude scale. Measures the total energy
released by an earthquake. Moment magnitude is
calculated from the area of the fault that is ruptured and the
distance the ground moved along the fault.

The Richter scale and the moment magnitude scale are

logarithmic.

The amplitude of the largest wave increases ten times from

one integer to the next.
 An increase in one integer means that thirty times more
energy was released.

These two scales often give very similar measurements.

How does the amplitude of the largest seismic wave of a

magnitude 5 earthquake compare with the largest wave of a
magnitude 4 earthquake? How does it compare with a magnitude 3
quake? The amplitude of the largest seismic wave of a magnitude 5
quake is 10 times that of a magnitude 4 quake and 100 times that of
a magnitude 3 quake.

How does an increase in two integers on the moment magnitude

scale compare in terms of the amount of energy released? Two
integers equals a 900-fold increase in released energy.

Which scale do you think is best? With the Richter scale, a single
sharp jolt measures higher than a very long intense earthquake that
releases more energy. The moment magnitude scale more
accurately reflects the energy released and the damage caused.
Most seismologists now use the moment magnitude scale.

The way scientists measure earthquake intensity and the two most
common scales, Richter and moment magnitude, are described
along with a discussion of the 1906 San Francisco earthquake in
Measuring Earthquakes video:
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 Reading: Magnitude versus Intensity

Magnitude and Intensity measure different characteristics of

earthquakes. Magnitude measures the energy released at the
source of the earthquake. Magnitude is determined from
measurements on seismographs. Intensity measures the strength of
shaking produced by the earthquake at a certain location. Intensity is
determined from effects on people, human structures, and the
natural environment.

Calculating Earthquake Magnitude

The magnitude of an earthquake is a number that allows

earthquakes to be compared with each other in terms of their relative
power. For several decades, earthquake magnitudes were calculated
based on a method first developed by Charles Richter, a
seismologist based in California. Richter used seismograms of
earthquakes that occurred in the San Andreas fault zone to calibrate
his magnitude scale.

Two measurements are factored together to determine the Richter

magnitude of an earthquake: the amplitude of the largest waves
recorded on a seismogram of the earthquake, and the distance to
the epicenter of the earthquake. The maximum amplitude seismic
wave – the height of the tallest one – is measured in mm on a
seismogram. The distance to the epicenter must also be taken into
account because the greater the distance from the earthquake, the
smaller the waves get. The effect of distance is factored out of the
calculation. There is no upper limit defined for the Richter scale, but
after a century of seismograph measurements, it appears that rocks
in the earth release their stress before building up enough energy to
reach magnitude 10.

The Richter scale was found to not transfer very well from the San
Andreas fault zone, a transform plate boundary, to the much more
powerful earthquakes that occur at convergent plate boundaries,
particularly subduction zone earthquakes. Therefore, the Richter
scale has been replaced by the moment magnitude scale,
symbolized as Mw.

The moment magnitude scale is broadly similar to the Richter

scale, but it takes more factors into account, including the total area
of the fault that moves during the earthquake, and how much it
moves. This produces a magnitude number that is a better indicator
of the total amount of energy released by the earthquake. Because
the moment magnitude scale has replaced the Richter scale, we will
assume from here on that we are referring to moment magnitude,
not Richter magnitude, when we speak of earthquake magnitude.
 The magnitude scale portrays energy logarithmically to
approximately base 32. For example, a magnitude 6.0 earthquake
releases about 32 times as much energy as a magnitude 5.0
earthquake. A magnitude 7.0 releases about 32 × 32 = 1024 times
as much energy as a magnitude 5.0 earthquake. A magnitude 9.0
earthquake, which rarely occurs, releases over a million times as
much energy as a magnitude 5.0 earthquake.

Ranking Earthquake Intensity

Earthquake intensity is very different from earthquake magnitude.

Earthquake intensity is a ranking based on the observed effects of
an earthquake in each particular place. Therefore, each earthquake
produces a range of intensity values, ranging from highest in the
epicenter area to zero at a distance from the epicenter. The most
commonly used earthquake intensity scale is the Modified Mercalli
earthquake intensity scale. Refer to the Modified Mercalli Intensity
Scale page on the US Geological Survey Earthquake Hazards
Program website for an abbreviated version.

The table below shows approximately how many earthquakes

occur each year in each magnitude range and what the intensity
might be at the epicenter for each magnitude range.
 Average Modified
Magnitude number Mercalli Description
per year Intensity
>1
0 – 1.9 — micro – not felt
million
>1
2.0 – 2.9 I minor – rarely felt
million
about minor – noticed by a few
3.0 – 3.9 II – III
100,000 people
about light – felt by many people,
4.0 – 4.9 IV – V
10,000 minor damage possible
moderate – felt by most
about
5.0 – 5.9 VI – VII people, possible broken
1,000
plaster and chimneys
strong – damage variable
about
6.0 – 6.9 VII – IX depending on building
130
construction and substrate
major – extensive damage,
7.0 – 7.9 about 15 IX – X
some buildings destroyed
great – extensive damage over
8.0 – 8.9 about 1 X – XII broad areas, many buildings
destroyed
great – extensive damage over
9.0 and
<1 XI – XII broad areas, most buildings
above
destroyed

Magnitude / Intensity Comparison

The following table gives intensities that are typically observed at

locations near the epicenter of earthquakes of different magnitudes.
 Typical Maximum
Magnitude
Modified Mercalli Intensity
1.0 – 3.0 I

3.0 – 3.9 II – III

4.0 – 4.9 IV – V
5.0 – 5.9 VI – VII
6.0 – 6.9 VII – IX
7.0 and higher VIII or higher

Abbreviated Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale

I. Not felt except by a very few under especially favorable

conditions.
II. Felt only by a few persons at rest, especially on upper
floors of buildings.

III. Felt quite noticeably by persons indoors, especially on

upper floors of buildings. Many people do not recognize it
as an earthquake. Standing motor cars may rock slightly.
Vibrations similar to the passing of a truck. Duration
estimated.
IV. Felt indoors by many, outdoors by few during the day. At
night, some awakened. Dishes, windows, doors disturbed;
walls make cracking sound. Sensation like heavy truck
striking building. Standing motor cars rocked noticeably.
V. Felt by nearly everyone; many awakened. Some dishes,
windows broken. Unstable objects overturned. Pendulum
clocks may stop.
 VI. Felt by all, many frightened. Some heavy furniture moved; a
few instances of fallen plaster. Damage slight.

VII. Damage negligible in buildings of good design and

construction; slight to moderate in well-built ordinary
structures; considerable damage in poorly built or badly
designed structures; some chimneys broken.
VIII. Damage slight in specially designed structures;
considerable damage in ordinary substantial buildings with
partial collapse. Damage great in poorly built structures.
Fall of chimneys, factory stacks, columns, monuments,
walls. Heavy furniture overturned.
IX. Damage considerable in specially designed structures; well-
designed frame structures thrown out of plumb. Damage
great in substantial buildings, with partial collapse. Buildings
shifted off foundations.

X. Some well-built wooden structures destroyed; most

masonry and frame structures destroyed with foundations.
Rails bent.
XI. Few, if any (masonry) structures remain standing. Bridges
destroyed. Rails bent greatly.

XII. Damage total. Lines of sight and level are distorted. Objects
thrown into the air.

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 Located at:
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Public domain content

Magnitude / Intensity Comparison. Provided by: USGS.

Located at:
http://earthquake.usgs.gov/learn/topics/mag_vs_int.php.
License: Public Domain: No Known Copyright
 Self Check: Magnitude and Intensity

Check Your Understanding

Answer the question(s) below to see how well you understand the
topics covered in the previous section. This short quiz
does not count toward your grade in the class, and you can retake it
an unlimited number of times.

Use this quiz to check your understanding and decide whether to

(1) study the previous section further or (2) move on to the next
section.

An interactive or media element has been excluded from this

version of the text. You can view it online here:
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/geo/?p=2745

CC licensed content, Original

Authored by: Kimberly Schulte and Lumen Learning.

Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution
 Outcome: Earthquake Hazards and Prediction

Investigate the causes, common locations and hazards

of earthquakes

You will examine some of the hazards associated with earthquakes.

What You’ll Learn to Do

Identify common hazards associated with earthquakes.

Recognize our limited ability to predict earthquakes.

Learning Activities

The learning activities for this section include the following:

Reading: Earthquake Hazards

Reading: Earthquake Prediction

Reading: Seismicity and Earthquake Prediction

Self Check: Earthquake Hazards and Prediction

CC licensed content, Original

Authored by: Kimberly Schulte and Lumen Learning.
Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution
 Reading: Earthquake Hazards

Earthquakes can be hazardous to humans and property in a variety

of ways. Earthquake hazards arise from a combination of factors
such as the size of the earthquake, distance to the epicenter, the
underlying material and geologic structures, and building
construction.

Potential Hazards

Ground Shaking

Ground shaking is caused by seismic waves During a significant

earthquake, a particular location, and any building at that location,
will be shaken by body waves (P- and S-) and surface waves
(Rayleigh and Love. Each type of wave will have a different
frequency (different number of waves passing by each second), and
can shear or move a building in a different way, sometimes
simultaneously. Adjacent neighborhoods or towns may experience
very different intensities from the same earthquake, based on how
far they are from the epicenter and what sort of rocks or sediments
are in the ground beneath each area. Places underlain by thick
deposits of unconsolidated sediments will experience a higher
amplitude of shaking, at the same distance from the same
earthquake, than places underlain by solid bedrock all the way to the
surface. If unconsolidated sediments are fine-grained and wet, they
may undergo liquefaction, increasing the damage to buildings and
infrastructure and therefore increasing the intensity of the
earthquake there. If unconsolidated sediments are overlain by a
layer of artificial fill, the area is likely to experience more intense
shaking and undergo more ground settling, and liquefaction if wet,
than places that have not had a layer of artificial fill added.

Mexico City, one of the most populated cities in the world, is in a

basin in the mountains of Mexico. Much of the city is built on artificial
fill on top of fine-grained sediments from an extensive lake and
wetlands that were drained and filled in as the city grew. As a result
of how seismic waves are amplified in soft sediments, the shaking of
the ground in Mexico City during an earthquake is greater than it is in
areas outside the basin, which have bedrock close to the surface.
During the 1985 earthquake, which originated offshore of Acapulco
on the Pacific coast, 300 km (200 miles) away, many buildings in
Mexico City collapsed and more than 20,000 people died.

The Marina District in northern San Francisco is built on artificial fill

on wet bayshore sediments. Rubble and debris from buildings that
collapsed or burned in that district as a result of the 1906 earthquake
was used as artificial fill beneath structures built during the
reconstruction of that area. In 1989, the Loma Prieta earthquake
caused collapse of several buildings in the Marina District, and
several people died there. Another example of a structure on wet
ground covered by artificial fill that collapsed during the Loma Prieta
earthquake is the Cypress viaduct in Oakland, CA. The USGS photo
below shows the failed support columns.

Permanent Ground Displacement

During large earthquakes, the ground may permanently shift to a

new position up, down, or sideways (up to 10 or more m, 30 or 40 ft,
in extreme cases). This change in the location of the ground, which
also tilts the ground, may cause disruption of roads and utilities and,
in coastal cities, submergence or emergence of harbor facilities.
Even ground shifts of less than a meter (a foot or two) can cause
serious disruption to infrastructure.

Earth Rupture

During most earthquakes, some rupturing of the earth’s surface

takes place along the fault trace. This produces a fault scarp, which
may have up to several m (up to 10 ft or more) of vertical
displacement. This can disrupt roads and utilities, and any buildings
on a fault that ruptures may undergo extensive damage.

Rupture of the earth during an earthquake may also occur on

secondary faults. Earthquake-induced rupture of the earth’s surface
may also take place in weak zones of surface sediment that fracture
and spread. If enough spreading of a ruptured surface layer takes
place, it can be classified as a landslide. The NOAA photo below
shows substantial damage in the Turnagain-By-The-Sea subdivision
caused by the 1964 Great Alaskan Earthquake.

Landslides and Avalanches

On steep slopes and in mountainous areas, large earthquakes can

set off many landslides, rockfalls, or avalanches. These can damage
buildings, towns, or roads in the path of the landslides.

Liquefaction

If fine- or medium-grained, unconsolidated sediments are saturated

with groundwater, the shaking that occurs during an earthquake may
cause the sediment grains to lose contact with each other and
become suspended in the water, temporarily turning what was solid
ground into liquid ground. Building and other structures may sink, tilt,
or slide a short distant in liquefied ground, causing serious damage.

Fires

Fires are a secondary rather than a primary effect of earthquakes.

Broken electrical wires and natural gas pipes commonly set off fires
during earthquakes. To compound the problem, the water supply
may also be disrupted by earthquake damage, making it impossible
to put the fire out with water from fire hydrants. The fire that broke
out as a result of the great San Francisco earthquake of 1906
burned much of the city to the ground, causing more extensive
damage to buildings than the shaking of the ground did during the
earthquake.

Tsunamis

A tsunami is a set of waves in the ocean (or a large lake) with an

extremely long wavelength, typically over 100 km long. Tsunamis
move at many 100s of km per hour in deep water. Tsunamis can be
set off by violent volcanic eruptions originating just below sea level,
by giant landslides that either occur underwater or tumble into the
sea from coastal mountains, by large meteorite impacts, and, most
commonly, by earthquakes that greatly shake the ocean floor, which
commonly happens at subduction zones.

The amplitude, or crest height, of an individual tsunami wave may

be only about 1 m (roughly 3 feet high) in the open ocean. It is
common for a tsunami to pass ships at sea without being noticed.
However, as the wave approaches shore where the bottom grows
shallower, the crest builds up to a height of up to several tens of
meters (over 30 feet in some cases). The wave crest may wash
ashore for several minutes before subsiding. Even a tsunami wave
of no higher than 3 m (10 feet) coming ashore can cause extensive
damage in harbors and to shores, as the long-wavelength wave
keeps pouring in for several minutes.
 Tsunamis consist of more than one wave, so a second wave crest
may climb ashore several minutes later. Some tsunamis lead with
the wave trough, so the first thing noticed as that type of tsunami
approaches a shore is a dramatic drawback, or retreat, of the sea,
like the tide suddenly going out. Such a drawback will inevitably be
followed by a rising tsunami wave crest.

The tsunamis from the Sumatra earthquake of 2004 killed over

100,000 people in coastal areas of the Indian Ocean, some on
shores several thousand km (several thousand miles) away from the
epicenter of the earthquake. The great southeast Alaska earthquake
of 1964 generated a tsunami that killed 16 people on the coast of
Oregon and northern California, over 1,000 km (600 miles) away.
Tsunamis have been known to cross the entire Pacific Ocean and
cause fatalities a third of the way around the world. Hawaii, in the
middle of the Pacific Ocean, has been damaged by tsunamis,
originating from subduction earthquakes on the Pacific Rim, several
times in the last few centuries. Japan, with its complex set of
subduction zones and its eastern shoreline open to the Pacific
Ocean, has experienced over 100 tsunamis in its recorded history,
most recently as a result of a great subduction earthquake off the
northern island in 2011 which resulted in several coastal towns being
destroyed and thousands of people dying. The last great tsunami
generated by the Cascadia subduction zone along the coast of the
Pacific Northwest flooded coastal areas of Washington, Oregon
northern California, and Vancouver Island in Canada. It occurred in
1701, long before the region was as populated as it is now.
Subduction continues in the Cascadia subduction zone and more
tsunamis can be expected to be generated by earthquakes there in
the future.

Mitigating Earthquake Damage

Much can be done to reduce the risk of fatalities during earthquakes,

and to reduce the damage to buildings and infrastructure; in other
words, to mitigate the effects of earthquakes.

In many cases, it is collapsed buildings that cause the most harm

during an earthquake. Buildings should be constructed in ways that
make them unlikely to collapse during an earthquake. The strategies
that engineers have developed include having sufficient flexibility in
the structure to absorb shaking during an earthquake. Bricks, mortar,
and concrete are rigid and brittle. However, bricks and mortar, and
concrete, can be reinforced with steel to make them better able to
survive an earthquake. Wood and steel are more flexible than bricks,
mortar, and concrete, and lend themselves to the type of building
that, properly designed and built according to code, is likely to
survive an earthquake without collapsing.

The way a building is attached to its foundation, and how the

foundation is anchored in the earth, are important considerations in
earthquake design. Many houses built in the the early and mid-
1900s in California were not attached to their foundations, based on
the assumption that the weight of a house would keep it on its
foundation. It turned out to be a bad assumption. Earthquakes
caused houses to slide off their foundations. Many home-owners in
the state have taken steps to make sure that their houses are now
attached to their foundations; if a home-owner buys earthquake
insurance, it is usually required by the insurance company that they
do so. A large building or skyscraper built in an earthquake-prone
area will normally have a great deal of flexibility built into it, including
some sort of elastic strain absorption mechanism focused on points
where the building attaches to its foundation.

Infrastructure—roads, bridges, utilities—can be built with margins

of safety for the event of an earthquake. This includes gas pipelines
designed to slide back and forth on their supports and having built-in
shutoff valves that may be activated by automatic sensors, electric
lines and grids with similar flexibility and shut-off capabilities, and
roads, overpasses, and bridges built to withstand shaking during an
earthquake.

Development and enforcement of building codes aimed at

reducing risk from earthquakes often requires resources that are not
available in impoverished regions. This leads to a higher likelihood
that buildings will collapse from the same size earthquake in some
areas of the world than in other areas.
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Basics -- Earthquakes. Authored by: Ralph L. Dawes and

Cheryl D. Dawes. Provided by: Wenatchee Valley College.
Located at:
http://commons.wvc.edu/rdawes/G101OCL/Basics/earthqua
kes.html. Project: Geology 101 - Introduction to Physical
Geology. License: CC BY: Attribution
 Reading: Earthquake Prediction

Scientists are a long way

from being able to predict
earthquakes. A good prediction
must be accurate as to where
an earthquake will occur, when
it will occur, and at what
magnitude it will be so that
people can evacuate. An
unnecessary evacuation is
expensive and causes people
not to believe authorities the
next time an evacuation is
ordered.

Figure 1. The probabilities of earthquakes striking

Where an earthquake will along various faults in the San Francisco area
between 2003 (when the work was done) and
occur is the easiest feature to 2032.

predict. Scientists know that

earthquakes take place at plate
boundaries and tend to happen where they’ve occurred before
(figure 1). Earthquake-prone communities should always be
prepared for an earthquake. These communities can implement
building codes to make structures earthquake safe.

When an earthquake will occur is much more difficult to predict.

Since stress on a fault builds up at the same rate over time,
earthquakes should occur at regular intervals (figure 2). But so far
scientists cannot predict when quakes will occur even to within a few
years.

Signs sometimes come before a large earthquake. Small quakes,

called foreshocks, sometimes occur a few seconds to a few weeks
before a major quake. However, many earthquakes do not have
foreshocks and small earthquakes are not necessarily followed by a
large earthquake. Often, the rocks around a fault will dilate as
microfractures form. Ground tilting, caused by the buildup of stress in
the rocks, may precede a large earthquake, but not always. Water
levels in wells fluctuate as water moves into or out of fractures
before an earthquake. This is also an uncertain predictor of large
earthquakes. The relative arrival times of P-waves and S-waves also
decreases just before an earthquake occurs.
 Figure 2. Around Parkfield, California, an earthquake of magnitude 6.0 or higher
occurs about every 22 years. So seismologists predicted that one would strike in
1993, but that quake came in 2004—11 years late.

Folklore tells of animals behaving erratically just before an

earthquake. Mostly these anecdotes are told after the earthquake. If
indeed animals sense danger from earthquakes or tsunami,
scientists do not know what it is they could be sensing, but they
would like to find out.

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 Reading: Seismicity and Earthquake Prediction

Seismicity is the study of how often earthquakes occur in a particular

area, which types of earthquakes occur there, and why.

In the United States, the areas that most frequently experience

earthquakes are the coast of California, Oregon, and Washington,
the southern coast and Aleutian Islands of Alaska, Hawaii, and the
mountain west from the Rocky Mountains to the Pacific coast. The
central and eastern United States rarely experience significant
earthquakes.

Earthquake epicenters compiled on a map show that, on a global

basis, most earthquakes occur around the rim of the Pacific Ocean,
in the mountains of southern Asia from China to the Middle East, and
in the Mediterranean Sea area. Earthquake epicenters also trace the
mid-ocean ridges across the floors of the oceans.

Because nearly all earthquakes occur on faults, determining

seismic risks on a finer scale largely consists of identifying, mapping,
and studying active faults in each state or region. However, many
active faults are hidden, either because any scarps they formed at
the surface have been eroded or covered by sediments, soil, and
vegetation, or because they are blind faults. A hidden fault is often
not identified and located until one or more significant earthquakes
has occurred on it and the seismic waves have been studied to
determine its location and type of fault motion.

Information used to determine the seismicity of an area includes:

frequency of earthquakes in the past, as deduced from:

historic records

geologic studies that examine evidence of the

prehistoric earthquake record

location of known active faults

seismologic data collected on recent earthquakes that have

occurred in the area
tectonic setting of the area in terms of proximity to plate
boundaries, and information about the plate boundary if one
is nearby
stress and strain being experienced by the crust in that area
based on measurements from GPS equipment and from
stress and strain measurements conducted in boreholes

underground geologic layers and structures in that area

based on cross-sections from geologic mapping, data from
drilling, and remote imaging of deeper layers of the crust
and mantle

Based on this information, the seismic risk of a particular area can

be quantified statistically. For example, the odds of a major
earthquake happening in the next century, or in the next 10 years,
can be estimated for a specific seismic zone.

However, no scientific method has yet been developed that can

predict precisely when the next earthquake in a specific region will
happen, where it will happen, or what its magnitude will be.
Scientists have looked into using such possible pre-earthquake
indicators as ground tilting, changes in well water levels, changes in
radon gas in groundwater near fault zones, changes in electrical
conductivity in the earth around faults, changes or patterns in
seismic activity that can be measured by seismometers even though
it is not felt by humans, and strange animal behavior which,
according to numerous, largely unconfirmed anecdotes, takes place
before an earthquake. But, so far, none of these types of data have
been found to lead to reliable earthquake predictions.

People have also looked into correlations between earthquakes

and phases of the Moon, earthquakes and the time of day (such as
dawn when the Sun is first shining on the ground), and so on. No
connections have been found between earthquakes and these other
types of phenomena.

As the study of seismicity stands now, we can identify which areas

on earth will undergo major earthquakes in the coming decades and
centuries, we can delineate which areas on earth are at risk for the
most powerful types of earthquakes, and map the coastal areas that
are most at risk of being inundated by a tsunami, but we cannot
pinpoint in advance the date or location of the next major
earthquake.

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Self Check: Earthquake Hazards and Prediction

Check Your Understanding

Answer the question(s) below to see how well you understand the
topics covered in the previous section. This short quiz
does not count toward your grade in the class, and you can retake it
an unlimited number of times.

Use this quiz to check your understanding and decide whether to

(1) study the previous section further or (2) move on to the next
section.

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 Putting It Together: Earthquakes

Summary

Just to review, in the section we took an up close look at

earthquakes. We made note of the following:

1. What seismic waves are and how they are generated

2. The different types of seismic waves and their
characteristics

3. How seismic waves are used to give us a peak at the

Earth’s interior

4. What causes earthquakes and where they occur

5. The different ways earthquakes are measured
6. How different material responds to an earthquake

7. The inability of scientists to predict earthquakes with any

accuracy

Synthesis

I’m sure at least some of the reasons to study earthquakes go

without saying. Geologists study earthquakes so they can better
understand the cause of earthquakes which can in turn help with
future predictions. Right now, there is very little ability to predict an
earthquake. Geologists are interested in how the ground and
different materials move during the earthquake. All of this information
helps scientists and engineers understand what is required to build
structures to withstand earthquakes. The hazards associated with
earthquakes are some of the most dangerous and deadly as you
saw in the videos at the beginning of the section.

So, why do California and Japan have so many earthquakes?

California is located on the San Andreas Fault (one of many),
which is a part of a transform plate boundary that is constantly
moving. In the case of Japan, if you look back at the plate tectonics
map, you will see Japan sits on top of three different tectonic plates
that all moving in different ways. We now know that this movement is
the main cause of earthquakes. As we continue to learn more about
earthquakes, perhaps the next 9.0 earthquake will not do so much
damage or claim so many lives.

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MODULE 9: VOLCANOES
 Why It Matters: Volcanoes

Explain the origin of volcanic features and landforms; as

well as the causes and hazards associated with volcanic
activity.

Volcanoes are one of the most dynamic, powerful and destructive

forces on the Earth. While they are majestic in appearance, they are
often sleeping giants just waiting to wake up and make us take
notice. Some of you may have seen volcanic eruptions in person or
on TV. Volcanoes are the geologists’ window into the Earth’s interior.
If you recall from the previous section, plate tectonics directly
influences the location and types of volcanoes we find across the
globe. Now we understand why the west coast of America as a chain
of volcanoes in the Cascade Mountains and why Japan has so many
active volcanoes.

OCCUPATION FOCUS: VOLCANOLOGISTS

Volcanologists have one of the most exciting yet dangerous

jobs of all scientists. Please watch this video on the eruption
of Mt. St. Helens in 1980 to learn more about volcanic
eruptions, how scientists study the volcanoes and why
volcanologists are important to society.

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This video shows the most destructive eruption ever that

happen to also be the loudest sound ever recorded on earth.
This eruption actually blew the volcanoes out of existence,
until recently as a new active volcano is currently forming in
its place.
 A YouTube element has been excluded from this version of
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Learning Outcomes

Describe and compare different volcano types.

Describe the processes that form volcanoes.

Classify and identify igneous features.

Describe major volcanic hazards and their potential effects.

Identify the various methods used to monitor volcanic

activity
CC licensed content, Original

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All rights reserved content

Mount St. Helens May 18, 1980. Provided by: USGS.

Located at: https://youtu.be/Ec30uU0G56U. License: All
Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube
License
THE LOUDEST SOUND IN HISTORY. Authored by:
Second Thought. Located at:
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Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube License
 Outcome: Volcano Types

Describe and compare different volcano types and the

processes that form them

In this section, you will learn the different types of volcanoes, how
they are formed and where they are commonly located.

What You’ll Learn to Do

Recognize the different types of volcanoes as well as their

physical characteristics: composite, shield and cinder cone
Recognize the different types of volcanic eruptions
Discuss the occurance of supervolcanoes

Learning Activities

The learning activities for this section include the following:

Reading: Types of Volcanoes

Reading: Types of Eruptions

Reading: Supervolcanoes

Self Check: Volcano Types

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 Reading: Types of Volcanoes

A volcano is a vent through which molten rock and gas escape from
a magma chamber. Volcanoes differ in many features such as
height, shape, and slope steepness. Some volcanoes are tall cones
and others are just cracks in the ground (figure 1). As you might
expect, the shape of a volcano is related to the composition of its
magma.

Figure 1. Mount St. Helens was a beautiful, classic, cone-shaped volcano. The
volcano’s 1980 eruption blew more than 400 meters (1,300 feet) off the top of
the mountain.

Composite Volcanoes

Composite volcanoes are made of felsic to intermediate rock. The

viscosity of the lava means that eruptions at these volcanoes are
often explosive (figure 2).
 Figure 2. Mt. Fuji, the highest mountain in Japan, is a dormant composite
volcano.

The viscous lava cannot travel far down the sides of the volcano
before it solidifies, which creates the steep slopes of a composite
volcano. Viscosity also causes some eruptions to explode as ash
and small rocks. The volcano is constructed layer by layer, as ash
and lava solidify, one upon the other (figure 3). The result is the
classic cone shape of composite volcanoes.
 Figure 3. A cross section of a composite volcano reveals alternating layers of
rock and ash: (1) magma chamber, (2) bedrock, (3) pipe, (4) ash layers, (5) lava
layers, (6) lava flow, (7) vent, (8) lava, (9) ash cloud. Frequently there is a large
crater at the top from the last eruption.

Shield Volcanoes

Shield volcanoes get their name from their shape. Although shield
volcanoes are not steep, they may be very large. Shield volcanoes
are common at spreading centers or intraplate hot spots (figure 4).
 Figure 4. Mauna Loa Volcano in Hawaii (in the background) is the largest shield
volcano on Earth with a diameter of more than 112 kilometers (70 miles). The
volcano forms a significant part of the island of Hawaii.

The lava that creates shield volcanoes is fluid and flows easily.
The spreading lava creates the shield shape. Shield volcanoes are
built by many layers over time and the layers are usually of very
similar composition. The low viscosity also means that shield
eruptions are non-explosive.

This Volcanoes 101 video from National Geographic discusses

where volcanoes are found and what their properties come from:

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Cinder Cones

Cinder cones are the most common type of

volcano. A cinder cone has a cone shape, but is
much smaller than a composite volcano. Cinder
cones rarely reach 300 meters in height but they
have steep sides. Cinder cones grow rapidly,
usually from a single eruption cycle (figure 5).
Cinder cones are composed of small fragments of
rock, such as pumice, piled on top of one another. Figure 5. In 1943, a
Mexican farmer first
The rock shoots up in the air and doesn’t fall far
witnessed a cinder
from the vent. The exact composition of a cinder cone erupting in his
field. In a year,
cone depends on the composition of the lava Paricutín was 336
meters high. By 1952,
ejected from the volcano. Cinder cones usually it reached 424 meters
and then stopped
have a crater at the summit. erupting.

Cinder cones are often found near larger

volcanoes (figure 6).
 Figure 6. This Landsat image shows the topography of San Francisco Mountain,
an extinct volcano, with many cinder cones near it in northern Arizona. Sunset
crater is a cinder cone that erupted about 1,000 years ago.

Lesson Summary

Composite, shield, cinder cones, and supervolcanoes are

the main types of volcanoes.

Composite volcanoes are tall, steep cones that produce

explosive eruptions.
Shield volcanoes form very large, gently sloped mounds
from effusive eruptions.
Cinder cones are the smallest volcanoes and result from
accumulation of many small fragments of ejected material.
 An explosive eruption may create a caldera, a large hole
into which the mountain collapses.

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 Reading: Types of Eruptions

Several types ofvolcanic

eruptions—during which lava,
tephra (ash, lapilli, volcanic
bombs and blocks), and
assorted gases are expelled
from a volcanic vent or fissure—
have been distinguished by
volcanologists. These are often
named after famous volcanoes
where that type of behavior has
been observed. Some
volcanoes may exhibit only one
characteristic type of eruption
during a period of activity, while
others may display an entire
Figure 1. Some of the eruptive structures formed
sequence of types all in one during volcanic activity: a Plinian eruption
column, Hawaiian pahoehoe flows, and a lava arc
eruptive series. from a Strombolian eruption.

There are three different

types of eruptions. The most well-observed are magmatic eruptions,
which involve the decompression of gas within magma that propels it
forward. Phreatomagmatic eruptions are another type of volcanic
eruption, driven by the compression of gas within magma, the direct
opposite of the process powering magmatic activity. The third
eruptive type is the phreatic eruption, which is driven by the
superheating of steam via contact with magma; these eruptive types
often exhibit no magmatic release, instead causing the granulation of
existing rock.

Within these wide-defining eruptive types are several subtypes.

The weakest are Hawaiian and submarine, then Strombolian,
followed by Vulcanian and Surtseyan. The stronger eruptive types
are Pelean eruptions, followed by Plinian eruptions; the strongest
eruptions are called “Ultra-Plinian.” Subglacial and phreatic eruptions
are defined by their eruptive mechanism, and vary in strength. An
important measure of eruptive strength is Volcanic Explosivity Index
(VEI), an order of magnitude scale ranging from 0 to 8 that often
correlates to eruptive types.

Eruption Mechanisms
[1]
Volcanic eruptions arise through three main mechanisms:

Gas release under decompression causing magmatic

eruptions
Thermal contraction from chilling on contact with water
causing phreatomagmatic eruptions
 Ejection of entrained
particles during steam
eruptions causing
phreatic eruptions

There are two types of

eruptions in terms of activity,
explosive eruptions and effusive
eruptions. Explosive eruptions
are characterized by gas-driven
explosions that propels magma
[2]
and tephra. Effusive eruptions,
meanwhile, are characterized
by the outpouring of lava Figure 2. Diagram showing the scale of VEI
correlation with total ejecta volume.
without significant explosive
[3]
eruption.

Volcanic eruptions vary widely in strength. On the one extreme

there are effusive Hawaiian eruptions, which are characterized by
lava fountains and fluid lava flows, which are typically not very
dangerous. On the other extreme, Plinian eruptions are large, violent,
and highly dangerous explosive events. Volcanoes are not bound to
one eruptive style, and frequently display many different types, both
passive and explosive, even the span of a single eruptive cycle.
[4]
Volcanoes do not always erupt vertically from a single crater near
their peak, either. Some volcanoes exhibit lateral and fissure
eruptions. Notably, many Hawaiian eruptions start from rift zones,
[5]
and some of the strongest Surtseyan eruptions develop along
[6]
fracture zones. Scientists believed that pulses of magma mixed
together in the chamber before climbing upward—a process
estimated to take several thousands of years. But Columbia
University volcanologists found that the eruption of Costa Rica’s Irazú
Volcano in 1963 was likely triggered by magma that took a nonstop
[7]
route from the mantle over just a few months.

Volcano Explosivity Index

The volcanic explosivity index (commonly shortened to VEI) is a

scale, from 0 to 8, for measuring the strength of eruptions. It is used
by the Smithsonian Institution’s Global Volcanism Program in
assessing the impact of historic and prehistoric lava flows. It operates
in a way similar to the Richter scale for earthquakes, in that each
interval in value represents a tenfold increasing in magnitude (it is
[8]
logarithmic). The vast majority of volcanic eruptions are of VEIs
[9]
between 0 and 2.
Volcanic eruptions by VEI index[10]
Plume
VEI Eruptive volume* Eruption type Frequency** Example
height

0
<100 m 1,000 m3 Hawaiian Continuous Kilauea
(330 ft) (35,300 cu ft)
100–
1,000 m 10,000 m3
1 Hawaiian/Strombolian Fortnightly Stromboli
(300– (353,000 cu ft)
3,300 ft)

1–5 km 1,000,000 m3 Galeras

2 Strombolian/Vulcanian Monthly
(1–3 mi) (35,300,000 cu ft)† (1992)

3–
3 15 km 10,000,000 m3 Vulcanian 3 monthly
Nevado del
Ruiz (1985)
(2–9 mi) (353,000,000 cu ft)
10–
4
25 km 100,000,000 m3 Vulcanian/Peléan 18 months
Eyjafjallajökull
(6– (0.024 cu mi) (2010)
16 mi)
>25 km Mount St.
5
(16 mi) 1 km3 (0.24 cu mi) Plinian 10–15 years
Helens (1980)
>25 km 50–100 Krakatoa
6
(16 mi) 10 km3 (2 cu mi) Plinian/Ultra-Plinian
years (1883)

7
>25 km 100 km3 Ultra-Plinian
500–1000 Tambora
(16 mi) (20 cu mi) years (1815)

8
>25 km 1,000 km3 Supervolcanic
50,000+ Lake Toba
(16 mi) (200 cu mi) years[11] (74 ka)

* This is the minimum eruptive volume necessary for the eruption to be considered within
the category.
** Values are a rough estimate. They indicate the frequencies for volcanoes of that
magnitude OR HIGHER
† There is a discontinuity between the 1st and 2nd VEI level; instead of increasing by a
magnitude of 10, the value increases by a magnitude of 100 (from 10,000 to 1,000,000).

Magmatic Eruptions
Magmatic eruptions produce juvenile clasts during explosive
decompression from gas release. They range in intensity from the
relatively small lava fountains on Hawaii to catastrophic Ultra-Plinian
eruption columns more than 30 km (19 mi) high, bigger than the
[12]
eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 that buried Pompeii.

Hawaiian

Hawaiian eruptions are a type

of volcanic eruption, named
after the Hawaiian volcanoes
with which this eruptive type is
hallmark. Hawaiian eruptions
are the calmest types of
volcanic events, characterized
by the effusive eruption of very
fluid basalt-type lavas with low
gaseous content. The volume of
ejected material from Hawaiian
Figure 3. Diagram of a Hawaiian eruption. (key: 1.
eruptions is less than half of that Ash plume 2. Lava fountain 3. Crater 4. Lava lake
5. Fumaroles 6. Lava flow 7. Layers of lava and
found in other eruptive types. ash 8. Stratum 9. Sill 10. Magma conduit 11.
Magma chamber 12. Dike) Click for larger
Steady production of small version.
amounts of lava builds up the
large, broad form of a shield
volcano. Eruptions are not centralized at the main summit as with
other volcanic types, and often occur at vents around the summit and
[13]
from fissure vents radiating out of the center.
 Hawaiian eruptions often begin as a line of vent eruptions along a
fissure vent, a so-called “curtain of fire.” These die down as the lava
begins to concentrate at a few of the vents. Central-vent eruptions,
meanwhile, often take the form of large lava fountains (both
continuous and sporadic), which can reach heights of hundreds of
meters or more. The particles from lava fountains usually cool in the
air before hitting the ground, resulting in the accumulation of cindery
scoria fragments; however, when the air is especially thick with
clasts, they cannot cool off fast enough due to the surrounding heat,
and hit the ground still hot, the accumulation of which forms spatter
cones. If eruptive rates are high enough, they may even form
splatter-fed lava flows. Hawaiian eruptions are often extremely long
lived; Puʻu ʻŌʻō, a cinder cone of Kilauea, has been erupting
continuously since 1983. Another Hawaiian volcanic feature is the
formation of active lava lakes, self-maintaining pools of raw lava with
a thin crust of semi-cooled rock; there are currently only 5 such lakes
in the world, and the one at Kīlauea’s Kupaianaha vent is one of
[14]
them.

Flows from Hawaiian eruptions are basaltic, and can be divided

into two types by their structural characteristics. Pahoehoe lava is a
relatively smooth lava flow that can be billowy or ropey. They can
move as one sheet, by the advancement of “toes,” or as a snaking
lava column. A’a lava flows are denser and more viscous then
pahoehoe, and tend to move slower. Flows can measure 2 to 20 m (7
to 66 ft) thick. A’a flows are so thick that the outside layers cools into
a rubble-like mass, insulating
the still-hot interior and
preventing it from cooling. A’a
lava moves in a peculiar way—
the front of the flow steepens
due to pressure from behind
until it breaks off, after which the
general mass behind it moves
forward. Pahoehoe lava can
sometimes become A’a lava due
to increasing viscosity or
increasing rate of shear, but A’a
lava never turns into pahoehoe
[15]
flow.

Volcanoes known to have

[16]
Hawaiian activity include: Figure 4. Ropey pahoehoe lava from Kilauea,
Hawaiʻi.

Puʻu ʻŌʻō, a parasitic

cinder cone located on Kilauea on the island of Hawaiʻi
which has been erupting continuously since 1983. The
eruptions began with a 6 km (4 mi)-longfissure-based
“curtain of fire” on 3 January. These gave way to centralized
eruptions on the site of Kilauea’s east rift, eventually
building up the still active cone.
 For a list of all of the volcanoes of Hawaii, see List of
volcanoes in the Hawaiian–Emperor seamount chain.

Mount Etna, Italy.

Mount Mihara in 1986 (see above paragraph)

Strombolian

Strombolian eruptions are a

type of volcanic eruption,
named after the volcano
Stromboli, which has been
erupting continuously for
[17]
centuries. Strombolian
eruptions are driven by the
bursting of gas bubbles within
the magma. These gas bubbles
within the magma accumulate
and coalesce into large bubbles,
Figure 5. Diagram of a Strombolian eruption. (key:
called gas slugs. These grow 1. Ash plume 2. Lapilli 3. Volcanic ash rain 4.
Lava fountain 5. Volcanic bomb 6. Lava flow 7.
large enough to rise through the Layers of lava and ash 8. Stratum 9. Dike 10.
[18] Magma conduit 11. Magma chamber 12. Sill)
lava column. Upon reaching Click for larger version.
the surface, the difference in air
pressure causes the bubble to
[19]
burst with a loud pop, throwing magma in the air in a way similar to
a soap bubble. Because of the high gas pressures associated with
the lavas, continued activity is generally in the form of
episodic explosive eruptions accompanied by the distinctive loud
 [20]
blasts. During eruptions, these blasts occur as often as every few
[21]
minutes.

The term “Strombolian” has been used indiscriminately to describe

a wide variety of volcanic eruptions, varying from small volcanic
blasts to large eruptive columns. In reality, true Strombolian eruptions
are characterized by short-lived and explosive eruptions of lavas with
intermediate viscosity, often ejected high into the air. Columns can
measure hundreds of meters in height. The lavas formed by
Strombolian eruptions are a form of relatively viscous basaltic lava,
[22]
and its end product is mostly scoria. The relative passivity of
Strombolian eruptions, and its non-damaging nature to its source
vent allow Strombolian eruptions to continue unabated for thousands
of years, and also makes it one of the least dangerous eruptive
[23]
types.

Strombolian eruptions eject volcanic bombs and lapilli fragments

that travel in parabolic paths before landing around their source vent.
The steady accumulation of small fragments builds cinder cones
composed completely of basaltic pyroclasts. This form of
[24]
accumulation tends to result in well-ordered rings of tephra.

Strombolian eruptions are similar to Hawaiian eruptions, but there

are differences. Strombolian eruptions are noisier, produce no
sustained eruptive columns, do not produce some volcanic products
associated with Hawaiian volcanism (specifically Pele’s tears and
Pele’s hair), and produce fewer
molten lava flows (although the
eruptive material does tend to
[25]
form small rivulets).

Volcanoes known to have

Strombolian activity include:

Parícutin, Mexico,
which erupted from a
fissure in a cornfield in
1943. Two years into
its life, pyroclastic
activity began to wane,
and the outpouring of
lava from its base Figure 6. An example of the lava arcs formed
during Strombolian activity. This image is of
became its primary Stromboli itself.
mode of activity.
Eruptions ceased in
1952, and the final
height was 424 m (1,391 ft). This was the first time that
scientists are able to observe the complete life cycle of a
[26]
volcano.

Mount Etna, Italy, which has displayed Strombolian activity

[27]
in recent eruptions, for example in 1981, 1999, 2002-
[28]
2003, and 2009.
 Mount Erebus in Antarctica, the southernmost active
volcano in the world, having been observed erupting since
[29]
1972. Eruptive activity at Erebus consists of frequent
[30]
Strombolian activity.

Stromboli itself. The namesake of the mild explosive activity

that it possesses has been active throughout historical time;
essentially continuous Strombolian eruptions, occasionally
accompanied by lava flows, have been recorded at
[31]
Stromboli for more than a millennium.

Vulcanian

Vulcanian eruptions are a

type of volcanic eruption,
named after the volcano
[32]
Vulcano. It was named so
following Giuseppe Mercalli’s
observations of its 1888-1890
[33]
eruptions. In Vulcanian
eruptions, highly viscous
magma within the volcano make
it difficult for vesiculate gases to
escape. Similar to Strombolian
Figure 7. Diagram of a Vulcanian eruption. (key:
eruptions, this leads to the 1. Ash plume 2. Lapilli 3. Lava fountain 4.
Volcanic ash rain 5. Volcanic bomb 6. Lava flow 7.
buildup of high gas pressure, Layers of lava and ash 8. Stratum 9. Sill 10.
Magma conduit 11. Magma chamber 12. Dike)
eventually popping the cap
holding the magma down and
resulting in an explosive eruption. However, unlike Strombolian
eruptions, ejected lava fragments are not aerodynamic; this is due to
the higher viscosity of Vulcanian magma and the greater
incorporation of crystalline material broken off from the former cap.
They are also more explosive than their Strombolian counterparts,
with eruptive columns often reaching between 5 and 10 km (3 and
6 mi) high. Lastly, Vulcanian deposits are andesitic to dacitic rather
[34]
than basaltic.
 Figure 8. Tavurvur in Papua New Guinea erupting.

Volcanoes that have exhibited Vulcanian activity include:

Sakurajima, Japan has been the site of Vulcanian activity

[35]
near-continuously since 1955.
Tavurvur, Papua New Guinea, one of several volcanoes in
[36]
the Rabaul Caldera.

Irazú Volcano in Costa Rica exhibited Vulcanian activity in

[37]
its 1965 eruption.

Peléan
 Peléan eruptions (or nuée
ardente) are a type of volcanic
eruption, named after the
volcano Mount Pelée in
Martinique, the site of a massive
Peléan eruption in 1902 that is
one of the worst natural
disasters in history. In Peléan
eruptions, a large amount of
gas, dust, ash, and lava
fragments are blown out the
Figure 9. Diagram of Peléan eruption. (key: 1. Ash
volcano’s central crater, plume 2. Volcanic ash rain 3. Lava dome 4.
[38] Volcanic bomb 5. Pyroclastic flow 6. Layers of
driven by the collapse of lava and ash 7. Stratum 8. Magma conduit 9.
Magma chamber 10. Dike)
rhyolite, dacite, and andesite
lava dome collapses that often
create large eruptive columns.
An early sign of a coming eruption is the growth of a so-called Peléan
or lava spine, a bulge in the volcano’s summit preempting its total
[39]
collapse. The material collapses upon itself, forming a fast-
[40] [41]
moving pyroclastic flow (known as a block-and-ash flow) that
moves down the side of the mountain at tremendous speeds, often
over 150 km (93 mi) per hour. These massive landslides make
Peléan eruptions one of the most dangerous in the world, capable of
tearing through populated areas and causing massive loss of life.
The 1902 eruption of Mount Pelée caused tremendous destruction,
killing more than 30,000 people and competely destroying the town
[42]
of St. Pierre, the worst volcanic event in the 20th century.
 Peléan eruptions are characterized most prominently by the
incandescent pyroclastic flows that they drive. The mechanics of a
Peléan eruption are very similar to that of a Vulcanian eruption,
except that in Peléan eruptions the volcano’s structure is able to
withstand more pressure, hence the eruption occurs as one large
[43]
explosion rather than several smaller ones.

Volcanoes known to have Peléan activity include:

Mount Pelée, Martinique. The 1902 eruption of Mount Pelée

completely devastated the island, destroying the town of St.
[44]
Pierre and leaving only 3 survivors. The eruption was
[45]
directly preceded by lava dome growth.
Mayon Volcano, the Philippines most active volcano. It has
been the site of many different types of eruptions, Peléan
included. Approximately 40 ravines radiate from the summit
and provide pathways for frequent pyroclastic flows and
mudslides to the lowlands below. Mayon’s most violent
eruption occurred in 1814 and was responsible for over
[46]
1200 deaths.
The 1951 Peléan eruption of Mount Lamington. Prior to this
eruption the peak had not even been recognized as a
volcano. Over 3,000 people were killed, and it has become
[47]
a benchmark for studying large Peléan eruptions.
 Figure 10. (a) Mount Lamington following the devastating 1951 eruption. (b) The
lava spine that developed after the 1902 eruption of Mount Pelée. (c) Pyroclastic
flows at Mayon Volcano, Philippines, 1984.

Plinian

Plinian eruptions (or Vesuvian) are a type of volcanic eruption,

named for the historical eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 of Mount
Vesuvius that buried the Roman towns of Pompeii and Herculaneum
[48]
and, specifically, for its chronicler Pliny the Younger. The process
powering Plinian eruptions starts in the magma chamber, where
dissolved volatile gases are stored in the magma. The gases
vesiculate and accumulate as they rise through the magma conduit.
These bubbles agglutinate and once they reach a certain size (about
75% of the total volume of the magma conduit) they explode. The
narrow confines of the conduit force the gases and associated
magma up, forming an eruptive column. Eruption velocity is
controlled by the gas contents of the column, and low-strength
surface rocks commonly crack
under the pressure of the
eruption, forming a flared
outgoing structure that pushes
[49]
the gases even faster.

These massive eruptive

columns are the distinctive
feature of a Plinian eruption,
and reach up 2 to 45 km (1 to
28 mi) into the atmosphere. The Figure 11. Diagram of a Plinian eruption. (key: 1.
Ash plume 2. Magma conduit 3. Volcanic ash rain
densest part of the plume, 4. Layers of lava and ash 5. Stratum 6. Magma
directly above the volcano, is chamber)

driven internally by gas

expansion. As it reaches higher
into the air the plume expands and becomes less dense, convection
and thermal expansion of volcanic ash drive it even further up into
the stratosphere. At the top of the plume, powerful prevailing winds
[50]
drive the plume in a direction away from the volcano.

These highly explosive eruptions are associated with volatile-rich

dacitic to rhyolitic lavas, and occur most typically at stratovolcanoes.
Eruptions can last anywhere from hours to days, with longer
eruptions being associated with more felsic volcanoes. Although they
are associated with felsic magma, Plinian eruptions can just as well
occur at basaltic volcanoes, given that the magma chamber
differentiates and has a
structure rich in silicon dioxide.
[51]

Plinian eruptions are similar

to both Vulcanian and
Strombolian eruptions, except
that rather than creating Figure 12. 21 April 1990 eruptive column from
Redoubt Volcano, as viewed to the west from the
discrete explosive events, Kenai Peninsula.

Plinian eruptions form sustained

eruptive columns. They are also
similar to Hawaiian lava fountains in that both eruptive types produce
sustained eruption columns maintained by the growth of bubbles that
move up at about the same speed as the magma surrounding them.
[52]

Major Plinian eruptive events

include:

The AD 79 eruption of
Mount Vesuvius buried
the Roman towns of
Pompeii and
Herculaneum under a Figure 13. Lahar flows from the 1985 eruption of
Nevado del Ruiz, which totally destroyed the town
layer of ash and of Armero in Colombia.

tephra. It is the model

Plinian eruption. Mount Vesuvius has erupted several times
since then. Its last eruption was in 1944 and caused
problems for the allied armies as they advanced through
[53]
Italy. It was the report by Pliny that Younger that lead
scientists to refer to vesuvian eruptions as “Plinian.”
The 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens in Washington,
which ripped apart the volcano’s summit, was a Plinian
[54]
eruption of Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI) 5.
The strongest types of eruptions, with a VEI of 8, are so-
called “Ultra-Plinian” eruptions, such as the most recent one
at Lake Toba 74 thousand years ago, which put out 2800
[55]
times the material erupted by Mount St. Helens in 1980.
Hekla in Iceland, an example of basaltic Plinian volcanism
being its 1947-48 eruption. The past 800 years have been a
pattern of violent initial eruptions of pumice followed by
prolonged extrusion of basaltic lava from the lower part of
[56]
the volcano.
Pinatubo in the Philippines on 15 June 1991, which
produced 5 km3 (1 cu mi) of dacitic magma, a 40 km (25 mi)
high eruption column, and released 17 megatons of sulfur
[57]
dioxide.
 Figure 14. The image correlates types of volcanoes with their respective eruption,
highlighting the differences. Click to view a larger version.

Phreatomagmatic Eruptions

Phreatomagmatic eruptions are eruptions that arise from interactions

between water and magma. They are driven from thermal contraction
(as opposed to magmatic eruptions, which are driven by thermal
expansion) of magma when it comes in contact with water. This
temperature difference between the two causes violent water-lava
interactions that make up the eruption. The products of
phreatomagmatic eruptions are believed to be more regular in shape
and finer grained than the products of magmatic eruptions because
[58]
of the differences in eruptive mechanisms.

There is debate about the exact nature of phreatomagmatic

eruptions, and some scientists believe that fuel-coolant reactions
may be more critical to the explosive nature than thermal contraction.
[59]
Fuel coolant reactions may fragment the volcanic material by
propagating stress waves, widening cracks and increasing surface
area that ultimetly lead to rapid cooling and explosive contraction-
[60]
driven eruptions.

Surtseyan

A Surtseyan eruption (or

hydrovolcanic) is a type of
volcanic eruption caused by
shallow-water interactions
between water and lava, named
so after its most famous
example, the eruption and
formation of the island of
Surtsey off the coast of Iceland
in 1963. Surtseyan eruptions
are the “wet” equivalent of
Figure 15. Diagram of a Surtseyan eruption. (key:
ground-based Strombolian 1. Water vapor cloud 2. Compressed ash 3. Crater
4. Water 5. Layers of lava and ash 6. Stratum 7.
eruptions, but because of where Magma conduit 8. Magma chamber 9. Dike)

they are taking place they are

much more explosive. This is
because as water is heated by lava, it flashes in steam and expands
violently, fragmenting the magma it is in contact with into fine-grained
ash. Surtseyan eruptions are the hallmark of shallow-water volcanic
oceanic islands, however they are not specifically confined to them.
Surtseyan eruptions can happen on land as well, and are caused by
rising magma that comes into contact with an aquifer (water-bearing
[61]
rock formation) at shallow levels under the volcano. The products
of Surtseyan eruptions are generally oxidized palagonite basalts
(though andesitic eruptions do occur, albeit rarely), and like
Strombolian eruptions Surtseyan eruptions are generally continuous
[62]
or otherwise rhythmic.

[63]
Volcanoes known to have Surtseyan activity include:

Surtsey, Iceland. The volcano built itself up from depth and

emerged above the Atlantic Ocean off the coast of Iceland
in 1963. Initial hydrovolcanics were highly explosive, but as
the volcano grew out rising lava started to interact less with
the water and more with the air, until finally Surtseyan
activity waned and became more Strombolian in character.
Ukinrek Maars in Alaska, 1977, and Capelinhos in the
Azores, 1957, both examples of above-water Surtseyan
activity.
Mount Tarawera in New Zealand erupted along a rift zone in
1886, killing 150 people.
 Figure 16. (a) Surtsey, erupting 13 days after breaching the water. A tuff ring
surrounds the vent. (b) The fissure formed by the 1886 eruption of Mount
Tarawera, an example of a fracture zone eruption.

Submarine

Submarine eruptions are a type of volcanic eruption that occurs

underwater. An estimated 75% of the total volcanic eruptive volume
is generated by submarine eruptions near mid ocean ridges alone,
however because of the problems associated with detecting deep
sea volcanics, they remained virtually unknown until advances in the
[64]
1990s made it possible to observe them.

Submarine eruptions may produce seamounts which may break

the surface to form volcanic islands and island chains.
 Submarine volcanism is
driven by various processes.
Volcanoes near plate
boundaries and mid-ocean
ridges are built by the
decompression melting of
mantle rock that rises on an
upwelling portion of a
convection cell to the crustal
surface. Eruptions associated
with subducting zones,
Figure 17. Diagram of a Submarine eruption. (key:
meanwhile, are driven by 1. Water vapor cloud 2. Water 3. Stratum 4. Lava
flow 5. Magma conduit 6. Magma chamber 7.
subducting plates that add Dike 8. Pillow lava)

volatiles to the rising plate,

lowering its melting point. Each
process generates different rock; mid-ocean ridge volcanics are
primarily basaltic, whereas subduction flows are mostly calc-alkaline,
[65]
and more explosive and viscous.

Subglacial

Subglacial eruptions are a type of volcanic eruption characterized

by interactions between lava and ice, often under a glacier. The
nature of glaciovolcanism dictates that it occurs at areas of high
[66]
latitude and high altitude. It has been suggested that subglacial
volcanoes that are not actively
erupting often dump heat into
the ice covering them,
[67]
producing meltwater. This
meltwater mix means that
subglacial eruptions often
generate dangerous jökulhlaups
[68]
(floods) and lahars.

The study of glaciovolcanism

is still a relatively new field. Figure 18. A diagram of a Subglacial eruption.
(key: 1. Water vapor cloud 2. Crater lake 3. Ice 4.
Early accounts described the Layers of lava and ash 5. Stratum 6. Pillow lava 7.
unusual flat-topped steep-sided Magma conduit 8. Magma chamber 9. Dike)

volcanoes (called tuyas) in

Iceland that were suggested to
have formed from eruptions below ice. The first English-language
paper on the subject was published in 1947 by William Henry
Mathews, describing the Tuya Butte field in northwest British
Columbia, Canada. The eruptive process that builds these structures,
[69]
originally inferred in the paper, begins with volcanic growth below
the glacier. At first the eruptions resemble those that occur in the
deep sea, forming piles of pillow lava at the base of the volcanic
structure. Some of the lava shatters when it comes in contact with
the cold ice, forming a glassy breccia called hyaloclastite. After a
while the ice finally melts into a lake, and the more explosive
eruptions of Surtseyan activity begins, building up flanks made up of
mostly hyaloclastite. Eventually the lake boils off from continued
volcanism, and the lava flows become more effusive and thicken as
the lava cools much more slowly, often forming columnar jointing.
Well-preserved tuyas show all of these stages, for
[70]
example Hjorleifshofdi in Iceland.

Glaciovolcanic products have been identified in Iceland, the

Canadian province of British Columbia, the U.S. states of Hawaii and
Alaska, the Cascade Range of western North America, South
[71]
America and even on the planet Mars. Volcanoes known to have
subglacial activity include:

Mauna Kea in tropical Hawaii. There is evidence of past

subglacial eruptive activity on the volcano in the form of a
subglacial deposit on its summit. The eruptions originated
about 10,000 years ago, during the last ice age, when the
[72]
summit of Mauna Kea was covered in ice.
In 2008, the British Antarctic Survey reported a volcanic
eruption under the Antarctica ice sheet 2,200 years ago. It is
believed to be that this was the biggest eruption in
Antarctica in the last 10,000 years. Volcanic ash deposits
from the volcano were identified through an airborne radar
survey, buried under later snowfalls in the Hudson
[73]
Mountains, close to Pine Island Glacier.
Iceland, well known for both glaciers and volcanoes, is often
a site of subglacial eruptions. An example an eruption under
the Vatnajökull ice cap in 1996, which occurred under an
[74]
estimated 2,500 ft (762 m) of ice.
As part of the search for life on Mars, scientists have
suggested that there may be subglacial volcanoes on the
red planet. Several potential sites of such volcanism have
been reviewed, and compared extensively with similar
[75]
features in Iceland:

Viable microbial communities have been found

living in deep (–2800 m) geothermal groundwater
at 349 K and pressures >300 bar. Furthermore,
microbes have been postulated to exist in basaltic
rocks in rinds of altered volcanic glass. All of these
conditions could exist in polar regions of Mars
today where subglacial volcanism has occurred.
 Figure 19. Herðubreið, a tuya in Iceland.

Phreatic eruptions

Phreatic eruptions (or steam-blast eruptions) are a type of eruption

driven by the expansion of steam. When cold ground or surface
water come into contact with hot rock or magma it superheats and
[76]
explodes, fracturing the surrounding rock and thrusting out a
mixture of steam, water, ash, volcanic bombs, and volcanic blocks.
[77]
The distinguishing feature of phreatic explosions is that they only
blast out fragments of pre-existing solid rock from the volcanic
[78]
conduit; no new magma is erupted. Because they are driven by the
cracking of rock strata under
pressure, phreatic activity does
not always result in an eruption;
if the rock face is strong enough
to withstand the explosive force,
outright eruptions may not
occur, although cracks in the
rock will probably develop and
weaken it, furthering future
[79]
eruptions.

Figure 20. Diagram of a phreatic eruption. (key: 1.

Water vapor cloud 2. Magma conduit 3. Layers of
lava and ash 4. Stratum 5. Water table 6. Explosion
7. Magma chamber)

Volcanoes known to exhibit

phreatic activity include:

Mount St. Helens, which exhibited phreatic activity just prior

[80]
to its catastrophic 1980 eruption (which was itself Plinian).
[81]
Taal Volcano, Philippines, 1965.

La Soufrière of Guadeloupe (Lesser Antilles), 1975-1976

[82]
activity.
Soufrière Hills volcano on Montserrat, West Indies, 1995–
2012.
Poás Volcano, has frequent geyser like phreatic eruptions
from its crater lake.
 Mount Bulusan, well known for its sudden phreatic
eruptions.
Mount Ontake, all historical eruptions of this volcano have
been phreatic including the deadly 2014 eruption.

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2. Ibid. ↵

3. "VHP Photo Glossary: Effusive Eruption." USGS. 29 December 2009. Retrieved

3 August 2010. ↵

4. "Volcanoes of Canada: Volcanic eruptions." Geological Survey of Canada. Natural

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6. "How Volcanoes Work: Hydrovolcic Eruptions." San Diego State University.

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11. Dosseto, A., Turner, S. P. and Van-Orman, J. A. (editors) (2011). Timescales of

Magmatic Processes: From Core to Atmosphere. Wiley-Blackwell. See also
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↵

12. Heiken, G. and Wohletz, K. Volcanic Ash. University of California Press. p. 246. ↵

13. "How Volcanoes Work: Hawaiian Eruptions." San Diego State University.
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14. Ibid. ↵

15. "How Volcanoes Work: Basaltic Lava." San Diego State University. Retrieved
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16. "How Volcanoes Work: Hawaiian Eruptions." San Diego State University.

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17. "How Volcanoes Work: Strombolian Eruptions." San Diego State University.
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18. Mike Burton, Patrick Allard, Filippo Muré, Alessandro La Spina (2007). "Magmatic
Gas Composition Reveals the Source Depth of Slug-Driven Strombolian
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2010. ↵

19. "How Volcanoes Work: Strombolian Eruptions." San Diego State University.
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20. Ibid. ↵

21. Cain, Fraser (22 April 2010). "Strombolian Eruption." Universe Today. Retrieved

30 July 2010. ↵

22. "How Volcanoes Work: Strombolian Eruptions." San Diego State University.
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30 July 2010. ↵

24. "How Volcanoes Work: Strombolian Eruptions." San Diego State University.
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25. "How Volcanoes Work: Strombolian Eruptions." San Diego State University.
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26. "How Volcanoes Work: Strombolian Eruptions." San Diego State University.
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27. Seach, John. "Mt Etna Volcano Eruptions—John Seach." Old eruptions.
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28. Seach, John. "Mt Etna Volcano Eruptions—John Seach." Recent eruptions.
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30. Kyle, P. R. (Ed.), Volcanological and Environmental Studies of Mount Erebus,

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31. "Stromboli." Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian National Museum of Natural

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33. Cain, Fraser. "Vulcanian Eruptions." Universe Today. Retrieved 1 August 2010. ↵

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36. "How Volcanoes Work: Vulcanian Eruptions." San Diego State University.
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37. "VHP Photo Glossary: Vulcanian eruption." USGS. Retrieved 1 August 2010. ↵

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50. Ibid. ↵

51. "How Volcanoes Work: Plinian Eruptions." San Diego State University. Retrieved
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52. Ibid. ↵

53. Ibid. ↵

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58. Heiken, G. and Wohletz, K. Volcanic Ash. University of California Press. p. 246.
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60. Heiken, G. and Wohletz, K. Volcanic Ash. University of California Press. p. 246. ↵

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Oceanography. Seamounts Special Issue (Oceanography Society) 32 (1).

Retrieved 4 August 2010. ↵

66. "Glaciovolcanism—University of British Columbia." University of British Columbia.

Retrieved 5 August 2010. ↵

67. Black, Richard (20 January 2008). "Ancient Antarctic eruption noted." BBC News.
Retrieved 5 August 2010. ↵

68. "Glaciovolcanism—University of British Columbia." University of British Columbia.

Retrieved 5 August 2010. ↵

69. Ibid. ↵

70. Alden, Andrew. "Tuya or Subglacial Volcano, Iceland." about.com. Retrieved

5 August 2010. ↵

71. Ibid. ↵
72. "Kinds of Volcanic Eruptions." Volcano World. Oregon State University. Retrieved
5 August 2010. ↵

73. Black, Richard (20 January 2008). "Ancient Antarctic eruption noted." BBC News.
Retrieved 5 August 2010. ↵

74. "Iceland's subglacial eruption." Hawaiian Volcano Observatory. USGS. 11 October

1996. Retrieved 5 August 2010. ↵

75. "Subglacial Volcanoes On Mars." Space Daily. 27 June 2001. Retrieved 5 August
2010. ↵

76. Leonid N. Germanovich and Robert P. Lowell (1995). "The mechanism of phreatic
eruptions." Journal of Geophysical Research. Solid Earth (American Geophysical
Union) 100 (B5): 8417–8434. doi:10.1029/94JB03096. Retrieved 7 August 2010.

77. "VHP Photo Glossary: Phreatic eruption." USGS. 17 July 2008. Retrieved
6 August 2010. ↵

78. Watson, John (5 February 1997). "Types of volcanic eruptions." USGS. Retrieved
7 August 2010. ↵

79. Leonid N. Germanovich and Robert P. Lowell (1995). "The mechanism of phreatic

eruptions." Journal of Geophysical Research. Solid Earth (American Geophysical

Union) 100 (B5): 8417–8434. doi:10.1029/94JB03096. Retrieved 7 August 2010.
↵

80. "VHP Photo Glossary: Phreatic eruption." USGS. 17 July 2008. Retrieved
6 August 2010. ↵

81. Watson, John (5 February 1997). "Types of volcanic eruptions." USGS. Retrieved
7 August 2010. ↵

82. Ibid. ↵
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 Reading: Supervolcanoes

What would cause such a giant caldera?

You can stand on the rim and view the enormous Yellowstone
Caldera, but it’s hard to visualize a volcano or a set of eruptions
that enormous. Supervolcanoes are a fairly new idea in
volcanology. Although their eruptions are unbelievably massive,
 they are exceedingly rare. The power of Yellowstone, even
640,000 years after the most recent eruption, is seen in its
fantastic geysers.

Supervolcano eruptions are extremely rare in Earth’s history. It’s a

good thing because they are unimaginably large. A supervolcano
must erupt more than 1,000 cubic km (240 cubic miles) of material,
compared with 1.2 km3 for Mount St. Helens or 25 km3 for Mount
Pinatubo, a large eruption in the Philippines in 1991. Not surprisingly,
supervolcanoes are the most dangerous type of volcano.

Supervolcano Eruptions

The exact cause of supervolcano eruptions is still debated. However,

scientists think that a very large magma chamber erupts entirely in
one catastrophic explosion. This creates a huge hole or caldera into
which the surface collapses (Figure 1).
 Figure 1. The caldera at Santorini in Greece is so large that it can only be seen by
satellite.

Yellowstone Caldera

The largest supervolcano in North America is beneath Yellowstone

National Park in Wyoming. Yellowstone sits above a hotspot that has
erupted catastrophically three times: 2.1 million, 1.3 million, and
640,000 years ago. Yellowstone has produced many smaller (but still
enormous) eruptions more recently (Figure 2). Fortunately, current
activity at Yellowstone is limited to the region’s famous geysers.
 The Old Faithful web cam shows periodic eruptions of
Yellowstone’s famous geyser in real time.

Figure 2. The Yellowstone hotspot has produced enormous felsic eruptions. The
Yellowstone caldera collapsed in the most recent super eruption.

Supervolcano Eruptions and Life on Earth

A supervolcano could change life on Earth as we know it. Ash could

block sunlight so much that photosynthesis would be reduced and
global temperatures would plummet. Volcanic eruptions could have
contributed to some of the mass extinctions in our planet’s history.
No one knows when the next super eruption will be.
 Interesting volcano videos are seen on National Geographic
Videos: Environment Video, Natural Disasters, Earthquakes. One
interesting one is “Mammoth Mountain,” which explores Hot Creek
and the volcanic area it is a part of in California.

Summary

Supervolcano eruptions are rare but massive and deadly.

Yellowstone Caldera is a supervolcano that has erupted
catastropically three times.

Supervolcano eruptions can change the course of life on

Earth.

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 Self Check: Volcano Types

Check Your Understanding

Answer the question(s) below to see how well you understand the
topics covered in the previous section. This short quiz
does not count toward your grade in the class, and you can retake it
an unlimited number of times.

Use this quiz to check your understanding and decide whether to

(1) study the previous section further or (2) move on to the next
section.

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 Outcome: The Formation of Volcanoes

Describe the processes that form volcanoes.

Volcanoes are a vibrant manifestation of plate tectonics processes.

Volcanoes are common along convergent and divergent plate
boundaries. Volcanoes are also found within lithospheric plates away
from plate boundaries. Wherever mantle is able to melt, volcanoes
may be the result.
 Figure 1. World map of active volcanoes.

See if you can give a geological explanation for the locations of all
the volcanoes in figure 1. What is the Pacific Ring of Fire? Why are
the Hawaiian volcanoes located away from any plate boundaries?
What is the cause of the volcanoes along the mid-Atlantic ridge?

Volcanoes erupt because mantle rock melts. This is the first stage
in creating a volcano. Remember from the chapter “Rocks” that
mantle may melt if temperature rises, pressure lowers, or water is
added. Be sure to think about how melting occurs in each of the
following volcanic settings.

What You’ll Learn to Do

Describe various volcanic processess at plate boundaries

Understand the development of hotspots and their common
locations

Learning Activities

The learning activities for this section include the following:

Reading: Volcanoes at Plate Boundaries

Reading: Volcanoes Hotspots

Reading: Volcano Formation

Self Check: The Formation of Volcanoes

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 Reading: Volcanoes at Plate Boundaries

Volcanoes are fun (and difficult) to

climb. Climbing in the Cascades ranges in difficulty from a non-
technical hike, like on South Sister, to a technical climb on Mount
Baker in which an ice axe, crampons, and experience are needed.

Convergent Plate Boundaries

Converging plates can be oceanic, continental, or one of each. If

both are continental they will smash together and form a mountain
range. If at least one is oceanic, it will subduct. A subducting plate
creates volcanoes. Locations with converging in which at least one
plate is oceanic at the boundary have volcanoes.

Melting

Melting at convergent plate boundaries has many causes. The

subducting plate heats up as it sinks into the mantle. Also, water is
mixed in with the sediments lying on top of the subducting plate. As
the sediments subduct, the water rises into the overlying mantle
material and lowers its melting point. Melting in the mantle above the
subducting plate leads to volcanoes within an island or continental
arc.

Why does melting occur at convergent plate boundaries? The

subducting plate heats up as it sinks into the mantle. Also, water is
mixed in with the sediments lying on top of the subducting plate. This
water lowers the melting point of the mantle material, which
increases melting. Volcanoes at convergent plate boundaries are
found all along the Pacific Ocean basin, primarily at the edges of the
Pacific, Cocos, and Nazca plates. Trenches mark subduction zones,
although only the Aleutian Trench and the Java Trench appear on
the map in figure 1.

Remember your plate tectonics knowledge. Large earthquakes are

extremely common along convergent plate boundaries. Since the
Pacific Ocean is rimmed by convergent and transform boundaries,
about 80% of all earthquakes strike around the Pacific Ocean basin
(the ring of fire). Why are 75% of the world’s volcanoes found around
the Pacific basin? Of course, these volcanoes are caused by the
abundance of convergent plate boundaries around the Pacific.

Pacific Rim

The Pacific Ring of Fire is

where the majority of the
volcanic activity on the Earth
occurs. A description of the
Pacific Ring of Fire along
western North America is a
description of the plate
boundaries.

Subduction at the
Middle American
Trench creates
volcanoes in Central
America.
Figure 1. The Cascade Range is formed by
volcanoes created from subduction of oceanic
The San Andreas crust beneath the North American continent.
Fault is a transform
boundary.

Subduction of the Juan de Fuca plate beneath the North

American plate creates the Cascade volcanoes.
 Subduction of the Pacific plate beneath the North American
plate in the north creates the Aleutian Islands volcanoes.

This incredible explosive eruption of Mount Vesuvius in Italy in

A.D. 79 is an example of a composite volcano that forms as the
result of a convergent plate boundary:

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Volcanoes at convergent plate boundaries are found all along the

Pacific Ocean basin, primarily at the edges of the Pacific, Cocos,
and Nazca plates. Trenches mark subduction zones.

The Cascades are a chain of volcanoes at a convergent boundary

where an oceanic plate is subducting beneath a continental plate.
Specifically the volcanoes are the result of subduction of the Juan de
Fuca, Gorda, and Explorer Plates beneath North America. The
volcanoes are located just above where the subducting plate is at
the right depth in the mantle for there to be melting (Figure 1).

The Cascades have been active for 27 million years, although the
current peaks are no more than 2 million years old. The volcanoes
are far enough north and are in a region where storms are common,
so many are covered by glaciers.

The Cascades are shown on this interactive map with photos and
descriptions of each of the volcanoes.

Figure 3. Mt. Baker, Washington.

Divergent plate boundaries

At divergent plate boundaries hot mantle rock rises into the space
where the plates are moving apart. As the hot mantle rock convects
upward it rises higher in the mantle. The rock is under lower
pressure; this lowers the melting temperature of the rock and so it
melts. Lava erupts through long cracks in the ground, or fissures.

Why does melting occur at

divergent plate boundaries? Hot
mantle rock rises where the
plates are moving apart. This
releases pressure on the
mantle, which lowers its melting
temperature. Lava erupts
through long cracks in the Figure 4. A volcanic eruption at Surtsey, a small
island near Iceland.
ground, or fissures.

Volcanoes erupt at mid-ocean

ridges, such as the Mid-Atlantic ridge, where seafloor spreading
creates new seafloor in the rift valleys. Where a hotspot is located
along the ridge, such as at Iceland, volcanoes grow high enough to
create islands (figure 4).

Mid-Ocean Ridges

Volcanoes erupt at mid-ocean ridges, such as the Mid-Atlantic

ridge, where seafloor spreading creates new seafloor in the rift
valleys. Where a hotspot is located along the ridge, such as at
Iceland, volcanoes grow high enough to create islands.
Continental Rifting

Eruptions are found at divergent

plate boundaries as continents
break apart. The volcanoes in
Figure 5 are in the East African
Rift between the African and
Arabian plates. Remember from
the chapter Plate Tectonics that
Figure 5. Mount Gahinga in the East African Rift
Baja California is being broken valley.

apart from mainland Mexico as

another example of continental
rifting.

Summary

Melting is common at convergent plate boundaries.

Convergent plate boundaries line the Pacific Ocean basin

so that volcanic arcs line the region.
Melting at divergent plate boundaries is due to pressure
release.

At mid-ocean ridges seafloor is pulled apart and new

seafloor is created.

EXPLORE MORE
 Use this resource to answer the questions that follow.

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(You can stop watching at 11:02.)

1. What percent of volcanoes and earthquakes occur on the Pacific Ring

of Fire?

2. How long is the arc of volcanoes along the Pacific Rim?

3. How has Augustine built up so high? Does it have high or low silica?

4. What type of volcanoes are found along the ring of fire? What
happens to the gas in the magma?
what kills so many people?

5. What does water do in hot rock below the surface?

6. What does carbon-12 indicate?

7. What process brings the sediments and water into the mantle?

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 Volcanoes at Plate Boundaries. Provided by: CK-12.
Located at: http://www.ck12.org/earth-science/Volcanoes-
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 Reading: Volcanoes Hotspots

In geology, the places known

as hotspots or hot spots are
volcanic regions thought to be
fed by underlying mantle that is
anomalously hot compared with
the surrounding mantle. They
may be on, near to, or far from
tectonic plate boundaries.
Currently, there are two
hypotheses that attempt to
explain their origins. One
suggests that they are due to
hot mantle plumes that rise as
thermal diapirs from the core–
[1]
mantle boundary. An
alternative hypothesis
Figure 1. Diagram showing a cross section though
postulates that it is not high the Earth’s lithosphere (in yellow) with magma
rising from the mantle (in red)
temperature that causes the
volcanism, but lithospheric
extension that permits the
[2]
passive rising of melt from shallow depths. This hypothesis
considers the term “hotspot” to be a misnomer, asserting that the
mantle source beneath them is, in fact, not anomalously hot at all.
Well known examples include Hawaii and Yellowstone.

Background

The origins of the concept of hotspots lie in the work of J. Tuzo

Wilson, who postulated in 1963 that the Hawaiian Islands result from
the slow movement of a tectonic plate across a hot region beneath
[3]
the surface. It was later postulated that hotspots are fed by narrow
streams of hot mantle rising from the Earth’s core–mantle boundary
[4]
in a structure called a mantle plume. Whether or not such mantle
plumes exist is currently the subject of a major controversy in Earth
[5]
science. Estimates for the number of hotspots postulated to be fed
by mantle plumes has ranged from about 20 to several thousands,
over the years, with most geologists considering a few tens to exist.
Hawaii, Réunion, Yellowstone, Galápagos, and Iceland are some of
the currently most active volcanic regions to which the hypothesis is
applied.
 Figure 2. Schematic diagram showing the physical processes inside the Earth
that lead to the generation of magma. Partial melting begins above the fusion
point.

Most hotspot volcanoes are basaltic (e.g., Hawaii, Tahiti). As a

result, they are less explosive than subduction zone volcanoes, in
which water is trapped under the overriding plate. Where hotspots
occur in continental regions, basaltic magma rises through the
continental crust, which melts to form rhyolites. These rhyolites can
form violent eruptions. For example, the Yellowstone Caldera was
formed by some of the most powerful volcanic explosions in geologic
history. However, when the rhyolite is completely erupted, it may be
followed by eruptions of basaltic magma rising through the same
lithospheric fissures (cracks in the lithosphere). An example of this
activity is theIlgachuz Range in British Columbia, which was created
by an early complex series of trachyte and rhyolite eruptions, and
[6]
late extrusion of a sequence of basaltic lava flows.

The hotspot hypothesis is now closely linked to the mantle plume

hypothesis.

Comparison with island arc volcanoes

Hotspot volcanoes are considered to have a fundamentally different

origin from island arc volcanoes. The latter form over subduction
zones, at converging plate boundaries. When one oceanic plate
meets another, the denser plate is forced downward into a deep
ocean trench. This plate, as it is subducted, releases water into the
base of the over-riding plate, and this water mixes with the rock, thus
changing its composition causing some rock to melt and rise. It is
this that fuels a chain of volcanoes, such as the Aleutian Islands,
near Alaska.
Hotspot volcanic chains

The joint mantle plume/hotspot hypothesis envisages the feeder

structures to be fixed relative to one another, with the continents and
seafloor drifting overhead. The hypothesis thus predicts that time-
progressive chains of volcanoes are developed on the surface.
Examples are Yellowstone, which lies at the end of a chain of extinct
calderas, which become progressively older to the west. Another
example is the Hawaiian archipelago, where islands become
progressively older and more deeply eroded to the northwest.

Geologists have tried to use hotspot volcanic chains to track the

movement of the Earth’s tectonic plates. This effort has been vexed
by the lack of very long chains, by the fact that many are not time-
progressive (e.g. the Galápagos) and by the fact that hotspots do not
[7]
appear to be fixed relative to one another (e.g. Hawaii and Iceland ).
 Figure 3. Over millions of years, the Pacific Plate has moved over the Hawaii
hotspot, creating a trail of underwater mountains that stretch across the Pacific

1. W. J. Morgan (5 March 1971). "Convection Plumes in the Lower

Mantle." Nature230 (5288): 42–43. doi: 10.1038/230042a0. ↵

2. "Do plumes exist?". Retrieved 2010-04-25. See also, Foulger, G.R. (2010).
Plates vs. Plumes: A Geological Controversy. Wiley-Blackwell. ↵

3. Wilson, J. Tuzo (1963). "A possible origin of the Hawaiian Islands" (PDF).
Canadian Journal of Physics41 (6): 863–870. doi:10.1139/p63-094. ↵

4. "Hotspots: Mantle thermal plumes." United States Geological Survey. 1999-05-

05. Retrieved 2008-05-15. ↵
 5. Foulger, G.R. (2010). Plates vs. Plumes: A Geological Controversy. Wiley-
Blackwell. See also,Wright, Laura (November 2000). "Earth's interior: Raising hot
spots." Geotimes. American Geological Institute. Retrieved 2008-06-15. ↵

6. Holbek, Peter (November 1983). "Report on Preliminary Geology and

Geochemistry of the Ilga Claim Group" (PDF). Retrieved 2008-06-15. ↵

7. "What the hell is Hawaii?" Retrieved 2011-01-07. ↵

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 Self Check: The Formation of Volcanoes

Check Your Understanding

Answer the question(s) below to see how well you understand the
topics covered in the previous section. This short quiz
does not count toward your grade in the class, and you can retake it
an unlimited number of times.

Use this quiz to check your understanding and decide whether to

(1) study the previous section further or (2) move on to the next
section.

An interactive or media element has been excluded from this

version of the text. You can view it online here:
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 Outcome: Igneous Features

Classify and identify igneous features.

This section will introduce you to common volcanic features including

types of deposits and lava associated with different volcano types.

What You’ll Learn to Do

Recognize pyroclastic deposit

Differentiate between a dike and a sill

Recognize different volcanic landforms
Describe the development of continental and oceanic
crusts.

Learning Activities

The learning activities for this section include the following:

Reading: Pyroclastic Deposits

Reading: Dikes and Sills

Reading: Volcanic Landforms

Self Check: Igneous Features

 Reading: Pyroclastic Deposits

Pyroclastic rocks or
pyroclastics are clastic rocks
composed solely or primarily of
volcanic materials. Where the
volcanic material has been
transported and reworked
through mechanical action,
such as by wind or water, these Figure 1. USGS scientist examines pumice blocks
rocks are termed at the edge of a pyroclastic flow from Mount St.
Helens
volcaniclastic. Commonly
associated with unsieved
volcanic activity—such as
Plinian or krakatoan eruption styles, or phreatomagmatic eruptions—
pyroclastic deposits are commonly formed from airborne ash, lapilli
and bombs or blocks ejected from the volcano itself, mixed in with
shatteredcountry rock.

Pyroclastic rocks may be a range of clast sizes, from the largest

agglomerates, to very fine ashes and tuffs. Pyroclasts of different
sizes are classified as volcanic bombs, lapilli, and volcanic ash. Ash
is considered to be pyroclastic because it is a fine dust made up of
volcanic rock. One of the most spectacular forms of pyroclastic
deposit are the ignimbrites, deposits formed by the high-temperature
gas-and-ash mix of a pyroclastic flow event.

Classification

Types of Pyroclasts[1]
Clast Mainly unconsolidated: Mainly consolidated:
Pyroclast
size Tephra Pyroclastic rock
Block,
> 64 mm Agglomerate Agglomerate, pyroclastic breccia
bomb
< 64 mm Lapillus Layer, lapilli tephra Lapilli tuff, lapillistone

Coarse
< 2 mm Coarse ash Coarse (ash) tuff
ash

<
Fine ash Fine ash Fine (ash) tuff
0.063 mm

Three modes of transport can

be distinguished: pyroclastic
flow, pyroclastic surge, and
pyroclastic fall. During Plinian
eruptions, pumice and ash are
formed when silicic magma is
fragmented in the volcanic
conduit, because of
decompression and the growth Figure 2. Rocks from the Bishop Tuff,
uncompressed with pumice on left; compressed
of bubbles. Pyroclasts are then with fiamme on right.

entrained in a buoyant eruption

plume which can rise several
kilometers into the air and cause aviation hazards. Particles falling
from the eruption clouds form layers on the ground (this is
pyroclastic fall or tephra). Pyroclastic density currents, which are
referred to as “flows” or “surges” depending on particle concentration
and the level turbulence, are sometimes called glowing avalanches.
The deposits of pumice-rich pyroclastic flows can be
called ignimbrites.

A pyroclastic eruption entails spitting or “fountaining” lava, where

the lava will be thrown into the air along with ash, pyroclastic
materials, and other volcanic byproducts. Hawaiian eruptions such
as those at Kīlauea can eject clots of magma suspended into gas;
this is called a “fire fountain”. The magma clots, if hot enough may
coalesce upon landing to form a lava flow.

Pyroclastic deposits consist of pyroclasts which are not cemented

together. Pyroclastic rocks (tuff) are pyroclastic deposits which have
been lithified.

References

Blatt, Harvey and Robert J. Tracy (1996) Petrology: Igneous,

Sedimentary, and Metamorphic, W.H.W. Freeman & Company;
2nd ed., pp. 26–29.
 1. Heiken, G. and Wohletz, K., 1985 Volcanic Ash, University of California Press;,
pp. 246. ↵

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 Reading: Dikes and Sills

Dikes

A dike is a sheet of rock that

formed in a fracture in a pre-
existing rock body. Dikes can be
either magmatic or sedimentary
in origin. Magmatic dikes form
when magma intrudes into a
crack then crystallizes as a
sheet intrusion, either cutting
across layers of rock or through
an unlayered mass of rock.
Clastic dikes are formed when
sediment fills a pre-existing
[1]
crack.

Magmatic Dikes
Figure 1. A magmatic dike cross-cutting horizontal
layers of sedimentary rock, in Makhtesh Ramon,
An intrusive dike is an igneous Israel
body with a very high aspect
ratio, which means that its
thickness is usually much smaller than the other two dimensions.
Thickness can vary from sub-centimeter scale to many meters, and
the lateral dimensions can extend over many kilometres. A dike is an
intrusion into an opening cross-cutting fissure, shouldering aside
other pre-existing layers or bodies of rock; this implies that a dike is
always younger than the rocks that contain it. Dikes are usually high-
angle to near-vertical in orientation, but subsequent tectonic
deformation may rotate the sequence of strata through which the
dike propagates so that the dike becomes horizontal. Near-
horizontal, or conformable intrusions, along bedding planes between
strata are called intrusive sills.

Sometimes dikes appear in swarms, consisting of several to

hundreds of dikes emplaced more or less contemporaneously during
a single intrusive event. The world’s largest dike swarm is the
[2]
Mackenzie dike swarm in the Northwest Territories, Canada.

Dikes often form as either radial or concentric swarms around

plutonic intrusives, volcanic necks or feeder vents in volcanic cones.
The latter are known as ring dikes.

Dikes can vary in texture and their composition can range from
diabase or basaltic to granitic or rhyolitic, but on a global perspective
the basaltic composition prevails, manifesting ascent of vast volumes
of mantle-derived magmas through fractured lithosphere throughout
Earth history. Pegmatite dikes comprise extremely coarse crystalline
granitic rocks—often associated with late-stage granite intrusions or
metamorphic segregations. Aplite dikes are fine-grained or sugary-
textured intrusives of granitic composition.

Figure 2. A small dike on the Baranof Cross-Island Trail, Alaska

Sedimentary Dikes

Sedimentary dikes or clastic dikes are vertical bodies of

sedimentary rock that cut off other rock layers. They can form in two
ways:
 When a shallow
unconsolidated
sediment is composed
of alternating coarse
grained
andimpermeable clay
layers the fluid
pressure inside the
coarser layers may
reach a critical value
due to lithostatic
overburden. Driven by
the fluid pressure the
Figure 3. Clastic dike (left of notebook) in the
sediment breaks Chinle Formation in Canyonlands National Park,
through overlying Utah

layers and forms a

dike.

When a soil is under permafrost conditions the pore water

is totally frozen. When cracks are formed in such rocks,
they may fill up with sediments that fall in from above. The
result is a vertical body of sediment that cuts through
horizontal layers: a dike.

Sills

In geology, a sill is a tabular sheet intrusion that has intruded

between older layers of sedimentary rock, beds of volcanic lava or
tuff, or even along the direction of foliation in metamorphic rock. The
term sill is synonymous with concordant intrusive sheet. This means
that the sill does not cut across preexisting rocks, in contrast to
dikes, discordant intrusive sheets which do cut across older rocks.
Sills are fed by dikes, except in unusual locations where they form in
nearly vertical beds attached directly to a magma source. The rocks
must be brittle and fracture to create the planes along which the
magma intrudes the parent rock bodies, whether this occurs along
preexisting planes between sedimentary or volcanic beds or
weakened planes related to foliation in metamorphic rock. These
planes or weakened areas allow the intrusion of a thin sheet-like
body of magma paralleling the existing bedding planes, concordant
fracture zone, or foliations.

Sills parallel beds (layers)

and foliations in the surrounding
country rock. They can be
originally emplaced in a
horizontal orientation, although
tectonic processes may cause
subsequent rotation of
horizontal sills into near vertical Figure 4. Illustration showing the difference
between a dike and a sill.
orientations. Sills can be
confused with solidified lava
flows; however, there are
several differences between them. Intruded sills will show partial
melting and incorporation of the surrounding country rock. On both
contact surfaces of the country rock into which the sill has intruded,
evidence of heating will be observed (contact metamorphism). Lava
flows will show this evidence only on the lower side of the flow. In
addition, lava flows will typically show evidence of vesicles (bubbles)
where gases escaped into the atmosphere. Because sills generally
form at shallow depths (up to many kilometers) below the surface,
the pressure of overlying rock prevents this from happening much, if
at all. Lava flows will also typically show evidence of weathering on
their upper surface, whereas sills, if still covered by country rock,
typically do not.

Associated Ore Deposits

Certain layered intrusions are

a variety of sill that often
contain important ore deposits.
Precambrian examples include
the Bushveld, Insizwa and the
Great Dyke complexes of
southern Africa, the Duluth
intrusive complex of the
Superior District, and the Figure 5. Mid-Carboniferous dolerite sill cutting
Lower Carboniferous shales and sandstones,
Stillwater igneous complex of Horton Bluff, Minas Basin South Shore, Nova
Scotia
the United States. Phanerozoic
examples are usually smaller
and include the Rùm peridotite
complex of Scotland and the Skaergaard igneous complex of east
Greenland. These intrusions often contain concentrations of gold,
platinum, chromium and other rare elements.

Transgressive Sills

Despite their concordant nature, many large sills change

stratigraphic level within the intruded sequence, with each
concordant part of the intrusion linked by relatively short dike-like
segments. Such sills are known as transgressive, examples include
[3]
the Whin Sill and sills within the Karoo basin. The geometry of large
sill complexes in sedimentary basins has become clearer with the
[4]
availability of 3D seismic reflection data. Such data has shown that
many sills have an overall saucer shape and that many others are at
[5]
least in part transgressive.

Other Meanings

“Sill” may also refer to the rise in depth near the mouth of a fjord
caused by the terminal moraine of the previous glacier.

1. Essentials of Geology, 3rd Ed, Stephen Marshak ↵

2. Pilkington, Mark and Walter R. Roest; Removing varying directional trends in

aeromagnetic data, Geophysics, vol. 63 no. 2 (1998), pp. 446–453. abstract↵

3. Holmes, A. 1978. Principles of Physical Geology, Van Nostrand Reinhold (UK)

Co.Ltd., 720 pp. See also, Polteau, S., Mazzini, A., Galland, O., Planke, S. &

Malthe-Sørenssen, A. 2008. Saucer-shaped intrusions: Occurrences,

 emplacement and implications, Earth and Planetary Science Letters 266, 195–

204. ↵

4. Thomson, K. & Hutton, D. 2004. Geometry and growth of sill complexes: insights
using 3D seismic from the North Rockall Trough, Bulletin of Volcanology, 66,

364–375. ↵

5. Planke, S., Rasmussen, T., Rey, S.S. & Myklebust, R. 2005. Seismic

characteristics and distribution of volcanic intrusions and hydrothermal vent

complexes in the Vøring and Møre basins, In: Doré, A. G. & Vining, B. A. (eds)

Petroleum Geology: North-West Europe and Global Perspectives — Proceedings

of the 6th Petroleum Geology Conference, 833–844. Petroleum Geology

Conferences Ltd. Published by the Geological Society, London. ↵

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 Reading: Volcanic Landforms

Why is the Republic of Indonesia made of 17,508 islands?

Around the Pacific Rim is Indonesia, a nation built from the dotted
volcanoes of an island arc. Indonesia is distinctive for its rich
volcanic soil, tropical climate, tremendous biodiversity, and
volcanoes. These volcanoes are in Java, Indonesia.

Landforms from Lava

Volcanoes and Vents

The most obvious landforms created by lava are volcanoes, most

commonly as cinder cones, composite volcanoes, and shield
volcanoes. Eruptions also take place through other types of vents,
commonly from fissures (Figure 1). The eruptions that created the
entire ocean floor are essentially fissure eruptions.

Figure 1. A fissure eruption on Mauna Loa in Hawaii travels toward Mauna Kea
on the Big Island.

Lava Domes

Viscous lava flows slowly. If there is not enough magma or enough

pressure to create an explosive eruption, the magma may form a
lava dome. Because it is so thick, the lava does not flow far from the
vent. (Figure 2).
 Figure 2. Lava domes are large, round landforms created by thick lava that does
not travel far from the vent.

Lava flows often make mounds right in the middle of craters at the
top of volcanoes, as seen in the Figure 3.

Figure 3. Lava domes may form in the crater of composite volcanoes as at

Mount St. Helens.
Lava Plateaus

A lava plateau forms when large amounts of fluid lava flow over an
extensive area (Figure 4). When the lava solidifies, it creates a large,
flat surface of igneous rock.

Figure 4. Layer upon layer of basalt have created the Columbia Plateau, which
covers more than 161,000 square kilometers (63,000 square miles) in
Washington, Oregon, and Idaho.

Land
Lava creates new land as it solidifies on the coast or emerges from
beneath the water (Figure 5).

Figure 5. Lava flowing into the sea creates new land in Hawaii.

Over time the eruptions can create whole islands. The Hawaiian
Islands are formed from shield volcano eruptions that have grown
over the last 5 million years (Figure 6).
 Figure 6. The island of Hawaii was created by hotspot volcanism. You can see
some of the volcanoes (both active and extinct) in this mosaic of false-color
composite satellite images.

Landforms from Magma

Magma intrusions can create landforms. Shiprock in New Mexico is

the neck of an old volcano that has eroded away (Figure 7). The
volcanic neck is the remnant of the conduit the magma traveled up to
feed an eruption.

Figure 7. The aptly named Shiprock in New Mexico.

Summary

Landforms created by lava include volcanoes, domes, and

plateaus.
New land can be created by volcanic eruptions.

Landforms created by magma include volcanic necks and

domes.
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 Self Check: Igneous Features

Check Your Understanding

Answer the question(s) below to see how well you understand the
topics covered in the previous section. This short quiz
does not count toward your grade in the class, and you can retake it
an unlimited number of times.

Use this quiz to check your understanding and decide whether to

(1) study the previous section further or (2) move on to the next
section.

An interactive or media element has been excluded from this

version of the text. You can view it online here:
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/geo/?p=2755

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Authored by: Kimberly Schulte and Lumen Learning.

Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution
 Outcome: Volcanic Hazards

Describe major volcanic hazards and their potential

effects.

Volcanic eruptions are one of Earth’s most dramatic and violent

agents of change. Not only can powerful explosive eruptions
drastically alter land and water for tens of kilometers around a
volcano, but tiny liquid droplets of sulfuric acid erupted into the
stratosphere can change our planet’s climate temporarily. Eruptions
often force people living near volcanoes to abandon their land and
homes, sometimes forever. Those living farther away are likely to
avoid complete destruction, but their cities and towns, crops,
industrial plants, transportation systems, and electrical grids can still
be damaged by tephra, ash, lahars, and flooding.

What You’ll Learn to Do

Recognize and describe the impact of volcanic hazards

associated with active eruptions.
Recognize and describe the impact of volcanic hazards
associated with the aftermath of eruptions.

Learning Activities
The learning activities for this section include the following:

Reading: Volcanic Gases, Pyroclastic Flow, and Tephra

Reading: Lahars, Landslides, and Lavaflow

Self Check: Volcanic Hazards

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Domain: No Known Copyright
Reading: Volcanic Gases, Pyroclastic Flow, and
Tephra

Volcanic Gases and Their Effects

Magma contains dissolved gases that are released into the

atmosphere during eruptions. Gases are also released from magma
that either remains below ground (for example, as an intrusion) or is
rising toward the surface. In such cases, gases may escape
continuously into the atmosphere from the soil, volcanic vents,
fumaroles, and hydrothermal systems.

At high pressures deep beneath the earth’s surface, volcanic

gases are dissolved in molten rock. But as magma rises toward the
surface where the pressure is lower, gases held in the melt begin to
form tiny bubbles. The increasing volume taken up by gas bubbles
makes the magma less dense than the surrounding rock, which may
allow the magma to continue its upward journey. Closer to the
surface, the bubbles increase in number and size so that the gas
volume may exceed the melt volume in the magma, creating a
magma foam. The rapidly expanding gas bubbles of the foam can
lead to explosive eruptions in which the melt is fragmented into
pieces of volcanic rock, known as tephra. If the molten rock is not
fragmented by explosive activity, a lava flow will be generated.

Together with the tephra and entrained air, volcanic gases can rise
tens of kilometers into Earth’s atmosphere during large explosive
eruptions. Once airborne, the prevailing winds may blow the eruption
cloud hundreds to thousands of kilometers from a volcano. The
gases spread from an erupting vent primarily as acid aerosols (tiny
acid droplets), compounds attached to tephra particles, and
microscopic salt particles.

Volcanic gases undergo a tremendous increase in volume when

magma rises to the Earth’s surface and erupts. For example,
consider what happens if one cubic meter of 900°C rhyolite magma
containing five percent by weight of dissolved water were suddenly
brought from depth to the surface. The one cubic meter of magma
now would occupy a volume of 670 m3 as a mixture of water vapor
and magma at atmospheric pressure (Sparks et. al., 1997)! The one
meter cube at depth would increase to 8.75 m on each side at the
surface. Such enormous expansion of volcanic gases, primarily
water, is the main driving force of explosive eruptions.

The most abundant gas typically released into the atmosphere from
volcanic systems is water vapor (H2O), followed by carbon dioxide
(CO2) and sulfur dioxide (SO2). Volcanoes also release smaller
amounts of others gases, including hydrogen sulfide (H2S),
hydrogen (H2), carbon monoxide (CO), hydrogen chloride (HCL),
hydrogen fluoride (HF), and helium (He).

Examples of volcanic gas compositions, in volume percent concentrations

(from Symonds et. al., 1994)
Volcano Kilauea Summit Erta` Ale Momotombo
Tectonic Style Hot Spot Divergent Plate Convergent Plate
Temperature 1170°C 1130°C 820°C
H20 37.1 77.2 97.1

C02 48.9 11.3 1.44

S02 11.8 8.34 0.50

H2 0.49 1.39 0.70

CO 1.51 0.44 0.01

H2S 0.04 0.68 0.23

HCl 0.08 0.42 2.89

HF — — 0.26

The volcanic gases that pose the greatest potential hazard to

people, animals, agriculture, and property are sulfur dioxide, carbon
dioxide, and hydrogen fluoride. Locally, sulfur dioxide gas can lead to
acid rain and air pollution downwind from a volcano. Globally, large
explosive eruptions that inject a tremendous volume of sulfur
aerosols into the stratosphere can lead to lower surface
temperatures and promote depletion of the Earth’s ozone layer.
Because carbon dioxide gas is heavier than air, the gas may flow
into in low-lying areas and collect in the soil. The concentration of
carbon dioxide gas in these areas can be lethal to people, animals,
and vegetation. A few historic eruptions have released sufficient
fluorine-compounds to deform or kill animals that grazed on
vegetation coated with volcanic ash; fluorine compounds tend to
become concentrated on fine-grained ash particles, which can be
ingested by animals.

Sulfur dioxide (SO2)

The effects of SO2 on people and the environment vary widely

depending on (1) the amount of gas a volcano emits into the
atmosphere; (2) whether the gas is injected into the troposphere or
stratosphere; and (3) the regional or global wind and weather pattern
that disperses the gas. Sulfur dioxide (SO2) is a colorless gas with a
pungent odor that irritates skin and the tissues and mucous
membranes of the eyes, nose, and throat. Sulfur dioxide chiefly
affects upper respiratory tract and bronchi. The World Health
Organization recommends a concentration of no greater than 0.5
ppm over 24 hours for maximum exposure. A concentration of 6-12
ppm can cause immediate irritation of the nose and throat; 20 ppm
can cause eye irritation; 10,000 ppm will irritate moist skin within
minutes.

Emission rates of SO2 from an active volcano range from <20

tonnes/day to >10 million tonnes/day according to the style of
volcanic activity and type and volume of magma involved. For
example, the large explosive eruption of Mount Pinatubo on 15 June
1991 expelled 3-5 km3 of dacite magma and injected about 20
million metric tons of SO2 into the stratosphere. The sulfur aerosols
resulted in a 0.5-0.6°C cooling of the Earth’s surface in the Northern
Hemisphere. The sulfate aerosols also accelerated chemical
reactions that, together with the increased stratospheric chlorine
levels from human-made chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) pollution,
destroyed ozone and led to some of the lowest ozone levels ever
observed in the atmosphere.

At Kilauea Volcano, the recent effusive eruption of about 0.0005

km3/day (500,000 m3) of basalt magma releases about 2,000 tonnes
of SO2 into the lower troposphere. Downwind from the vent, acid rain
and air pollution is a persistent health problem when the volcano is
erupting.

SO2 causes air pollutionVolcanic smog. Eruptions of

Kilauea Volcano release large quantities of sulfur dioxide
gas into the atmosphere that can lead to volcanic air
pollution on the Island of Hawai`i. Sulfur dioxide gas reacts
chemically with sunlight, oxygen, dust particles, and water
to form volcanic smog known as vog.

SO2 effects Earth’s surface temperatureGlobal cooling

and ozone depletion. Measurements from recent
eruptions such as Mount St. Helens, Washington (1980), El
Chichon, Mexico (1982), and Mount Pinatubo, Philippines
(1991), clearly show the importance of sulfur aerosols in
modifying climate, warming the stratosphere, and cooling
 the troposphere. Research has also shown that the liquid
drops of sulfuric acid promote the destruction of the Earth’s
ozone layer.

Hydrogen sulfide (H2S)

Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) is a colorless, flammable gas with a strong

offensive odor. It is sometimes referred to as sewer gas. At low
concentrations it can irritate the eyes and acts as a depressant; at
high concentrations it can cause irritation of the upper respiratory
tract and, during long exposure, pulmonary edema. A 30-minute
exposure to 500 ppm results in headache, dizziness, excitement,
staggering gait, and diarrhea, followed sometimes by bronchitis or
bronchopneumonia.

Carbon dioxide (CO2)

Volcanoes release more than 130 million tonnes of CO2 into the
atmosphere every year. This colorless, odorless gas usually does
not pose a direct hazard to life because it typically becomes diluted
to low concentrations very quickly whether it is released continuously
from the ground or during episodic eruptions. But in certain
circumstances, CO2 may become concentrated at levels lethal to
people and animals. Carbon dioxide gas is heavier than air and the
gas can flow into in low-lying areas; breathing air with more than
30% CO2 can quickly induce unconsciousness and cause death. In
volcanic or other areas where CO2 emissions occur, it is important to
avoid small depressions and low areas that might be CO2 traps. The
boundary between air and lethal gas can be extremely sharp; even a
single step upslope may be adequate to escape death.

CO2 trapped in depressions can be lethal to people and

animals. When a burning piece of cloth is lowered into a hole that
has a high concentration of CO2, the fire goes out. Such a condition
can be lethal to people and animals.

Air with 5% CO2 causes perceptible increased respiration; 6-10%

results in shortness of breath, headaches, dizziness, sweating, and
general restlessness; 10-15% causes impaired coordination and
abrupt muscle contractions; 20-30% causes loss of consciousness
and convulsions; over 30% can cause death (Hathaway et. al.,
1991).

Please see the web article, “Volcanic Gases and Climate Change
Overview” for more information on Volcanic versus anthropogenic
CO2emissions.

Here is a historical example of the effects of carbon dioxide

gas: Mammoth Mountain in Long Valley Caldera, California kills
trees near Mammoth Mountain, California

Hydrogen Chloride (HCl)

Chlorine gas is emitted from volcanoes in the form of hydrochloric
acid (HCl). Exposure to the gas irritates mucous membranes of the
eyes and respiratory tract. Concentrations over 35 ppm cause
irritation of the throat after short exposure; >100 ppm results in
pulmonary edema, and often laryngeal spasm. It also causes acid
rain downwind from volcanoes because HCl is extremely soluble in
condensing water droplets and it is a very “strong acid” (it
dissociates extensively to give H+ ions in the droplets).

Hydrogen Fluoride (HF)

Fluorine is a pale yellow gas that attaches to fine ash particles, coats
grass, and pollutes streams and lakes. Exposure to this powerful
caustic irritant can cause conjunctivitis, skin irritation, bone
degeneration and mottling of teeth. Excess fluorine results in a
significant cause of death and injury in livestock during ash
eruptions. Even in areas that receive just a millimeter of ash,
poisoning can occur where the fluorine content of dried grass
exceeds 250 ppm. Animals that eat grass coated with fluorine-tainted
ash are poisoned. Small amounts of fluorine can be beneficial, but
excess fluorine causes fluorosis, an affliction that eventually kills
animals by destroying their bones. It also promotes acid rain effects
downwind of volcanoes, like HCl.

Secondary Gas Emissions

Another type of gas release occurs when lava flows reach the ocean.
Extreme heat from molten lava boils and vaporizes seawater, leading
to a series of chemical reactions. The boiling and reactions produce
a large white plume, locally known as lava haze or laze, containing a
mixture of hydrochloric acid and concentrated seawater.

Laze plumes are very acidic. Extreme heat from lava

entering the sea rapidly boils and vaporizes seawater,
leading to a series of chemical reactions. The boiling and
reactions produce a large white plume, locally known as
lava haze or laze, which contains a mixture of hydrochloric
acid (HCl) and concentrated seawater. This is a short-lived
local phenomenon that only affects people or vegetation
directly under the plume.
The hydrochloric acid (HCl) comes from the breakdown of
seawater-derived chlorides during sudden boiling. Because
the lava is largely degassed by the time it reaches the sea,
any HCL coming from it is insignificant by comparison.
Analyzed samples of the plume show that is is a brine with
a salinity of about 2.3 times that of seawater and a pH of
1.5-2.0.

Key seawater chloride breakdown reactions that

produce HCl gas

MgCl2 (sea salt) + H2O (steam) = MgO (periclase)

+ 2HCl (HCl gas)
2 NaCl (sea salt) + H2O (steam) = Na2O (sodium
oxide) + 2 HCL (HCl gas)
 CaCl2 (sea salt) + H2O (steam) = CaO (lime) + 2
HCL (HCl gas)

Avoid standing beneath a laze plume. Dense laze

plumes, such as that shown here (Photograph by C.C.
Heliker, February 10, 1994) contain as much as 10-15 parts
per million of hydrochloric acid. These values drop off
sharply as the plume moves away from the lava entry
areas. During along-shore or on-shore winds, this plume
produces acid rain that may fall on people and land along
the coast. This rain (pH 1.5 to 2), often more acidic that lime
juice or stomach acid, is very corrosive to the skin and
clothing. Visitors to the lava entry areas should avoid
standing directly in, under, or downwind of the laze plume.

Pyroclastic Flows and Their Effects

About Pyroclastic Flows

Pyroclastic flows are high-density mixtures of hot, dry rock fragments

and hot gases that move away from the vent that erupted them at
high speeds. They may result from the explosive eruption of molten
or solid rock fragments, or both. They may also result from the
nonexplosive eruption of lava when parts of dome or a thick lava flow
collapses down a steep slope. Most pyroclastic flows consist of two
parts: a basal flow of coarse fragments that moves along the ground,
and a turbulent cloud of ash that rises above the basal flow. Ash may
fall from this cloud over a wide area downwind from the pyroclastic
flow.

Figure 1 shows a remnant of

a building in Francisco Leon
that was destroyed by
pyroclastic flows and surges
during the eruption of El
Chichon volcano in
southeastern Mexico between
Figure 1. Pyroclastic Flows destroy by direct
March 29 and April 4, 1982. impact.
Francisco Leon was located
about 5 km SSE of the volcano.
The reinforcement rods in the concrete wall are bent in the direction
of flow (right to left).

Several pyroclastic surges swept down all sides of the volcano,

reaching as far as 2 to 8 km from the volcano; pyroclastic flows
represent only about 30 percent of the total combined mass of
surges and flows. In addition to Francisco Leon, eight other villages
were destroyed, claiming the lives of up to 2,000 people.

Pyroclastic flows erupted by Mount Pinatubo on June 15, 1991,

buried the Marella River valley (SW of Pinatubo) with pumice, ash,
and other volcanic rocks to depths of between 50 and 200 m (as
shown in figure 2). This eruption was one of the largest in the 20th
century, depositing about 5.5
km3 of rock debris over nearly
400 km2. The pyroclastic flows
traveled as far as 12 to 16 km
from the volcano in all
directions. Unlike river valleys,
the steep slopes around the
Figure 2. Pyroclastic Flows bury sites with hot
volcano were veneered with rock debris.
very thin, discontinuous
pyroclastic-flow deposits.

A series of pyroclastic flows from Redoubt Volcano in Alaska

between December 1989 and April 1990 rapidly melted snow and ice
that generated lahars in Drift River (valley in figure 3).

The lahars swept 40 km to

Cook Inlet. Most of the
pyroclastic flows were caused
by the repeated collapse of a
lava dome growing high on the
volcano’s north flank.

Figure 3. Pyroclastic Flows melt snow and ice to

This view across the upper form lahars.

Drift River valley is to the SW;

the north flank is on the right
side of the volcano, but the dome is not visible. As each pyroclastic
flow swept down the volcano’s snow- and glacier-covered north
flank, the hot lava-dome fragments eroded and mixed with the snow
and ice to form a torrent of water that swept into Drift River. The
sudden surges of water eroded loose sediment on the valley floor
and transformed into lahars.

In this part of the Drift River valley, many of the lahars covered the
entire valley floor, but they were generally no more than a few
meters thick. The lahars provided an excellent opportunity to test a
new lahar detection system.

A small but highly fluidized

pyroclastic flow traveled down
the narrow Belham stream
channel as far as 5 to 6 km
from a lava dome growing at
the summit of Soufriere Hills
volcano in Montserrat (shown in
Figure 4. Pyroclastic Flows burn forests, crops,
figure 4). The basal part of the and buildings.
pyroclastic flow was confined to
the channel bottom, but the
overriding hot ash cloud burned and killed vegetation along the
channel. The pyroclastic flow was triggered by a partial collapse of
the dome. With initial temperatures higher than 900°C, the rock
debris and gas carried by a pyroclastic flow or surge easily remain
hot enough to burn or singe combustible material even when they
travel more than 20 km from a vent.

Effects of Pyroclastic Flows

A pyroclastic flow will destroy nearly everything in its path. With rock
fragments ranging in size from ash to boulders traveling across the
ground at speeds typically greater than 80 km per hour, pyroclastic
flows knock down, shatter, bury or carry away nearly all objects and
structures in their way. The extreme temperatures of rocks and gas
inside pyroclastic flows, generally between 200°C and 700°C, can
cause combustible material to burn, especially petroleum products,
wood, vegetation, and houses.

Pyroclastic flows vary considerably in size and speed, but even

relatively small flows that move less than 5 km from a volcano can
destroy buildings, forests, and farmland. And on the margins of
pyroclastic flows, death and serious injury to people and animals
may result from burns and inhalation of hot ash and gases.

Pyroclastic flows generally follow valleys or other low-lying areas

and, depending on the volume of rock debris carried by the flow, they
can deposit layers of loose rock fragments to depths ranging from
less than one meter to more than 200 m. Such loose layers of ash
and volcanic rock debris in valleys and on hillslopes can lead to
lahars indirectly by:
 1. Damming or blocking tributary streams, which may cause
water to form a lake behind the blockage, overtop and
erode the blockage, and mix with the rock fragments as it
rushes downstream (for example, see this case study at
Pinatubo Volcano, Philippines)
2. Increasing the rate of stream runoff and erosion during
subsequent rainstorms. Hot pyroclastic flows and surges
can also directly generate lahars by eroding and mixing with
snow and ice on a volcano’s flanks, thereby sending a
sudden torrent of water surging down adjacent valleys (see
case study from Nevado del Ruiz volcano, Colombia).

Tephra and Their Effects

Tephra is a general term for fragments of volcanic rock and lava

regardless of size that are blasted into the air by explosions or
carried upward by hot gases in eruption columns or lava fountains.
Such fragments range in size from less than 2 mm (ash) to more
than 1 m in diameter. Large-sized tephra typically falls back to the
ground on or close to the volcano and progressively smaller
fragments are carried away from the vent by wind. Volcanic ash, the
smallest tephra fragments, can travel hundreds to thousands of
kilometers downwind from a volcano.

Tephra consists of a wide range of rock particles (size, shape,

density, and chemical composition), including combinations of
pumice, glass shards, crystals from different types of minerals, and
shattered rocks of all types (igneous, sedimentary, and
metamorphic). A great variety of terms are used to describe the
range of rock fragments thrown into the air by volcanoes. The terms
classify the fragments according to size, shape, or the way in which
they form and travel.

Mount St. Helens

Mount St. Helens Kilauea Tephra: Kilauea Tephra:
Tephra: ash &
Tephra: block reticulite Pele’s hair
pumice

Volcanic Ash

How far will it fall downwind from an erupting volcano?

Ash usually covers a much larger area and disrupts the lives of far
more people than the other more lethal types of volcano hazards.
Unfortunately, the size of ash particles that fall to the ground and the
thickness of ashfall downwind from an erupting volcano are difficult
to predict in advance. Not only is there a wide range in the size of an
eruption that might occur and the amount of tephra injected into the
atmosphere, but the direction and strength of the prevailing wind can
vary widely.

Case Histories: Tephra Distribution Downwind from Eruption

Tephra Falls of the 1991 Eruptions of Mount Pinatubo

online report from Fire and Mud: eruptions and lahars of
Mount Pinatubo, Philippines.
Tephra fall from Mount St. Helens, Washington, on May 18,
1980
graph, ash thickness and particle size downwind from
volcano

Potential Effects of Volcanic Ash

Volcanic ash is highly disruptive to economic activity because it

covers just about everything, infiltrates most openings, and is highly
abrasive. Airborne ash can obscure sunlight to cause temporary
darkness and reduce visibility to zero. Ash is slippery, especially
when wet; roads, highways, and airport runways may become
impassable. Automobile and jet engines may stall from ash-clogged
air filters and moving parts can be damaged from abrasion, including
bearings, brakes, and transmissions.

More effects include the following:

Daylight turns into darkness.

 Roofs may collapse from added weight.
Machinery and vehicles will be abraded.
Farmland will be covered.

Roads will be slippery, blocked, or blocked.

Power systems may shut down.
Waste-water systems may clog.

Gutters may fill and collapse.

Public domain content

Types of Volcano Hazards. Provided by: USGS. Located

at: http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/hazards/. License: Public
Domain: No Known Copyright
 Reading: Lahars, Landslides, and Lavaflow

Lahars and Their Effects

Lahar is an Indonesian term

that describes a hot or cold
mixture of water and rock
fragments flowing down the
slopes of a volcano and (or)
river valleys. When moving, a
lahar looks like a mass of wet
Figure 1. Gualí River valley. Photograph by R.
concrete that carries rock debris Janda on December 18, 1985
ranging in size from clay to
boulders more than 10 m in
diameter. Lahars vary in size and speed. Small lahars less than a
few meters wide and several centimeters deep may flow a few
meters per second. Large lahars hundreds of meters wide and tens
of meters deep can flow several tens of meters per second–much
too fast for people to outrun.

As a lahar rushes downstream from a volcano, its size, speed, and

the amount of water and rock debris it carries constantly change.
The beginning surge of water and rock debris often erodes rocks and
vegetation from the side of a volcano and along the river valley it
enters. This initial flow can also incorporate water from melting snow
and ice (if present) and the river it overruns. By eroding rock debris
and incorporating additional water, lahars can easily grow to more
than 10 times their initial size. But as a lahar moves farther away
from a volcano, it will eventually begin to lose its heavy load of
sediment and decrease in size.

Eruptions may trigger one or more lahars directly by quickly melting

snow and ice on a volcano or ejecting water from a crater lake. More
often, lahars are formed by intense rainfall during or after an
eruption–rainwater can easily erode loose volcanic rock and soil on
hillsides and in river valleys. Some of the largest lahars begin as
landslides of saturated and hydrothermally altered rock on the flank
of a volcano or adjacent hillslopes. Landslides are triggered by
eruptions, earthquakes, precipitation, or the unceasing pull of gravity
on the volcano.

Lahars almost always occur on or near stratovolcanoes because

these volcanoes tend to erupt explosively and their tall, steep cones
are either snow covered, topped with a crater lake, constructed of
weakly consolidated rock debris that is easily eroded, or internally
weakened by hot hydrothermal fluids. Lahars are also common from
the snow- and ice-covered shield volcanoes in Iceland where
eruptions of fluid basalt lava frequently occur beneath huge glaciers.

The scenarios listed below illustrate most of the mechanisms by

which lahars are generated. For convenience, we’ve grouped the
mechanisms according to whether a volcano is erupting, has
erupted, or is quiet. Each mechanism is illustrated with one or more
case studies.

Volcano Landslides and Their Effects

Landslides are large masses of rock and soil that fall, slide, or flow
very rapidly under the force of gravity. These mixtures of debris
move in a wet or dry state, or both. Landslides commonly originate
as massive rockslides or avalanches which disintegrate during
movement into fragments ranging in size from small particles to
enormous blocks hundreds of meters across. If the moving rock
debris is large enough and contains a large content of water and fine
material (typically, >3-5 percent of clay-sized particles), the landslide
may transform into a lahar and flow downvalley more than 100 km
from a volcano!

Volcano landslides range in size from less than 1 km3 to more

than 100 km3. The high velocity (>100 km/hr) and great momentum
of landslides allows them to run up slopes and to cross valley divides
up to several hundred meters high. For example, the landslide at
Mount St. Helens on May 18, 1980, had a volume of 2.5 km3,
reached speeds of 50-80 m/s (180-288 km/hr), and surged up and
over a 400 m tall ridge located about 5 km from the volcano!
Landslides are common on volcanoes because their massive cones
(1) typically rise hundreds to thousands of meters above the
surrounding terrain; and (2) are often weakened by the very process
that created them–the rise and eruption of molten rock. Each time
magma moves toward the surface, overlying rocks are shouldered
aside as the molten rock makes room for itself, often creating
internal shear zones or oversteepening one or more sides of the
cone. Magma that remains within the cone releases volcanic gases
that partially dissolve in groundwater, resulting in a hot acidic
hydrothermal system that weakens rock by altering rock minerals to
clay. Furthermore, the tremendous mass of thousands of layers lava
and loose fragmented rock debris can lead to internal faults and fault
zones that move frequently as the cone “settles” under the
downward pull of gravity.

These conditions permit a number of factors to trigger a landslide

or to allow part of a volcano’s cone to simply collapse under the
influence of gravity:

intrusion of magma into a volcano

explosive eruptions (magmatic or phreatic–steam-driven
explosions)

large earthquake directly beneath a volcano or nearby

(typically >M5)
intense rainfall that saturates a volcano or adjacent tephra-
covered hillslopes with water, especially before or during a
 large earthquake.

A landslide typically destroys everything in its path and may generate

a variety of related activity. Historically, landslides have caused
explosive eruptions, buried river valleys with tens of meters of rock
debris, generated lahars, triggered waves and tsunami, and created
deep horseshoe-shaped craters.

By removing a large part of a volcano’s cone, a landslide may

abruptly decrease pressure on the shallow magmatic and
hydrothermal systems, which can generate explosions ranging from
a small steam explosion to large steam- and magma-driven directed
blasts. A large landslide often buries valleys with tens to hundreds of
meters of rock debris, forming a chaotic landscape marked by
dozens of small hills and closed depressions. If the deposit is thick
enough, it may dam tributary streams to form lakes in the
subsequent days to months; the lakes may eventually drain
catastrophically and generate lahars and floods downstream.

Landslides also generate some of the largest and most deadly

lahars, either by transforming directly into a lahar or, after it stops
moving, from dewatering of the deposit. Historically, however, the
most deadly volcano landslide occurred in 1792 when sliding debris
from Mt. Mayuyama near Unzen Volcano in Japan slammed into the
Ariaka Sea and generated a wave on the opposite side that killed
nearly 15,000 people.
 On a volcano, landslides typically carve deep gashes into its cone
or create large horseshoe-shaped craters hundreds of meters deep
and more than a kilometer in width.

Volcanic landslides can do the following:

Trigger volcanic explosions

Generate lahars that travel far downstream
Cause waves and tsunamis in a lake or ocean

Bury river valleys with rock debris

Dam tributary streams to form lakes

Create a crater or scar on the volcano

Lava Flows and Their Effects

Lava flows are streams of molten rock that pour or ooze from an
erupting vent. Lava is erupted during either nonexplosive activity or
explosive lava fountains. Lava flows destroy everything in their path,
but most move slowly enough that people can move out of the way.
The speed at which lava moves across the ground depends on
several factors, including (1) type of lava erupted and its viscosity;
(2) steepness of the ground over which it travels; (3) whether the
lava flows as a broad sheet, through a confined channel, or down a
lava tube; and (4) rate of lava production at the vent.
 Fluid basalt flows can extend tens of kilometers from an erupting
vent. The leading edges of basalt flows can travel as fast as 10
km/hour on steep slopes but they typically advance less than 1
km/hour on gentle slopes. But when basalt lava flows are confined
within a channel or lava tube on a steep slope, the main body of the
flow can reach velocities >30 km/hour.

Viscous andesite flows move only a few kilometers per hour and
rarely extend more than 8 km from their vents. Viscous dacite and
rhyolite flows often form steep-sided mounds called lava domes over
an erupting vent. Lava domes often grow by the extrusion of many
individual flows >30 m thick over a period of several months or
years. Such flows will overlap one another and typically move less
than a few meters per hour.

Everything in the path of an

advancing lava flow will be
knocked over, surrounded, or
buried by lava, or ignited by the
extremely hot temperature of
lava. When lava erupts beneath
a glacier or flows over snow
Figure 2. `A`a lava flow moves through an
and ice, meltwater from the ice intersection in the Royal Garderns subdivision on
and snow can result in far- the south flank of Kilauea Volcano, Hawai`i.
Photograph by J.D. Griggs in 1984.
reaching lahars. If lava enters a
body of water or water enters a
lava tube, the water may boil violently and cause an explosive
shower of molten spatter over a wide area. Methane gas, produced
as lava buries vegetation, can migrate in subsurface voids and
explode when heated. Thick viscous lava flows, especially those that
build a dome, can collapse to form fast-moving pyroclastic flows.

Deaths caused directly by lava flows are uncommon because

most move slowly enough that people can move out the way easily
and flows usually don’t travel far from the vent. Death and injury can
result when onlookers approach an advancing lava flow too closely
or their retreat is cut off by other flows. Deaths attributed to lava
flows are often due to related causes, such as explosions when lava
interacts with water, the collapse of an active lava delta, asphyxiation
due to accompanying toxic gases, pyroclastic flows from a collapsing
dome, and lahars from meltwater.

Other natural phenomena such as hurricanes, tornadoes, tsunami,

fires, and earthquakes often destroy buildings, agricultural crops,
and homes, but the owner(s) can usually rebuild or repair structures
and their businesses in the same location. Lava flows, however, can
bury homes and agricultural land under tens of meters of hardened
black rock; landmarks and property lines become obscured by a
vast, new hummocky landscape. People are rarely able to use land
buried by lava flows or sell it for more than a small fraction of its
previous worth.
 Lava erupted from Kilauea
Volcano covers part of Highway
130 on the southeast coast of
the Island of Hawai`i (see figure
3). By the end of 1998, lava
from the Pu’u’ ‘O’o-Kupaianaha
eruption covered about 13 km
Figure 3. Lava buries or surrounds everything.
of the highway to depths as
great as 25 m. Between 1983
and 1998, lava flows covered
an area of 99.7 km2 (38.5 mi2).

Because lava flows can completely block roads and highways that
may serve as the only evacuation route for people threatened by an
advancing flow, it is vital for communities that could be inundated
with lava to develop emergency-response plans.

One of the chief threats of lava flows to property owners is that the
flows may burn buildings and homes even if the flow doesn’t reach
the structure. This house caught fire from the intense heat of an
advancing `a`a flow (note red glow of flow left of the house).

Basalt has the highest temperature of any lava, typically between

about 1170-1100°C (~2140-2000°F). The other lava types (andesite,
dacite, and rhyolite) form cooler flows with temperatures between
about 1000-800°C (~1800-1500°F); some flows can still move slowly
at temperatures as low as about 600°C (~1100°F).

Lava melts snow and ice to

form jökulhlaups and lahars. By
this time, the area of
subsidence had grown to about
9 km long and 2-3 km wide. The
eruption continued for about
another 10 days, and meltwater
Figure 4. View of eruption crater and ash-covered
from the glacier flowed into the Vatnajökull glacier about 36 hours after the
Grímsvötn caldera. On October eruption had broken through the ice.

1, water level in the caldera’s

subglacial lake was about 1410
m; by October 16, the water level had risen to 1504 m, an increase
of 94 m! According to scientists monitoring the activity, lava erupting
from the fissure was piled up on the ground beneath the glacier,
“forming a mountain ridge which in places is expected to be 200 m
high.”

On October 16, scientists stated that the meltwater, which had

been accumulating under the ice shelf in the Grímsvötn caldera lake,
could begin draining at any time to trigger a jökulhlaup (glacial
outburst flood). On November 5 the expected jökulhlaup began.

Collapsing lava flows trigger pyroclastic flows. The fast-moving

pyroclastic flow was caused by the collapse of a thick lava flow that
was extruding from the summit area and oozing down the volcano’s
steep upper cone. When the lava flow collapsed, the hot lava broke
apart into fragments ranging in size from boulders to tiny ash
particles and swept down the volcano under the influence of gravity
to form the pyroclastic flow; the flow reached a maximum distance of
4.5 km from the summit.

Public domain content

Types of Volcano Hazards. Provided by: USGS. Located

at: http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/hazards/. License: Public
Domain: No Known Copyright
 Self Check: Volcanic Hazards

Check Your Understanding

Answer the question(s) below to see how well you understand the
topics covered in the previous section. This short quiz
does not count toward your grade in the class, and you can retake it
an unlimited number of times.

Use this quiz to check your understanding and decide whether to

(1) study the previous section further or (2) move on to the next
section.

An interactive or media element has been excluded from this

version of the text. You can view it online here:
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 Outcome: Monitoring Volcanoes

Identify the various methods used to monitor volcanic

activity

There are several different ways to monitor volcanoes. Let’s take a

look at some of these different methods.

What You’ll Learn to Do

Identify the six most important signs of an imminent

volcanic eruption.
Identify tools that can aid in monitoring volcanoes and
actions that should be taken.

Learning Activities

The learning activities for this section include the following:

Reading:Signs of an Eruption

Reading: Tools to Monitor Volcanoes

Self Check: Monitoring Volcanoes

 Reading: Signs of an Eruption

In 2005 USGS geologist Chris Newhall made a list of the six most
important signs of an imminent volcanic eruption. They are as
follows:

1. Gas leaks — the release of gases (mostly H2O, CO2, and

SO2) from the magma into the atmosphere through cracks
in the overlying rock
2. Bit of a bulge — the deformation of part of the volcano,
indicating that a magma chamber at depth is swelling or
becoming more pressurized

3. Getting shaky — many (hundreds to thousands) of small

earthquakes, indicating that magma is on the move. The
quakes may be the result of the magma forcing the
surrounding rocks to crack, or a harmonic vibration that is
evidence of magmatic fluids moving underground.
4. Dropping fast — a sudden decrease in the rate of
seismicity, which may indicate that magma has stalled,
which could mean that something is about to give way
5. Big bump — a pronounced bulge on the side of the volcano
(like the one at Mt. St. Helens in 1980), which may indicate
that magma has moved close to surface
 6. Blowing off steam — steam eruptions (a.k.a.
phreaticeruptions) that happen when magma near the
surface heats groundwater to the boiling point. The water
eventually explodes, sending fragments of the overlying
rock far into the air.

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4.5 Monitoring Volcanoes and Predicting Eruptions.

Authored by: Steven Earle. Provided by: BC Campus.
Located at: https://opentextbc.ca/geology/chapter/4-5-
monitoring-volcanoes-and-predicting-eruptions/. Project:
Physical Geology. License: CC BY: Attribution
 Reading: Tools to Monitor Volcanoes

Here is a list of the equipment we should have and the actions we

can take to monitor a volcano and predict when it might erupt.

Assessing Seismicity

The simplest and cheapest

way to monitor a volcano is with
seismometers. In an area with
several volcanoes that have the
potential to erupt (e.g., the
Squamish-Pemberton area), a
few well-placed seismometers Figure 1. A seismometer installed in 2007 in the
vicinity of the Nazco Cone, B.C. [photo Cathie
can provide us with an early Hickson, used with permission]
warning that something is
changing beneath one of the
volcanoes, and that we need to take a closer look. There are
currently enough seismometers in the Lower Mainland and on
[1]
Vancouver Island to provide this information.

If there is seismic evidence that a volcano is coming to life, more

seismometers should be placed in locations within a few tens of
kilometers of the source of the activity (Figure 1). This will allow
geologists to determine the exact location and depth of the seismic
activity so that they can see where the magma is moving.

Detecting Gases

Water vapor quickly turns into clouds of liquid water droplets and is
relatively easy to detect just by looking, but CO2 and SO2 are not as
obvious. It’s important to be able to monitor changes in the
composition of volcanic gases, and we need instruments to do that.
Some can be monitored from a distance (from the ground or even
from the air) using infrared devices, but to obtain more accurate
data, we need to sample the air and do chemical analysis. This can
be achieved with instruments placed on the ground close to the
source of the gases, or by collecting samples of the air and
analyzing them in a lab.

Measuring Deformation

There are two main ways to measure ground deformation at a

volcano. One is known as a tiltmeter, which is a sensitive three-
directional level that can sense small changes in the tilt of the ground
at a specific location. Another is through the use of GPS (global
positioning system) technology (Figure 2). GPS is more effective
than a tiltmeter because it provides information on how far the
ground has actually moved — east-west, north-south, and up-down.
 By combining information
from these types of sources,
along with careful observations
made on the ground and from
the air, and a thorough
knowledge of how volcanoes
work, geologists can get a good
idea of the potential for a
volcano to erupt in the near
Figure 2. A GPS unit installed at Hualalai volcano,
future (months to weeks, but Hawaii. The dish-shaped antenna on the right is
not days). They can then make the GPS receiver. The antenna on the left is for
communication with a base station. [from USGS
recommendations to authorities at: http://hvo.wr.usgs.gov/volcanowatch/view.php?
id=173]
about the need for evacuations
and restricting transportation
corridors. Our ability to predict
volcanic eruptions has increased dramatically in recent decades
because of advances in our understanding of how volcanoes behave
and in monitoring technology. Providing that careful work is done,
there is no longer a large risk of surprise eruptions, and providing
that public warnings are issued and heeded, it is less and less likely
that thousands will die from sector collapse, pyroclastic flows, ash
falls, or lahars. Indirect hazards are still very real, however, and we
can expect the next eruption like the one at Laki in 1783 to take an
even greater toll than it did then, especially since there are now
roughly eight times as many people on Earth.
 THINK ABOUT IT: VOLCANO ALERT!

You’re the chief volcanologist for the Geological Survey of

Canada (GSC), based in Vancouver. At 10:30 a.m. on a
Tuesday, you receive a report from a seismologist at the GSC
in Sidney saying that there has been a sudden increase in the
number of small earthquakes in the vicinity of Mt. Garibaldi.
You have two technicians available, access to some
monitoring equipment, and a four-wheel-drive vehicle. At
noon, you meet with your technicians and a couple of other
geologists. By the end of the day, you need to have a plan to
implement, starting tomorrow morning, and a statement to
release to the press. What should your first day’s fieldwork
include? What should you say later today in your press
release?

1. See: http://www.earthquakescanada.nrcan.gc.ca↵

CC licensed content, Shared previously

4.5 Monitoring Volcanoes and Predicting Eruptions.

Authored by: Steven Earle. Provided by: BC Campus.
Located at: https://opentextbc.ca/geology/chapter/4-5-
monitoring-volcanoes-and-predicting-eruptions/. Project:
Physical Geology. License: CC BY: Attribution
 Self Check: Monitoring Volcanoes

Check Your Understanding

Answer the question(s) below to see how well you understand the
topics covered in the previous section. This short quiz
does not count toward your grade in the class, and you can retake it
an unlimited number of times.

Use this quiz to check your understanding and decide whether to

(1) study the previous section further or (2) move on to the next
section.

An interactive or media element has been excluded from this

version of the text. You can view it online here:
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Authored by: Kimberly Schulte and Lumen Learning.

Provided by: lule. License: CC BY: Attribution
 Putting It Together: Volcanoes

Summary

In this section, you learned the following:

1. What the different types of volcanoes are

2. How the different types of volcanoes form and erupt

3. The different products of volcanic activity including

pyroclastic flows, lahars, and the different types of lava
4. The hazards associated with volcanic eruptions

Synthesis

As you saw in the videos and readings, volcanoes can be beautiful

but very deadly. It is important for those studying these dynamic
forces to understand how they form, why they form where they do,
what to expect when they erupt, and how often they will erupt—with
at least some accuracy (which is not always easy to do). Knowing
when an eruption is going to occur and how big the eruption will be
can help save lives.

However, volcanic eruptions do have a positive side. Besides

being spectacular to watch, the eruptions allow scientists to study
the newly erupted material from inside the Earth. This is as close as
we can get to knowing what the interior of the Earth looks like.
Eruptions also help increase the fertility of the soil by adding
essential nutrients. It doesn’t take long for nature to bounce back
after these huge eruptions.

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MODULE 10: MASS MOVEMENT
 Why It Matters: Mass Movement

Define and interpret the causes, types, effects and

hazards of mass movement and land subsidence.

Introduction

Mass movement can be devastating and costly. About 10 years ago,

a friend was looking to purchase a new home in San Diego. She
found a great neighborhood being built on the side of a mountain
overlooking the town. They loved the area, the view and the home so
they purchased the home site. The cost was $1.5 million.

Since this was not the first home she purchased, she knew the
questions to ask and the various test that needed to be performed.
One of the inspectors made note of elevated methane in the area.
They thought it was temporary and would not cause any problems.
However, as more people purchased homes in the area, the problem
became more prominent. She contacted a geologist and asked what
it could be. The geologist was from the area and was familiar with
the location. They did a little research and ruled out numerous
possible causes. They were stumped until one day a core sample
revealed the neighborhood was being built on an old landslide area.
The buried trees and vegetation were decomposing, which was
causing them to give off various gases including methane. Building
on the site was stopped and never proceeded due to the conditions.
The time, effort, and money spent was wasted. While the
homeowners did get their money back, the property owner was
completed bankrupted.

Landslides and avalanches may not be something we really think

about unless we live in an area prone to them, but mass wasting can
occur just about anywhere. If you recall from when we learned about
the rock cycle, erosion is a powerful and continuous process.

Watch a clip from this video to see remarkable earthflow in Italy

(note there is background noise but no actual audio).

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Wasn’t that amazing?

Mass wasting can be very fast or slow. What do you make of this
picture?
 Do you notice anything strange about the trees? Would you want
to live in an area like this?

Let’s see what mass wasting is and what it can tell us about the
video and picture.

Learning Outcomes

Identify and describe types of mass movement.

Identify the various causes of mass movement, as well as

ways to diminish the damage caused.

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 Authored by: Kimberly Schulte and Lumen Learning.
Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution

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creep. Authored by: Curtis Abert. Located at:

https://flic.kr/p/p5ASvB. License: CC BY: Attribution

All rights reserved content

The Ground Is Moving Like Water in Italy. Authored by: Sai

Sai. Located at: https://youtu.be/RGP6LzS_D5k. License:
All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube
License
 Outcome: Types of Mass Movement

Identify and describe types of mass movement.

In this section, you will learn the term mass wasting. You will also be
exposed to the various types of mass wasting, their causes and their
effects.

What You’ll Learn to Do

Describe slides as a type of mass movement

Describe falls as a type of mass movement

Describe slumps as a type of mass movement

Describe creep as a type of mass movement

Learning Activities

The learning activities for this section include the following:

Reading: Slides
Reading: Falls

Reading: Slump and Creep

Self Check: Types of Mass Movement

CC licensed content, Original

Authored by: Kimberly Schulte and Lumen Learning.

Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution
 Reading: Slides

Rocks that fall to the base of

a cliff make a talus slope
(figure 1). Sometimes as one
rock falls, it hits another rock,
which hits another rock, and
begins a landslide.

Landslides and avalanches

Figure 1. Pieces of rock regularly fall to the base
are the most dramatic, sudden, of cliffs to form talus slopes.
and dangerous examples of
earth materials moved by
gravity. Landslides are sudden falls of rock, whereas avalanches are
sudden falls of snow.

Here is a video of a snow avalanche.

Landslides

Although many types of mass movements are included in the

general term “landslide,” the more restrictive use of the term refers
only to mass movements, where there is a distinct zone of weakness
that separates the slide material from more stable underlying
material. The two major types of slides are rotational slides and
translational slides. Rotational slide: This is a slide in which the
surface of rupture is curved concavely upward and the slide
movement is roughly rotational about an axis that is parallel to the
ground surface and transverse across the slide (figure 2a).
Translational slide: In this type of slide, the landslide mass moves
along a roughly planar surface with little rotation or backward tilting
(figure 2b). A block slide is a translational slide in which the moving
mass consists of a single unit or a few closely related units that
move downslope as a relatively coherent mass (figure 2c).

When large amounts of rock

suddenly break loose from a
cliff or mountainside, they move
quickly and with tremendous
force (figure 2). Air trapped
under the falling rocks acts as a Figure 1. These schematics illustrate the major
types of landslide movement.
cushion that keeps the rock
from slowing down. Landslides
and avalanches can move as
fast as 200 to 300 km/hour.
 Figure 2. (a) Landslides are called rock slides by geologists. (b) A snow
avalanche moves quickly down slope, burying everything in its path.

Landslides are exceptionally destructive. Homes may be

destroyed as hillsides collapse. Landslides can even bury entire
villages. Landslides may create lakes when the rocky material dams
a stream. If a landslide flows into a lake or bay, they can trigger a
tsunami (figure 3).
 Figure 3. The 1958 landslide into Lituya Bay, Alaska, created a 524m tsunami
that knocked down trees at elevations higher than the Empire State Building
(light gray).

Landslides often occur on steep slopes in dry or semi-arid

climates. The California coastline, with its steep cliffs and years of
drought punctuated by seasons of abundant rainfall, is prone to
landslides. At-risk communities have developed landslide warning
systems. Around San Francisco Bay, the National Weather Service
and the U.S. Geological Survey use rain gauges to monitor soil
moisture. If soil becomes saturated, the weather service issues a
warning. Earthquakes, which may occur on California’s abundant
faults, can also trigger landslides.
 Here is a video of rapid downslope movement of material.

KQED: LANDSLIDE DETECTIVES

Hillside properties in the San Francisco Bay Area and

elsewhere may be prone to damage from landslides.
Geologists are studying the warning signs and progress of
local landslides to help reduce risks and give people
adequate warnings of these looming threats. You can learn
more here.

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 Reading: Falls

Falls are abrupt movements

of masses of geologic
materials, such as rocks and
boulders, that become
detached from steep slopes or
cliffs. Separation occurs along
discontinuities such as Figure 1. The white areas on green hillsides mark
scars from numerous mudflows.
fractures, joints, and bedding
planes, and movement occurs
by free-fall, bouncing, and
rolling. Falls are strongly influenced by gravity, mechanical
weathering, and the presence of interstitial water.

Lahars and Mudflow

Added water creates natural hazards produced by gravity (figure 1).

On hillsides with soils rich in clay, little rain, and not much vegetation
to hold the soil in place, a time of high precipitation will create a
mudflow. Mudflows follow river channels, washing out bridges,
trees, and homes that are in their path.
 This video shows a debris flow.

A lahar is mudflow that flows down a composite volcano (figure 2).

Ash mixes with snow and ice melted by the eruption to produce hot,
fast-moving flows. The lahar caused by the eruption of Nevado del
Ruiz in Columbia in 1985 killed more than 23,000 people.

Figure 2. A lahar is a mudflow that forms from volcanic ash and debris.

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 Reading: Slump and Creep

Less dramatic types of downslope movement move earth materials

slowly down a hillside. Slump moves materials as a large block
along a curved surface (figure 1). Slumps often happen when a
slope is undercut, with no support for the overlying materials, or
when too much weight is added to an unstable slope.

Figure 1. Slump material moves as a whole unit, leaving behind a crescent

shaped scar.
 Creep is the imperceptibly
slow, steady, downward
movement of slope-forming soil
or rock. Movement is caused by
shear stress sufficient to
produce permanent
deformation, but too small to
produce shear failure. There are
generally three types of creep:

1. Seasonal, where
movement is within the
depth of soil affected
by seasonal changes
Figure 2. Trees with curved trunks are often signs
in soil moisture and that the hillside is slowly creeping downhill.
soil temperature
2. Continuous, where
shear stress continuously exceeds the strength of the
material

3. Progressive, where slopes are reaching the point of failure

as other types of mass movements. Creep is indicated by
curved tree trunks, bent fences or retaining walls, tilted
poles or fences, and small soil ripples or ridges

Curves in tree trunks indicate creep because the base of the tree
is moving downslope while the top is trying to grow straight up (figure
2). Tilted telephone or power company poles are also signs of creep.
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 Self Check: Types of Mass Movement

Check Your Understanding

Answer the question(s) below to see how well you understand the
topics covered in the previous section. This short quiz
does not count toward your grade in the class, and you can retake it
an unlimited number of times.

Use this quiz to check your understanding and decide whether to

(1) study the previous section further or (2) move on to the next
section.

An interactive or media element has been excluded from this

version of the text. You can view it online here:
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/geo/?p=2763

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Authored by: Kimberly Schulte and Lumen Learning.

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 Outcome: Driving and Resisting Forces

Identify the various causes of mass movement, as well

as ways to diminish the damage caused.

This section explains the various causes of mass wasting. It will

illustrate what controls mass wasting and how to reduce the risk of
occurrence.

What You’ll Learn to Do

Identify geologic-caused changes that can affect mass

wasting.

Identify human impact on mass wasting.

Learning Activities

The learning activities for this section include the following:

Reading: Natural Mass Wasting

Reading: Human Impact on Mass Wasting

Self Check: Driving and Resisting Forces

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 Reading: Natural Mass Wasting

Contributing Factors

There are several factors that increase the chance that a landslide
will occur. Some of these we can prevent and some we cannot.

Water

A little bit of water helps to hold grains of sand or soil together. For
example, you can build a larger sand castle with slightly wet sand
than with dry sand. However too much water causes the sand to flow
quickly away. Rapid snow melt or rainfall adds extra water to the soil,
which increases the weight of the slope and makes sediment grains
lose contact with each other, allowing flow.

Rock Type

Layers of weak rock, such as clay, also allow more landslides. Wet
clay is very slippery, which provides an easy surface for materials to
slide over.

Undercutting
 If people dig into the base of
a slope to create a road or a
homesite, the slope may
become unstable and move
downhill. This is particularly
dangerous when the underlying
Figure 8. The slope of underlying materials must
rock layers slope towards the be considered when making road cuts.

area (figure 8).

Ocean waves undercut cliffs and cause landslides on

beaches as in this video.

When construction workers cut into slopes for homes or roads,

they must stabilize the slope to help prevent a landslide (figure 9).
Trees roots or even grasses can bind soil together. It is also a good
idea to provide drainage so that the slope does not become
saturated with water.
 Figure 9. A rock wall stabilizes a slope that has been cut away to make a road.

Ground shaking

An earthquake, volcanic eruption, or even just a truck going by can

shake unstable ground loose and cause a slide. Skiers and hikers
may disturb the snow they travel over and set off an avalanche.

A very good introduction to the topic, “Landslide 101,” is a video

seen on National Geographic Videos, Environment Video, Natural
Disasters, Landslides, and more.

Landslides
Although there are multiple types of causes of landslides, the three
that cause most of the damaging landslides around the world are
these:

Landslides and Water

Slope saturation by water is a primary cause of landslides. This

effect can occur in the form of intense rainfall, snowmelt, changes in
ground-water levels, and water-level changes along coastlines, earth
dams, and the banks of lakes, reservoirs, canals, and rivers.

Landsliding and flooding are closely allied because both are

related to precipitation, runoff, and the saturation of ground by water.
In addition, debris flows and mudflows usually occur in small, steep
stream channels and often are mistaken for floods; in fact, these two
events often occur simultaneously in the same area.

Landslides can cause flooding by forming landslide dams that

block valleys and stream channels, allowing large amounts of water
to back up. This causes backwater flooding and, if the dam fails,
subsequent downstream flooding. Also, solid landslide debris can
“bulk” or add volume and density to otherwise normal streamflow or
cause channel blockages and diversions creating flood conditions or
localized erosion. Landslides can also cause overtopping of
reservoirs and/or reduced capacity of reservoirs to store water.
Landslides and Seismic Activity

Many mountainous areas that are vulnerable to landslides have also

experienced at least moderate rates of earthquake occurrence in
recorded times. The occurrence of earthquakes in steep landslide-
prone areas greatly increases the likelihood that landslides will
occur, due to ground shaking alone or shaking-caused dilation of soil
materials, which allows rapid infiltration of water. The 1964 Great
Alaska Earthquake caused widespread landsliding and other ground
failure, which caused most of the monetary loss due to the
earthquake. Other areas of the United States, such as California and
the Puget Sound region in Washington, have experienced slides,
lateral spreading, and other types of ground failure due to moderate
to large earthquakes. Widespread rockfalls also are caused by
loosening of rocks as a result of ground shaking. Worldwide,
landslides caused by earthquakes kill people and damage structures
at higher rates than in the United States.

Landslides and Volcanic Activity

Landslides due to volcanic activity are some of the most devastating

types. Volcanic lava may melt snow at a rapid rate, causing a deluge
of rock, soil, ash, and water that accelerates rapidly on the steep
slopes of volcanoes, devastating anything in its path. These volcanic
debris flows (also known as lahars) reach great distances, once they
leave the flanks of the volcano, and can damage structures in flat
areas surrounding the volcanoes. The 1980 eruption of Mount St.
Helens, in Washington triggered a massive landslide on the north
flank of the volcano, the largest landslide in recorded times.

GEOLOGICAL AND MORPHOLOGICAL CAUSES

Geological Causes

1. Weak or sensitive materials

2. Weathered materials

3. Sheared, jointed, or fissured materials

4. Adversely oriented discontinuity (bedding, schistosity, fault,

unconformity, contact, and so forth)

5. Contrast in permeability and/or stiffness of materials

Morphological Causes

1. Tectonic or volcanic uplift

2. Glacial rebound

3. Fluvial, wave, or glacial erosion of slope toe or lateral margins

4. Subterranean erosion (solution, piping)

5. Deposition loading slope or its crest

6. Vegetation removal (by fire, drought)

7. Thawing

8. Freeze-and-thaw weathering

9. Shrink-and-swell weathering

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 Reading: Human Impact on Mass Wasting

Causing Mass Wasting

Humans can contribute to mass wasting in a few different ways:

1. Excavation of slope or its toe

2. Loading of slope or its crest

3. Drawdown (of reservoirs)

4. Deforestation
5. Irrigation

6. Mining
7. Artificial vibration

8. Water leakage from utilities

Prevention and Awareness

As already noted, we cannot prevent mass wasting in the long term

as it is a natural and ongoing process; however, in many situations
there are actions that we can take to reduce or mitigate its damaging
effects on people and infrastructure. Where we can neither delay nor
mitigate mass wasting, we should consider moving out of the way.
 It is comforting to think that
we can prevent some effects of
mass wasting by mechanical
means, such as the rock bolts
in the road cut at Porteau Cove
(Figure 1), or the drill holes
used to drain water out of a
slope, as was done at the
Downie Slide, or the building of
Figure 1. Site of the 2008 rock slide at Porteau
physical barriers, such as Cove. Notice the prominent fracture set parallel to
the surface of the slope. The slope has been
retaining walls. What we have stabilized with rock bolts (top) and holes have
been drilled into the rock to improve drainage
to remember is that the works (one is visible in the lower right). Risk to passing
vehicles from rock fall has been reduced by
of humans are limited hanging mesh curtains (background). [SE photo
compared to the works of 2012]

nature. The rock bolts in the

road cut at Porteau Cove will
slowly start to corrode after a few years, and within a few decades,
many of them will begin to lose their strength. Unless they are
replaced, they will no longer support that slope. Likewise, drainage
holes at the Downie Slide will eventually become plugged with
sediment and chemical precipitates, and unless they are periodically
unplugged, their effectiveness will decrease. Eventually, unless new
holes are drilled, the drainage will be so compromised that the slide
will start to move again. This is why careful slope monitoring by
geological and geotechnical engineers is important at these sites.
The point here is that our efforts to “prevent” mass wasting are only
as good as our resolve to maintain those preventive measures.
 Delaying mass wasting is a worthy endeavor, of course, because
during the time that the measures are still effective they can save
lives and reduce damage to property and infrastructure. The other
side of the coin is that we must be careful to avoid activities that
could make mass wasting more likely. One of the most common
anthropogenic causes of mass wasting is road construction, and this
applies both to remote gravel roads built for forestry and mining and
large urban and regional highways. Road construction is a potential
problem for two reasons. First, creating a flat road surface on a slope
inevitably involves creating a cut bank that is steeper than the
original slope. This might also involve creating a filled bank that is
both steeper and weaker than the original slope (Figure 2). Second,
roadways typically cut across natural drainage features, and unless
great care is taken to reroute the runoff water and prevent it from
forming concentrated flows, over-saturating fill of materials can
result.

Apart from water issues, engineers building roads and other

infrastructure on bedrock slopes have to be acutely aware of the
geology, and especially of any weaknesses or discontinuities in the
rock related to bedding, fracturing, or foliation. If possible, situations
like that at Porteau Cove (Figure 1) should be avoided — by building
somewhere else — rather than trying to stitch the slope back
together with rock bolts.

It is widely believed that construction of buildings on the tops of

steep slopes can contribute to
the instability of the slope. This
is probably true, but not
because of the weight of the
building. As you’ll see by
completing the exercise below,
a typical house isn’t usually
heavier than the fill that was Figure 2. An example of a road constructed by
cutting into a steep slope and the use of the cut
removed from the hole in the material as fill. [SE]
ground made to build it. A more
likely contributor to instability of
the slope around a building is the effect that it and the changes
made to the surrounding area have on drainage.

EXERCISE: HOW MUCH DOES A HOUSE WEIGH AND

CAN IT CONTRIBUTE TO A SLOPE FAILURE?

It is commonly
believed that building a house (or some other building) at the
top of a slope will add a lot of extra weight to the slope, which
could contribute to slope failure. But what does a house
actually weigh? A typical 150 m2 (approximately 1,600 ft2)
wood-frame house with a basement and a concrete
foundation weighs about 145 t (metric tonnes). But most
houses are built on foundations that are excavated into the
ground. This involves digging a hole and taking some material
away, so we need to subtract what that excavated material
weighs. Assuming our 150 m2 house required an excavation
that was 15 m by 11 m by 1 m deep, that’s 165 m3 of “dirt,”
which typically has a density of about 1.6 t per m3.

Calculate the weight of the soil that was removed and

compare that with the weight of the house and its foundation.

If you’re thinking that building a bigger building is going to add

more weight, consider that bigger buildings need bigger and
deeper excavations, and in many cases the excavations will
be into solid rock, which is much heavier than surficial
materials.

You may wish to consider how a building might change the

drainage on a slope. There are a number ways. Water can be
collected by roofs, go into downspouts, and form
concentrated flows that are directed onto or into the slope.
Likewise drainage from nearby access roads, lawn irrigation,
leaking pools, and septic systems can all alter the surface
and groundwater flow in a slope.
Monitoring Mass Wasting

In some areas, it is necessary

to establish warning systems so
that we know if conditions have
changed at a known slide area,
or if a rapid failure, such as a
debris flow, is actually on its
way downslope. The Downie
Slide above the Revelstoke
Resevoir is monitored 24/7 with
a range of devices, such as
inclinometers (slope-change
detectors), bore-hole motion
Figure 3. Part of a motion-monitoring device at
sensors, and GPS survey the Checkerboard Slide near Revelstoke, B.C. The
lower end of the cable is attached to a block of
instruments. A simple rock that is unstable. Any incremental motion of
mechanical device for that block will move the cable, which will be
detectable on this device. [SE]
monitoring the nearby
Checkerboard Slide (which is
also above the Revelstoke
Reservoir) is shown in Figure 3. Both of these are very slow-moving
rock slides, but it’s very important to be able to detect changes in
their rates of motion because at both of these locations a rapid
failure would result in large bodies of rock plunging into the reservoir
and sending a wall of water over the Revelstoke Dam, potentially
destroying the nearby town of Revelstoke.
 Mt. Rainier, a glacier-covered volcano in Washington State, has
the potential to produce massive mudflows or debris flows (lahars)
with or without a volcanic eruption. Over 100,000 people in the
Tacoma, Puyallup, and Sumner areas are in harm’s way because
they currently reside on deposits from past lahars (Figure 4). In
1998, a network of acoustic monitors was established around Mt.
Rainier. The monitors are embedded in the ground adjacent to
expected lahar paths. They are intended to provide warnings to
emergency officials, and when a lahar is detected, the residents of
the area will have anywhere from 40 minutes to three hours to get to
safe ground.
 Figure 4. Mt. Rainier, Washington, from Tacoma

Mitigating the Impacts of Mass Wasting

In situations where we can’t predict, prevent, or delay mass-wasting

hazards, some effective measures can be taken to minimize the
associated risk. For example, many highways in B.C. and western
Alberta have avalanche shelters like that shown in Figure 5. In some
parts of the world, similar features have been built to protect
infrastructure from other types of mass wasting.
 Figure 5. A snow avalanche shelter on the Coquihalla Highway. The expected
path of the avalanche is the steep untreed slope above. [SE]

Debris flows are inevitable, unpreventable, and unpredictable in

many parts of B.C., but nowhere more so than along the Sea-to-Sky
Highway between Horseshoe Bay and Squamish. The results have
been deadly and expensive many times in the past. It would be very
expensive to develop a new route in this region, so provincial
authorities have taken steps to protect residents and traffic on the
highway and the railway. Debris-flow defensive structures have been
constructed in several drainage basins, as shown in Figure 6. One
strategy is to allow the debris to flow quickly through to the ocean
along a smooth channel. Another is to capture the debris within a
constructed basin that allows the excess water to continue through,
but catches the debris materials.

Figure 6. Two strategies for mitigating debris flows on the Sea-to-Sky Highway.
Left: A concrete –lined channel on Alberta Creek allows debris to flow quickly
through to the ocean. Right: A debris-flow catchment basin on Charles Creek. In
2010, a debris flow filled the basin to the level of the dotted white line. [SE]

LANDSLIDE MITIGATION—HOW TO REDUCE THE

EFFECTS OF LANDSLIDES

Vulnerability to landslide hazards is a function of location,

type of human activity, use, and frequency of landslide
events. The effects of landslides on people and structures can
 be lessened by total avoidance of landslide hazard areas or
by restricting, prohibiting, or imposing conditions on hazard-
zone activity. Local governments can reduce landslide effects
through land-use policies and regulations. Individuals can
reduce their exposure to hazards by educating themselves on
the past hazard history of a site and by making inquiries to
planning and engineering departments of local governments.
They can also obtain the professional services of an
engineering geologist, a geotechnical engineer, or a civil
engineer, who can properly evaluate the hazard potential of a
site, built or unbuilt.

The hazard from landslides can be reduced by avoiding

construction on steep slopes and existing landslides, or by
stabilizing the slopes. Stability increases when ground water
is prevented from rising in the landslide mass by (1) covering
the landslide with an impermeable membrane, (2) directing
surface water away from the landslide, (3) draining ground
water away from the landslide, and (4) minimizing surface
irrigation. Slope stability is also increased when a retaining
structure and/or the weight of a soil/rock berm are placed at
the toe of the landslide or when mass is removed from the top
of the slope.

Finally, in situations where we can’t do anything to delay, predict,

contain, or mitigate slope failures, we simply have to have the sense
to stay away. There is a famous example of this in B.C. at a site
known as Garibaldi, 25 km
south of Whistler. In the early
1980s the village of Garibaldi
had a population of about 100,
with construction underway on
some new homes, and plans for
many more.
Figure 7. The Barrier, south of Whistler, B.C., was
the site of a huge rock avalanche in 1855, which
extended from the cliff visible here 4 km down the
In the months that followed valley and across the current location of the Sea-
the deadly 1980 eruption of Mt. to-Sky Highway and the Cheakamus River. [SE]

St. Helens in Washington State,

the B.C. Ministry of
Transportation commissioned a geological study that revealed that a
steep cliff known as The Barrier (Figure 7) had collapsed in 1855,
leading to a large rock avalanche, and that it was likely to collapse
again unpredictably, putting the village of Garibaldi at extreme risk.
In an ensuing court case, it was ruled that the Garibaldi site was not
a safe place for people to live. Those who already had homes there
were compensated, and everyone else was ordered to leave.

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 Preventing, Delaying, Monitoring, and Mitigating Mass
Wasting. Authored by: Steven Earle. Provided by: BC
Campus. Located at:
https://opentextbc.ca/geology/chapter/15-3-preventing-
delaying-monitoring-and-mitigating-mass-wasting/. Project:
Physical Geology. License: CC BY: Attribution

Public domain content

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Located at: http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2004/3072/fs-2004-
3072.html. License: Public Domain: No Known Copyright

Mount Rainier over Tacoma. Authored by: Lyn Topinka.

Provided by: USGS. Located at:
http://vulcan.wr.usgs.gov/Imgs/Jpg/Rainier/Images/Rainier8
4_mount_rainier_and_tacoma_08-20-84.jpg. License:
Public Domain: No Known Copyright
 Self Check: Driving and Resisting Forces

Check Your Understanding

Answer the question(s) below to see how well you understand the
topics covered in the previous section. This short quiz
does not count toward your grade in the class, and you can retake it
an unlimited number of times.

Use this quiz to check your understanding and decide whether to

(1) study the previous section further or (2) move on to the next
section.

An interactive or media element has been excluded from this

version of the text. You can view it online here:
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/geo/?p=2764

CC licensed content, Original

Authored by: Kimberly Schulte and Lumen Learning.

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 Putting It Together: Mass Wasting

Summary

In this section we were able to learn what implication erosion has on

a grand scale. We learned the following:

1. The definition of mass wasting

2. The various types of mass wasting
3. The forces behind mass wasting

4. What humans are doing to aggravate the occurrence of

mass wasting

Synthesis

In the opening section, we saw a video of an earthflow in Italy and

the damage it caused. Can you imagine that coming down a
mountain side towards a major city like this?
 Figure 1. Damage from the debris flow on the Caraballeda fan. The main channel
(at left) avulsed to a new course that led it through the houses to the right. These
avulsion deposits are up to 6 meters (20 ft) thick and total about 1.8 million
cubic meters of boulders and other material.

What about this?

 Figure 2. The Mameyes mudflow disaster, in barrio Tibes, Ponce, Puerto Rico,
was caused by heavy rainfall from Tropical Storm Isabel in 1985. The mudflow
destroyed more than 100 homes and claimed an estimated 300 lives.

Back to the picture from the opening—did you notice anything

odd about the trees in the picture? They were definitely shaped
strangely at the base. Their trunks were curved. These trees are the
result of mass wasting, specifically creep. Creep is the slowest form
of mass wasting, but imagine what would happen if you had a house
there!

Once again, we have seen strong forces we are dealing with in

geology. By understanding how the various types of mass wasting
occur, geologists can save not only money but lives as well.
CC licensed content, Original

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Caraballeda 1999 Deposits and Damage. Provided by:

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0144/Venezuela/image031.jpg. License: Public Domain:
No Known Copyright
Mameyes. Authored by: R.W. Jibson. Provided by:
USGS. Located at:
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. License: Public Domain: No Known Copyright
MODULE 11: HYDROLOGY
 Why It Matters: Hydrology

Understand roles, processes, and effects of streams and

groundwater

Introduction

This section focuses on hydrology. It goes without saying how

important water is to all life on the planet. We simply cannot survive
without it. Water is what sets the Earth apart from the other planets
in our solar system. While the oceans cover roughly 74% of the
Earth’s surface and are the driving force behind the hydrologic cycle,
it is the availability of freshwater that is of most concern today.

Currently, California is experiencing severe drought while the

Midwest is currently undergoing extreme flooding. While these
variations are a normal part of the complex dynamic of climate, they
impact us in major ways. California is currently scrambling to find a
solution as it is currently estimated that in just over a year they will
no longer have enough freshwater to meet their needs. With flooding
in the Midwest, the loss of life and property damage is steadily
increasing. Droughts and floods are a normal part of the hydrologic
cycle, the issue is how to be prepared for them and how to best
adapt to them in order to survive.
 Freshwater consists of glaciers, groundwater, surface water (such
as ponds and lakes) as well as
water stored in the biosphere
and the atmosphere. The vast
majority of freshwater is used in
agriculture for irrigation
purposes. Again, without this
freshwater our food production
would suffer. Most people
associate mining with metals,
fuel resources and gems.
However, would it surprise you
to learn that we actually mine
water? Mining means
withdrawing or removing
something from within the
Figure 1. Saturated thickness of the Ogallala
Earth. Groundwater is found Aquifer in 1997 after several decades of intensive
withdrawals. The breadth and depth of the aquifer
within the Earth and is our generally decrease from north to south.
second largest store of
freshwater. Currently,
groundwater use in the US is centered on the Ogallala Aquifer.

The Ogallala Aquifer is located in the central portion of the United

States. It is located beneath 8 states: Texas, Oklahoma, Colorado,
Kansas, Nebraska, New Mexico, South Dakota and Wyoming. It is
approximately 174,000 square miles in area and is more than
10,000,000 years old (Kromm, n.d.). It is the freshwater source for
over 13,600,000 acres of farming and ranch lands. This aquifer
formed, in part, due to melting glaciers and took over 64,000 years to
fill (Overmann, n.d.). It is the largest aquifer in North America and
one of the largest freshwater sources in the world. Initially, farmers
only had to drill down anywhere from 25 to 50 feet before they would
hit the water table. However, in the 1940’s this began to change.
With the technology boom associated with the war and the post war
period, numerous devices such as high capacity pumps allowed
easier and greater access to the aquifer. In some places, farmers
now have to drill over 500 feet before they hit the water table. The
Ogallala was originally over 500 feet in thickness but now that has
diminished and varies by location. The issue with this particular
aquifer is that is being used at a much greater rate than it is
recharged. In fact, the Ogallala is considered to be a “fossil aquifer”
which means once it is gone, it is gone. What does this mean for us?
How does this translate into affecting you or your family?

Here is a short video that shows you some of the ways farmers
are adapting the rapid depletion of the aquifer.
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Learning Outcomes

Describe and model processes involved throughout Earth’s

hydrologic cycle.
Identify and describe channel types and sedimentary loads
formed and carried by rivers and streams.

Describe critical components of groundwater

Identify various geologic features associated with
groundwater

Recognize features associated with oceans and shorelines

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License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard
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 Outcome: The Hydrologic Cycle

Describe and model processes involved throughout

Earth’s hydrologic cycle.

Water is simply two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen

bonded together. Despite its simplicity, water has remarkable
properties. Water expands when it freezes, has high surface tension
(because of the polar nature of the molecules, they tend to stick
together), and others. Without water, life might not be able to exist on
Earth and it certainly would not have the tremendous complexity and
diversity that we see.

This section illustrates how water moves in, on, and above the
Earth.

What You’ll Learn to Do

Understand the basic outcomes of the hydrologic cycle.

Describe the processes involved the hydrologic cycle.

Learning Activities

The learning activities for this section include the following:

 Reading: Phases of the Hydrologic Cycle

Self Check: The Hydrologic Cycle

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 Reading: Phases of the Hydrologic Cycle

Because of the unique properties of water, water molecules can

cycle through almost anywhere on Earth. The water molecule found
in your glass of water today could have erupted from a volcano early
in Earth history. In the intervening billions of years, the molecule
probably spent time in a glacier or far below the ground. The
molecule surely was high up in the atmosphere and maybe deep in
the belly of a dinosaur. Where will that water molecule go next?

Three States of Water

Water is the only substance on Earth that is present in all three

states of matter—as a solid, liquid or gas. (And Earth is the only
planet where water is present in all three states.) Because of the
ranges in temperature in specific locations around the planet, all
three phases may be present in a single location or in a region. The
three phases are solid (ice or snow), liquid (water), and gas (water
vapor). See ice, water, and clouds (figure 2).
 Figure 2. Can you find all three phases of water in this image? (a) Ice floating in
the sea. (b) Liquid water. (c) Water vapor is invisible, but clouds that form when
water vapor condenses are not.

The Water Cycle

Because Earth’s water is present in all three states, it can get into a
variety of environments around the planet. The movement of water
around Earth’s surface is the hydrologic (water) cycle (figure 3).
 Figure 3. Because it is a cycle, the water cycle has no beginning and no end.

Most of Earth’s water is stored in the oceans where it can remain

for hundreds or thousands of years. The oceans are discussed in
detail in the chapter Earth’s Oceans.

Water changes from a liquid to a gas by evaporation to become

water vapor. The Sun’s energy can evaporate water from the ocean
surface or from lakes, streams, or puddles on land. Only the water
molecules evaporate; the salts remain in the ocean or a fresh water
reservoir.

The water vapor remains in the atmosphere until it

undergoes condensation to become tiny droplets of liquid. The
droplets gather in clouds, which are blown about the globe by wind.
As the water droplets in the clouds collide and grow, they fall from
the sky as precipitation. Precipitation can be rain, sleet, hail, or
snow. Sometimes precipitation falls back into the ocean and
sometimes it falls onto the land surface.

For a little fun, watch this video. This water cycle song focuses on
the role of the sun in moving H2O from one reservoir to another. The
movement of all sorts of matter between reservoirs depends on
Earth’s internal or external sources of energy:
 A YouTube element has been excluded from this version of the
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This animation shows the annual cycle of monthly mean

precipitation around the world.

When water falls from the sky as rain it may enter streams and
rivers that flow downward to oceans and lakes. Water that falls as
snow may sit on a mountain for several months. Snow may become
part of the ice in a glacier, where it may remain for hundreds or
thousands of years. Snow and ice may go directly back into the air
by sublimation, the process in which a solid changes directly into a
gas without first becoming a liquid. Although you probably have not
seen water vapor sublimating from a glacier, you may have seen dry
ice sublimate in air.

Snow and ice slowly melt over time to become liquid water, which
provides a steady flow of fresh water to streams, rivers, and lakes
below. A water droplet falling as rain could also become part of a
stream or a lake. At the surface, the water may eventually evaporate
and reenter the atmosphere.

A significant amount of water infiltrates into the ground. Soil

moisture is an important reservoir for water (figure 4). Water trapped
in soil is important for plants to grow.

Figure 4. The moisture content of soil in the United States varies greatly.
 Water may seep through dirt and rock below the soil through pores
infiltrating the ground to go into Earth’s groundwater system.
Groundwater enters aquifers that may store fresh water for
centuries. Alternatively, the water may come to the surface through
springs or find its way back to the oceans.

Plants and animals depend on water to live and they also play a
role in the water cycle. Plants take up water from the soil and release
large amounts of water vapor into the air through their leaves (figure
5), a process known as transpiration.

An online guide to the hydrologic cycle from the University of

Illinois is found here.
 Figure 5. Clouds form above the Amazon Rainforest even in the dry season
because of moisture from plant transpiration.

People also depend on water as a natural resource. Not content to

get water directly from streams or ponds, humans create canals,
aqueducts, dams, and wells to collect water and direct it to where
they want it (figure 6).
 Figure 6. The Pont du Gard aqueduct in France was constructed during the
Roman Empire.

Table 1. Water Use in the United States and Globally

Use United States Global

Agriculture 34% 70%

Domestic (drinking, bathing) 12% 10%

Industry 5% 20%

Power plant cooling 49% small

It is important to note that water molecules cycle around. If climate

cools and glaciers and ice caps grow, there is less water for the
oceans and sea level will fall. The reverse can also happen.

KQED: TRACKING RAINDROPS

 How the water cycle works and how rising global
temperatures will affect the water cycle, especially in
California, are the topics of this Quest video. Learn more
here.

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 Self Check: The Hydrologic Cycle

Check Your Understanding

Answer the question(s) below to see how well you understand the
topics covered in the previous section. This short quiz
does not count toward your grade in the class, and you can retake it
an unlimited number of times.

Use this quiz to check your understanding and decide whether to

(1) study the previous section further or (2) move on to the next
section.

An interactive or media element has been excluded from this

version of the text. You can view it online here:
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Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution
 Outcome: Rivers and Streams

Identify and describe channel types and sedimentary

loads formed and carried by rivers and streams.

In this section, you will learn the different types of streams. You will
also learn the different types of stream loads.

What You’ll Learn to Do

Understand the different types of rivers and streams, as

well as processes associated with them.
Understand the processes of erosion and sediment
transport and deposition

Learning Activities

The learning activities for this section include the following:

Reading: Types of Streams and Rivers

Reading: Drainage Basins

Reading: Geologic Processes and Flowing Water

Self Check: Rivers and Streams
 Reading: Types of Streams and Rivers

Introduction

Streams have a major role in geology. Streams sculpt and shape the
earth’s surface by eroding, transporting, and depositing sediment. By
eroding sediment from uplifted areas and creating landforms made
of deposited sediment in lower areas, streams shape the earth’s
surface more than glaciers do, more than waves on a beach do, and
far more than wind does.

What Are Streams?

A stream is flow of water, driven by gravity, in a natural channel, on

land. A small brook in a meadow and the Amazon River are both
streams. It is interesting to watch water on a recently bulldozed
construction site with a slope. At first the water saturates the ground
and begins to flow downhill across the surface of the slope in a thin
sheet. Soon, the water excavates small channels, known as rills, in
the dirt. Rills coalesce to form larger channels. A network of streams,
including tributaries, has formed. If not prevented, the channels may
continue to deepen and erode soil from the construction site.

Over longer intervals of time the same processes we’ve imagined

on the construction site have built systems of streams and stream
valleys on the surface of the earth. Most valleys on earth are the
product of streams. Streams erode dirt and rocks, transport the
sediment, and redeposit it in new locations, shaping the earth’s
surface into a system of stream valleys.

Streams flow downhill due to the force of gravity. The higher the
hill, the more gravitational energy there is to drive the stream. Where
the slopes are steepest and the hills the highest, the streams will be
the most energetic and the rate of erosion will be fastest.

Drainage Area

The drainage area of a stream encompasses all the land from which
surface runoff flows into that stream. A stream drainage area is also
called a watershed. Boundaries between stream drainage areas are
called drainage divides. What stream drainage do you live in?

Stream Order

It is common for one stream to flow into another. The smaller of the
two streams is a tributary of the larger stream. A stream with no
tributaries is a first order stream. A stream with only first-order
tributaries is a second order stream. A stream that has any second-
order tributaries and none higher is a third-order stream, and so on.
The Mississippi River is a tenth order stream, one of the highest
order streams on earth. As more and more tributaries join together a
larger stream network is formed and the master stream, the highest
order stream in the system has a discharge that is the sum of all the
tributary discharges. When flooding occurs, higher order streams
take longer to build up to flood stage than lower order streams and
longer for the flood to subside.

Drainage Patterns

A stream system that includes multiple tributaries exhibits a distinct

drainage pattern as seen on a map. The drainage pattern depends
on the rock types and geologic structures underlying the stream
system. Some types of rock are harder and more resistant to erosion
than others. If the geology underlying a stream system is fairly
uniform—rocks equally resistant to erosion in all directions—a
dendritic drainage pattern will develop, as shown in figure 1. A
dendritic drainage pattern is the most common type.
 Figure 1

If a region is underlain by layered formations of rock that have

been folded, and the layers have different degrees of resistance to
erosion, the stream valleys will tend to follow the layers of less
resistant rock, and the layers of harder rock will become ridges. This
results in a trellis drainage pattern, as show in figure 2.
 Figure 2.

In some places the geology consists of a single type of rock that is

resistant to erosion but the rock contains sets of parallel joints where
it erodes more easily. The sets of joints typically intersect each other
at high angles. As stream valleys develop in the joint system a
rectangular drainage pattern develops, as shown in figure 3. The
stream valleys will bend sharply where they switch from following
one joint set to another.
 Figure 3.

Streams will radiate in all directions from the center of a broad,

high-elevation area, such as a composite cone. This is known as a
radial drainage pattern.
 Figure 4.

Graded Profile

Because streams erode more and remove more sediment where the
stream gradient is higher, and deposit more sediment where the
stream gradient is lower, a stream will develop a graded profile as
shown. The graded profile shows how the elevation of the stream
changes along the length of the stream, from its beginning at the
highest elevation to its base level where it ends at the lowest
elevation it reaches.
 Figure 5.

A graded profile starts with a steep slope at the beginning of the

stream and tapers to a gentle slope at the base level of the stream.
Imagine a hiker following a stream up to its beginning and tracking
her progress on a topographic map. She starts out where the stream
valley is low and wide and the gradient is gentle so the hiking is
easy. As the day goes on, the going gets steeper as she approaches
the stream source. Checking the topographic map, she sees that the
contour lines are much closer together than they were earlier in the
day and farther down the valley. As she approaches the small lake
on the side of the mountain where the stream begins, the slope is so
steep that nearly loses her footing. She has experienced for herself a
typical stream profile that steepens from near the base-level to the
origin of the stream.

Lakes and waterfalls are temporary features in a stream drainage.

If a lake forms the stream feeding it will slow down and deposit
sediment until the lake has been filled with sediment. Where a
waterfall forms the energy of the stream going over the waterfall is
high will erode the base of the waterfall, causing the waterfall to
retreat upstream until a graded profile is established.

Stream Discharge

The amount of water flowing through a stream and speed at which it

is moving is expressed as the discharge of the stream. Discharge is
measured by multiplying the cross-sectional area of a stream by the
average speed of water through that cross-section. Multiplying the
area of the cross-section by the average speed of the water results
in units of volume/time. For example, if a stream has a cross-
sectional area of 150 square feet (ft2) and is moving at an average
speed of 10 feet per second (ft/s), multiplying the area and the speed
results in a discharge of 1,500 cubic feet per second (ft3/s).

Sediment Load

The water flowing in streams erodes, transports, and deposits

sediment. Most rocks and minerals are much denser than water.
Sufficient energy in the stream is required to dislodge rocks from the
earth and move them. The faster a stream flows, the more energy it
has and the larger pieces of sediment it can transport. The
competence of a stream refers to the maximum size of the pieces of
sediment it can move. Faster-moving water has greater competence
and can move larger pieces of sediment.

The capacity of a stream is the total amount of sediment it can

move. Capacity depends on how fast the stream is moving and its
total discharge. As a stream slows down, its competence and
capacity are reduced. The stream starts to deposit sediment,
beginning with the largest pieces. Several factors cause a stream to
slow down, including the stream channel widening, the stream
overflowing its banks and spreading into a floodplain, the stream
gradient (downhill slope) diminishing, and the stream emptying into a
larger, slower moving body of water.

Streams transport clastic sediment in two ways depending on the

size of the particles. The coarser sediment is called bed load and
consists of particles too large to be suspended in the moving current
of water for an extended length of time. The bed load particles, the
largest particles of sediment transported by a stream, spend most of
their time on the bottom of the stream channel, rolling, sliding, or
bouncing downstream in fits and starts. The finer sediment is called
suspended load and consists of particles small enough to be
suspended in the moving current of water. Suspended load moves at
about the same rate as the flowing water. In a muddy river, the mud
is suspended load

Floodplains

Streams build floodplains through a combination of erosion and

deposition at lower gradient stretches of stream valleys. Although a
floodplain has a general downhill slope consistent with the overall
stream gradient, a floodplain is relatively flat.

Floodplains are filled with sediments spread by the stream. These

sediments are known as alluvium. Because alluvium is loose
material that is easy for the stream to erode and redeposit, the
location of a stream channel in a floodplain changes frequently.

Meanders

A stream running down a slope, even the gentle slope of a

floodplain, will seldom follow a straight path for very long. Depending
on the distribution of sediments and turbulence of the stream, one
side of the channel may erode more easily than the other. The
stream will migrate toward the area undergoing erosion, developing
a curve in that direction. Once the stream channel has begun to
curve, the energy of the water is concentrated on the outside of the
curve.

The diagram shows a stretch of stream channel with a significant

bend, also known as meander. The blue line shows how erosive
energy is concentrated along the outside of each bend in the stream.
As erosion occurs on the outside bank of a meander, deposition
occurs on the inside bank where the water slows and drops
sediment.
 Figure 6.

The diagram below shows two well-developed meanders that have

formed in a stream. Along each meander, the outer stream bank that
is being cut into by erosion is called a cut bank. The inner bank,
which has grown by accretion of deposited sediment, is called a
point bar.

Figure 7.
 In a stream, meanders enlarge and migrate downstream because
the stream continually erodes its cut banks and grows its point bars.
The diagram below shows the enlargement and downstream
migration of a meander in a stream channel. As the meander is
enlarged, its neck gets narrower. Eventually, the stream may cut
through the neck of the meander, either as a result of gradual
erosion and channel migration, or abruptly during high water and
flooding. Once the stream has cut through the neck of the meander,
the openings get filled with sediment dropped by water that slows
down as it enters from the main stream. The sediment deposits will
separate the cut off meander from the river channel and turn it into
an oxbow lake. As the years go by, the oxbow lake will eventually be
completely filled in with sediment because it is a low spot on the
floodplain where any water that enters, such as during flooding, will
come to a standstill and deposit its sediment load.
 Figure 8.

Entrenched Meanders

Typical meandering stream channels flow through broad flood plains

full of alluvial sediment. However, in some situations meanders may
cut directly into bedrock. A meander that has cut into bedrock is
known as an incised or entrenched meander. In contrast to
meanders in alluvium that erode and migrate rapidly or get cut off at
the neck abruptly, entrenched meanders are relatively fixed. This is
because entrenched meanders are walled in by bedrock on both
sides and have little floodplain to easily erode and redeposit.

Entrenched meanders form as a result of tectonic uplift of the

stream drainage area. The uplift increases the gravity-driven energy
of the stream causing it to incise rapidly down through the flood plain
alluvium into the bedrock beneath. Entrenched meanders are striking
landscape features because they are unusual and they provide
strong evidence of tectonic activity in a region. Classic examples of
entrenched meanders include the Goosenecks of the San Juan
River, which are incised in the Colorado Plateau east of the Grand
Canyon, and a stretch of the Yakima River with entrenched
meanders, which are incised in a recently uplifted ridge of basalt in
the Columbia Plateau of eastern Washington state.

Braided Streams

Rather than a single channel, some streams have multiple channels

that weave in and out of each other forming what is known as a
braided stream. Braided streams are associated with excessive
amounts of sediment entering a stream system. Valleys draining
alpine glaciers are common settings for braided streams. The
glaciers deposit more sediment into the meltwater stream system
than a stream of that discharge has capacity to transport in a single
channel system. Braided stream systems are indicators that there is
an additional source of sediment in the system besides the stream
itself. Sources of excess sediment that lead to braided streams
include glaciers, eruptions of pyroclastic material by volcanoes and
landslides.

Flooding and Flood Frequency

Streams flood. Flooding is a normal part of stream behavior. The rate

at which streams erode, transport, and deposit sediments greatly
increases during flooding. A flood occurs when the water depth in a
stream exceeds the depth of the stream channel and spreads
beyond the stream channel onto the surrounding land. When a
stream completely fills its channel it is said to be at bankfull stage.
When a stream surpasses bankfull stage it is said to be in flood.
When the flood spreads widely enough to cause property damage, a
stream is said to be at flood stage.

Different streams have different flood behaviors. Some rivers tend

to have an annual flood associated with a rainy season or snowmelt
season in the higher part of the drainage area. Some streams only
flood sporadically, often with years between floods. In the United
States all the larger streams have their flow measured at gaging
stations that are installed and monitored by the US Geological
Survey. Records of stream flow must be kept for at least 30 years to
be statistically valid. The likelihood of a flood of a specified
magnitude occurring on a stream in a given year can be calculated
from the stream flow data. The magnitude of a flood that has a 1 out
of 100 chance of happening in a given year—also known as the 100-
year flood—is calculated for a stream from it record of stream flow.
The 100-year flood magnitude, and maps that show what would be
covered by a 100-year flood, are key elements in granting permits for
land use and building construction in floodplains.

Low order streams may flood rapidly during or immediately after

heavy rainfall. Such rapid floods are called flash floods. Flash floods
are often unpredictable. If a river drains through a canyon from a
high elevation area, people may be walking along a stream in the
canyon in the sunshine and not realize that a thunderstorm is
occurring at the stream’s source. They may be surprised by a flash
flood sweeping through the canyon. A slow building flood on a higher
order stream can usually be predicted because major streams are
monitored and it takes longer for water from heavy rainfall or rapidly
melting snow to move through the higher order stream system.
Floods on the highest order streams, such as the Mississippi River,
may take several weeks to crest and subside.

Changes to the land in the drainage area of a stream, such as the

addition of buildings and roads, can change how a stream floods.
Buildings and pavement that cover the ground prevent infiltration and
cause increased surface run off. Increased stream runoff means
smaller amount of rain will cause the stream to reach flood stage
than before the alterations to the land. The stream will flood more
frequently. For the same amount and rate of rainfall that caused
flooding prior to building, the stream will reach flood stage quicker
and the flood will be deeper. The diagram below shows the flood
response of a stream to a given amount of rainfall before and after
the stream drainage area was urbanized by removal of forest and
addition of buildings and roads. After urbanization, the stream
reaches its peak flood level quicker and rises to a higher level than
before urbanization. Unless countermeasures are engineered and
installed, an urbanized area will flood more frequently and severely
than the same area when it was forested.
Figure 9.
Alluvial Fans

At the location where a

stream reaches its base level, it
slows down and deposits nearly
all of the sediment it is carrying.
A stream that comes down a
canyon and enters a flat valley
or plain builds a fan shaped
deposit of sediment known as
an alluvial fan. Alluvial fans are Figure 10.

built mostly during flash floods.

Alluvial fans are easy to
recognize in arid areas but they form in wetter climates as well.

The diagram in figure 11 shows in cross-section how an alluvial

fan develops over time as sediment is eroded from higher elevation
and deposited on the adjacent lower elevation plain.
 Figure 11.

Deltas

Deltas are important landforms to civilization. They provide fertile

soils, flat land, and water for agriculture, as well as river channels for
transportation.
 A delta is a landform composed of sediment deposited where a
stream enters a larger, slower moving body of water, such as an
ocean, a lake, or a larger river. The term delta comes from the
triangular shape of the Greek letter delta (Δ). Ancient Greek
geographers recognized the triangular shape of the land created by
the Nile River where it emptied into the Mediterranean Sea and gave
the name delta to that landform. The Nile River delta is one of
several types of deltas that are defined by the predominate
processes that shape them. The Nile delta is a wave-dominated
delta. Waves of the Mediterranean Sea have pushed and distributed
sediment along the coast, flattening the seaward side of delta.

The Mississippi River delta is an example of a stream dominated

delta. Deposition of sediments has built the delta into the Gulf of
Mexico faster than waves or tides could redistribute the sediment. As
commonly occurs in a delta, the Mississippi River splits in the
downstream direction into several branches that discharge across
the delta into the Gulf of Mexico. These branches are known as
distributaries. The mouth of each distributary has built part of the
delta farther out into the Gulf of Mexico forming what is known as a
bird’s foot delta, another name for a stream dominated delta based
on the way it looks on a map.

The Ganges River delta is a tide dominated delta formed from

sediment eroded from the Himalaya Mountains, the largest mountain
range in the world. The mouth of the Ganges River is at the northern
end of the Bay of Bengal, a large embayment of the Indian Ocean.
The shape of this large bay has a magnifying effect on the tides. The
combination of strong tides and the consistently high discharge from
a river caring a large sediment load create a branching pattern of
distributaries, in effect a braided stream system across the delta.

Deltas are lowlands that lie barely above sea level and are at high
risk of being submerged under water. There are several ways in
which deltas can be inundated by rising water. Floods coming down
the river can cover a delta. Marine deltas can be subject to storm
surges when extreme winds raise sea level along the coast and push
ocean water inland. In the last several decades a new risk of
submergence has arisen for marine deltas. Many marine deltas are
undergoing gradual submergence as global sea level rises.

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Cheryl D. Dawes. Provided by: Wenatchee Valley College.
Located at:
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html. Project: Geology 101 - Introduction to Physical
Geology. License: CC BY: Attribution
 Reading: Drainage Basins

A stream is a body of flowing

surface water of any size,
ranging from a tiny trickle to a
mighty river. The area from
which the water flows to form a
stream is known as its
drainage basin. All of the
precipitation (rain or snow) that
falls within a drainage basin Figure 1. Cawston Creek near Keremeos, B.C.
The blue line shows the extent of the drainage
eventually flows into its stream, basin. The dashed red line is the drainage basin of
one of its tributaries. [SE]
unless some of that water is
able to cross into an adjacent
drainage basin via groundwater
flow. An example of a drainage basin is shown in Figure 1.

Cawston Creek is a typical small drainage basin (approximately 25

km2) within a very steep glaciated valley. As shown in Figure 2, the
upper and middle parts of the creek have steep gradients
(averaging about 200 m/km but ranging from 100 to 350 m/km), and
the lower part, within the valley of the Similkameen River, is relatively
flat (<5 m/km). The shape of the valley has been controlled first by
tectonic uplift (related to plate convergence), then by pre-glacial
stream erosion and mass wasting, then by several episodes of
glacial erosion, and finally by post-glacial stream erosion. The lowest
elevation of Cawston Creek (275 m at the Similkameen River) is its
base level. Cawston Creek cannot erode below that level unless the
Similkameen River erodes deeper into its flood plain (the area that is
inundated during a flood).

Figure 2. Profile of the main stem of Cawston Creek near Keremeos, B.C. The
maximum elevation of the drainage basin is about 1,840 m, near Mount Kobau.
The base level is 275 m, at the Similkameen River. As shown, the gradient of the
stream can be determined by dividing the change in elevation between any two
points (rise) by the distance between those two points (run). [SE]

Metro Vancouver’s water supply comes from three large drainage

basins on the north shore of Burrard Inlet. The boundary between
two drainage basins is the height of land between them. A drop of
water falling on the boundary between the Capilano and Seymour
drainage basins (a.k.a., watersheds), for example, could flow into
either one of them.

The pattern of tributaries within a drainage basin depends largely

on the type of rock beneath, and on structures within that rock (folds,
fractures, faults, etc.). The three main types of drainage patterns are
illustrated in Figure 3. Dendritic patterns, which are by far the most
common, develop in areas where the rock (or unconsolidated
material) beneath the stream has no particular fabric or structure and
can be eroded equally easily in all directions. Examples would be
granite, gneiss, volcanic rock, and sedimentary rock that has not
been folded. Most areas of British Columbia have dendritic patterns,
as do most areas of the prairies and the Canadian Shield. Trellis
drainage patterns typically develop where sedimentary rocks have
been folded or tilted and then eroded to varying degrees depending
on their strength. The Rocky Mountains of B.C. and Alberta are a
good example of this, and many of the drainage systems within the
Rockies have trellis patterns. Rectangular patterns develop in areas
that have very little topography and a system of bedding planes,
fractures, or faults that form a rectangular network. Rectangular
drainage patterns are rare in Canada.
 Figure 3. Typical dendritic, trellis, and rectangular stream drainage patterns. [SE]

In many parts of Canada, especially relatively flat areas with thick

glacial sediments, and throughout much of Canadian Shield in
eastern and central Canada, drainage patterns are chaotic, or what
is known as deranged (Figure 4, left). Lakes and wetlands are
common in this type of environment. A fourth type of drainage
pattern, which is not specific to a drainage basin, is known as radial
(Figure 4, right). Radial patterns form around isolated mountains
(such as volcanoes) or hills, and the individual streams typically have
dendritic drainage patterns.
 Figure 4. Left: a typical deranged pattern; right: a typical radial drainage pattern
developed around a mountain or hill. [SE]

Over geological time, a stream will erode its drainage basin into a
smooth profile similar to that shown in Figure 5. If we compare this
with an ungraded stream like Cawston Creek (Figure 1), we can see
that graded streams are steepest in their headwaters and their
gradient gradually decreases toward their mouths. Ungraded
streams have steep sections at various points, and typically have
rapids and waterfalls at numerous locations along their lengths.
 Figure 5. The topographic profile of a typical graded stream. [SE]

A graded stream can become

ungraded if there is renewed
tectonic uplift, or if there is a
change in the base level, either
because of tectonic uplift or
some other reason. As stated
Figure 6. An example of a change in the base level
earlier, the base level of of a small stream that flows into the Similkameen
river near Keremeos. The previous base level was
Cawston Creek is defined by near the top of the sandy bank. The current base
the level of the Similkameen level is the river. [SE]

River, but this can change, and

has done so in the past. Figure
6 shows the valley of the Similkameen River in the Keremeos area.
The river channel is just beyond the row of trees. The green field in
the distance is underlain by material eroded from the hills behind and
deposited by a small creek (not Cawston Creek) adjacent to the
Similkameen River when its level was higher than it is now.
Sometime in the past several centuries, the Similkameen River
eroded down through these deposits (forming the steep bank on the
other side of the river), and the base level of the small creek was
lowered by about 10 m. Over the next few centuries, this creek will
seek to become graded again by eroding down through its own
alluvial fan.

Another example of a change in base level can be seen along the

Juan de Fuca Trail on southwestern Vancouver Island. As shown in
Figure 7, many of the small streams along this part of the coast flow
into the ocean as waterfalls. It is evident that the land in this area
has risen by about 5 m in the past few thousand years, probably in
response to deglaciation. The streams that used to flow directly into
the ocean now have a lot of down-cutting to do to become regraded.
 Figure 7. Two streams with a lowered base level on the Juan de Fuca Trail,
southwestern Vancouver Island. [SE]

The ocean is the ultimate base level, but lakes and other rivers act
as base levels for many smaller streams. We can create an artificial
base level on a stream by constructing a dam.

EXERCISE: THE EFFECT OF A DAM ON BASE LEVEL

When a dam is built on a stream, a reservoir (artificial lake)

forms behind the dam, and this temporarily (for many
 decades at least) creates a
new base level for the part of
the stream above the
reservoir.

How does the formation of a

reservoir affect the stream
where it enters the reservoir,
Figure 8. Revelstoke Dam and Revelstoke
and what happens to the
Lake on the Columbia River at Revelstoke,
sediment it was carrying? BC [SE]

The water leaving the dam

has no sediment in it. How does this affect the stream below the
dam?

Take a moment to think about your answers to these

questions. You can record them in the space below, if you’d
like:

Sediments accumulate within the flood plain of a stream, and then,

if the base level changes, or if there is less sediment to deposit, the
stream may cut down through those existing sediments to form
terraces. A terrace on the Similkameen River is shown in Figure
6 and some on the Fraser River are shown in Figure 9. The Fraser
River photo shows at least two levels of terraces.
 In the late nineteenth century,
American geologist William
Davis proposed that streams
and the surrounding terrain
develop in a cycle of erosion
(Figure 10). Following tectonic
uplift, streams erode quickly, Figure 9. Terraces on the Fraser River at High Bar.
[Marie Betcher photo, used with permission]
developing deep V-shaped
valleys that tend to follow
relatively straight paths.
Gradients are high, and profiles are ungraded. Rapids and waterfalls
are common. During the mature stage, streams erode wider valleys
and start to deposit thick sediment layers. Gradients are slowly
reduced and grading increases. In old age, streams are surrounded
by rolling hills, and they occupy wide sediment-filled valleys.
Meandering patterns are common.
 Figure 10. A depiction of the Davis cycle of erosion: a: initial stage, b: youthful
stage, c: mature stage, and d: old age. [SE]

Davis’s work was done long before the idea of plate tectonics, and
he was not familiar with the impacts of glacial erosion on streams
and their environments. While some parts of his theory are out of
date, it is still a useful way to understand streams and their evolution.

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 Reading: Geologic Processes and Flowing
Water

Streams—any running water from a rivulet to

a raging river—complete the hydrologic cycle by
returning precipitation that falls on land to the
oceans (figure 1). Some of this water moves
over the surface and some moves through the
ground as groundwater. Flowing water does
the work of both erosion and deposition.
Figure 1. As streams flow
towards the ocean, they
Erosion and Deposition by Streams carry weathered materials.

Erosion by Streams

Flowing streams pick up and transport weathered materials by

eroding sediments from their banks. Streams also carry ions and
ionic compounds that dissolve easily in the water. Sediments are
carried as:

Dissolved load: Dissolved load is composed of ions in

solution. These ions are usually carried in the water all the
way to the ocean.
Suspended load: Sediments carried as solids as the
stream flows are suspended load. The size of particles that
can be carried is determined by the stream’s velocity (figure
2). Faster streams can carry larger particles. Streams that
carry larger particles have greater competence. Streams
with a steep gradient (slope) have a faster velocity and
greater competence.

Figure 2. Rivers carry sand, silt and clay as suspended load. During
flood stage, the suspended load greatly increases as stream velocity
increases.

Bed load: Particles that are too large to be carried as

suspended load are bumped and pushed along the stream
bed as bed load. Bed load sediments do not move
continuously. This intermittent movement is called
saltation. Streams with high velocities and steep gradients
do a great deal of down cutting into the stream bed, which
 is primarily accomplished by movement of particles that
make up the bed load.

Here is a video of bedload transport.

Stages of Streams

As a stream flows from higher elevations, like in the mountains,

towards lower elevations, like the ocean, the work of the stream
changes. At a stream’s headwaters, often high in the mountains,
gradients are steep (figure 3). The stream moves fast and does lots
of work eroding the stream bed.
 Figure 3. This stream begins as snow melt from the mountains.

As a stream moves into lower areas, the gradient is not as steep.

Now the stream does more work eroding the edges of its banks.
Many streams develop curves in their channels called meanders
(figure 4).
 Figure 4. (a) At a meander, a stream actively erodes its outer banks and deposits
material along the inside curves. This causes these meanders to migrate laterally
over time. (b) This stream has deposited larger materials such as gravel and
pebbles along the inside curve of a meander. (c) This image is a topographic
map. The San Juan River eroded the land surface as the Colorado Plateau
uplifted. The river’s meanders were preserved as a feature called incised
meanders.

As the river moves onto flatter ground, the stream erodes the outer
edges of its banks to carve a floodplain, which is a flat level area
surrounding the stream channel (figure 5).
 Figure 5. The Vistula River in Poland flows onto its floodplain.

Base level is where a stream meets a large body of standing

water, usually the ocean, but sometimes a lake or pond. Streams
work to down cut in their stream beds until they reach base level.
The higher the elevation, the farther the stream is from where it will
reach base level and the more cutting it has to do.

Stream Deposition

As a stream gets closer to base level, its gradient lowers and it

deposits more material than it erodes. On flatter ground, streams
deposit material on the inside of meanders. Placer mineral deposits,
described in the Earth’s Minerals chapter, are often deposited there.
A stream’s floodplain is much broader and shallower than the
stream’s channel. When a stream flows onto its floodplain, its
velocity slows and it deposits much of its load. These sediments are
rich in nutrients and make excellent farmland (figure 6).

Figure 6. The Mississippi floodplain is heavily farmed. Flooding can wipe out
farms and towns, but the stream also deposits nutrient-rich sediments that enrich
the floodplain.

A stream at flood stage carries lots of sediments. When its

gradient decreases, the stream overflows its banks and broadens its
channel. The decrease in gradient causes the stream to deposit its
sediments, the largest first. These large sediments build a higher
area around the edges of the stream channel, creating natural
levees (figure 7).
 Figure 7. After many floods, a stream builds natural levees along its banks.

When a river enters standing water, its velocity slows to a stop.

The stream moves back and forth across the region and drops its
sediments in a wide triangular-shaped deposit called a delta (figure
8).
 Figure 8. (a) The Nile River delta has a classic triangular shape, like the capital
Greek letter delta. (b) Sediment in the Yellow River delta. The main stream
channel splits into many smaller distributaries.

If a stream falls down a steep slope onto a broad flat valley, an

alluvial fan develops (figure 9). Alluvial fans generally form in arid
regions.
 Figure 9. An alluvial fan in Iran. The mountains are in the lower right corner of
the photograph.

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 Self Check: Rivers and Streams

Check Your Understanding

Answer the question(s) below to see how well you understand the
topics covered in the previous section. This short quiz
does not count toward your grade in the class, and you can retake it
an unlimited number of times.

Use this quiz to check your understanding and decide whether to

(1) study the previous section further or (2) move on to the next
section.

An interactive or media element has been excluded from this

version of the text. You can view it online here:
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/geo/?p=2768

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Authored by: Kimberly Schulte and Lumen Learning.

Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution
 Outcome: Components of Groundwater

Describe critical components of groundwater

What You’ll Learn to Do

Differentiate between groundwater and the water table

Describe how groundwater is affected by porosity and
permeability of geologic materials with respect to different
types of aquifers.
Compare and contrast potential well use within various
types of aquifers.
Identify issues with groundwater withdrawal
Describe issues with the quality of groundwater and
keeping water clean

Learning Activities

The learning activities for this section include the following:

Reading: Groundwater
Reading: Porosity and Permeability

Reading: Aquifers and Well-Potential

Reading: Groundwater Withdrawal

Reading: Quality of Groundwater

Self Check: Components of Groundwater

 Reading: Groundwater

Introduction

Although this may seem surprising, water beneath the ground is

commonplace. Usually groundwater travels slowly and silently
beneath the surface, but in some locations it bubbles to the surface
at springs. The products of erosion and deposition by groundwater
were described in the Erosion and Deposition chapter.

Groundwater

Groundwater is the largest reservoir of liquid fresh water on Earth

and is found in aquifers, porous rock and sediment with water in
between. Water is attracted to the soil particles and capillary action,
which describes how water moves through a porous media, moves
water from wet soil to dry areas.

Aquifers are found at different depths. Some are just below the
surface and some are found much deeper below the land surface. A
region may have more than one aquifer beneath it and even most
deserts are above aquifers. The source region for an aquifer beneath
a desert is likely to be far from where the aquifer is located; for
example, it may be in a mountain area.
 The amount of water that is available to enter groundwater in a
region is influenced by the local climate, the slope of the land, the
type of rock found at the surface, the vegetation cover, land use in
the area, and water retention, which is the amount of water that
remains in the ground. More water goes into the ground where there
is a lot of rain, flat land, porous rock, exposed soil, and where water
is not already filling the soil and rock.

The residence time of water in a groundwater aquifer can be from

minutes to thousands of years. Groundwater is often called “fossil
water” because it has remained in the ground for so long, often since
the end of the ice ages.

Aquifers

Features of an Aquifer

To be a good aquifer, the rock in the aquifer must have good:

porosity: small spaces between grains

permeability: connections between pores

This animation shows porosity and permeability. The water

droplets are found in the pores between the sediment grains, which
is porosity. When the water can travel between ores, that’s
permeability.
 To reach an aquifer, surface water infiltrates downward into the
ground through tiny spaces or pores in the rock. The water travels
down through the permeable rock until it reaches a layer that does
not have pores; this rock is impermeable (figure 1). This
impermeable rock layer forms the base of the aquifer. The upper
surface where the groundwater reaches is the water table.

Figure 1. Groundwater is found beneath the solid surface. Notice that the
water table roughly mirrors the slope of the land’s surface. A well penetrates
the water table.
The Water Table

For a groundwater aquifer to contain the same amount of water, the

amount of recharge must equal the amount of discharge. What are
the likely sources of recharge? What are the likely sources of
discharge?

In wet regions, streams are

fed by groundwater; the surface
of the stream is the top of the
water table (figure 2). In dry
regions, water seeps down from
the stream into the aquifer.
These streams are often dry Figure 2. The top of the stream is the top of the
water table. The stream feeds the aquifer.
much of the year. Water leaves
a groundwater reservoir in
streams or springs. People take
water from aquifers, too.

What happens to the water table when there is a lot of rainfall?

What happens when there is a drought? Although groundwater
levels do not rise and fall as rapidly as at the surface, over time the
water table will rise during wet periods and fall during droughts.

One of the most interesting, but extremely atypical types of

aquifers is found in Florida. Although aquifers are very rarely
underground rivers, in Florida water has dissolved the limestone so
that streams travel underground and above ground (figure 3).

Figure 3. In Florida, groundwater is sometimes not underground.

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 Reading: Porosity and Permeability

As we’ve A black spring

learned, groundwater is simply
Figure 1. A spring coming out of the shale near
water that exists underground. Red Creek. Yes, that water is black! (Photo: Matt
Herod)
However, there are still lots of
misconceptions about how
people envision groundwater.
Many envision large underground lakes and rivers, and while those
do exist, they represent an infinitesimally small percentage of all
groundwater. Generally speaking groundwater exists in the pore
spaces between grains of soil and rocks. Imagine a water filled
sponge. All of the holes in that sponge are water-filled. By squeezing
that sponge we force the water out, similarly, by pumping an aquifer
we force the water out of pore spaces.

There are lots of terms in hydrogeology, most of which are very

simple, but essential. Here are a few of the big ones and their
meanings.

Porosity

Porosity is an intrinsic property of every material. It refers to the

amount of empty space within a given material. In a soil or rock the
porosity (empty space) exists between the grains of minerals. In a
material like gravel the grains are large and there is lots of
empty space between them since they don’t fit together very well.
However, in a material like a gravel, sand and clay mixture the
porosity is much less as the smaller grains fill the spaces. The
amount of water a material can hold is directly related to the porosity
since water will try and fill the empty spaces in a material. We
measure porosity by the percentage of empty space that exists
within a particular porous media.

Figure 2. Porosity in two different media. The image on the left is analagous to
gravel whereas on the right smaller particles are filling some of the pores and
displacing water. Therefore, the water content of the material on the right is less.
(Source: Wikipedia)
Permeability

Permeability is another intrinsic property of all

materials and is closely related to porosity.
Permeability refers to how connected pore
spaces are to one another. If the material has
high permeability than pore spaces are
connected to one another allowing water to flow
from one to another, however, if there is low Figure 3. Video showing
how connected pores
permeability then the pore spaces are isolated have high permeability
and can transport water
and water is trapped within them. For example, in easily. Note that some
pores are isolated and
a gravel all of the pores well connected one cannot transport water
another allowing water to flow through it, trapped within them.

however, in a clay most of the pore spaces are

blocked, meaning water cannot flow through it
easily.

Aquifer

An aquifer is a term for a type of soil or rock that can hold and
transfer water that is completely saturated with water. That means
that all it is simply a layer of soil or rock that has a reasonably high
porosity and permeability that allows it to contain water and transfer
it from pore to pore relatively quickly and all of the pore spaces are
filled with water. Good examples of aquifers are glacial till or sandy
soils which have both high porosity and high permeability. Aquifers
allows us to recover groundwater by pumping quickly and easily.
However, overpumping can easily reduce the amount of water in an
aquifer and cause it to dry up. Aquifers are replenished when surface
water infiltrates through the ground and refills the pore spaces in the
aquifer. This process is called recharge. It is especially important to
ensure that recharge is clean and uncontaminated or the entire
aquifer could become polluted. There are two main types of aquifer.
An unconfined aquifer is one that does not have an aquitard above it
but usually does below it.

When a water-bearing rock readily transmits water to wells and

springs, it is called an aquifer. Wells can be drilled into the aquifers
and water can be pumped out. Precipitation eventually adds water
(recharge) into the porous rock of the aquifer. The rate of recharge is
not the same for all aquifers, though, and that must be considered
when pumping water from a well. Pumping too much water too fast
draws down the water in the aquifer and eventually causes a well to
yield less and less water and even run dry. In fact, pumping your well
too fast can even cause your neighbor’s well to run dry if you both
are pumping from the same aquifer.

In the diagram below, you can see how the ground below the
water table (the blue area) is saturated with water. The “unsaturated
zone” above the water table (the greenish area) still contains water
(after all, plants’ roots live in this area), but it is not totally saturated
with water. You can see this in the two drawings at the bottom of the
diagram, which show a close-up of how water is stored in between
underground rock particles.

Figure 2.

Sometimes the porous rock layers become tilted in the earth.

There might be a confining layer of less porous rock both above and
below the porous layer. This is an example of a confined aquifer. In
this case, the rocks surrounding the aquifer confines the pressure in
the porous rock and its water. If a well is drilled into this “pressurized”
aquifer, the internal pressure might (depending on the ability of the
rock to transport water) be enough to push the water up the well and
up to the surface without the aid of a pump, sometimes completely
out of the well. This type of well is called artesian. The pressure of
water from an artesian well can be quite dramatic.

A relationship does not necessarily exist between the water-

bearing capacity of rocks and the depth at which they are found. A
very dense granite that will yield little or no water to a well may be
exposed at the land surface. Conversely, a porous sandstone, such
as the Dakota Sandstone mentioned previously, may lie hundreds or
thousands of feet below the land surface and may yield hundreds of
gallons per minute of water. Rocks that yield freshwater have been
found at depths of more than 6,000 feet, and salty water has come
from oil wells at depths of more than 30,000 feet. On the average,
however, the porosity and permeability of rocks decrease as their
depth below land surface increases; the pores and cracks in rocks at
great depths are closed or greatly reduced in size because of the
weight of overlying rocks.

Water Movement in Aquifers

Water movement in aquifers is highly dependent of the permeability

of the aquifer material. Permeable material contains interconnected
cracks or spaces that are both numerous enough and large enough
to allow water to move freely. In some permeable materials
groundwater may move several metres in a day; in other places, it
moves only a few centimeters in a century. Groundwater moves very
slowly through relatively impermeable materials such as clay and
shale.

After entering an aquifer, water moves slowly toward lower lying

places and eventually is discharged from the aquifer from springs,
seeps into streams, or is withdrawn from the ground by wells.
Groundwater in aquifers between layers of poorly permeable rock,
such as clay or shale, may be confined under pressure. If such a
confined aquifer is tapped by a well, water will rise above the top of
the aquifer and may even flow from the well onto the land surface.
Water confined in this way is said to be under artesian pressure, and
the aquifer is called an artesian aquifer.

Visualizing Artesian Pressure

Here’s a little experiment to show you how artesian pressure works.

Fill a plastic sandwich baggie with water, put a straw in through the
opening, tape the opening around the straw closed, do not point the
straw towards your teacher or parents, and then squeeze the baggie.
Artesian water is pushed out through the straw.

Aquitard

The other type is a confined aquifer that has an aquitard above and
below it. An aquitard is basically the opposite of an aquifer with one
key exception. Aquitards have very low permeability and do not
transfer water well at all. In fact, in the ground they often act as a
barrier to water flow and separate two aquifers. The one key
exception is that aquitards can have high porosity and hold lots of
water however, due to the their low permeability they are unable to
transmit it from pore to pore and therefore water cannot flow within
an aquitard very well. A good example of an aquitard is a layer of
clay. Clay often has high porosity but almost no permeability
meaning it is essentially a barrier which water cannot flow through
and the water within it is trapped. However, there is still limited water
flow within aquitards due to other processes that I won’t get into now.
 Figure 4.

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 Reading: Aquifers and Well-Potential

There’s a good chance that the average Joe who had to dig a well in
ancient Egypt probably did the work with his hands, a shovel, and a
bucket. He would have kept digging until he reached the water table
and water filled the bottom of the hole. Some wells are still dug by
hand today, but more modern methods are available. It’s still a dirty
job, though!

Wells are extremely important to all societies. In many places

wells provide a reliable and ample supply of water for home uses,
irrigation, and industries. Where surface water is scarce, such as in
deserts,people couldn’t survive and thrive without groundwater.

Types of Wells

Digging a well by hand is becoming outdated today (would YOU

want to do it?). Modern wells are more often drilled by a truck-
mounted drill rig. Still, there are many ways to put in a well—here are
some of the common methods.

Dug Wells
 Hacking at the ground with a
pick and shovel is one way to
dig a well. If the ground is soft
and the water table is
shallow,then dug wells can
work. Historically, dug wells
were excavated by hand shovel
to below the water table until Figure 1. Well Types

incoming water exceeded the

digger’s bailing rate . The well
was lined with stones, brick, tile, or other material to prevent
collapse, and was covered with a cap of wood, stone, or concrete.
They cannot be dug much deeper than the water table — just as you
cannot dig a hole very deep when you are at the beach… it keeps
filling up with water!

Driven Wells

Driven wells are still common today. They are built by driving a small-
diameter pipe into soft earth, such as sand or gravel. A screen is
usually attached to the bottom of the pipe to filter out sand and other
particles. Problems? They can only tap shallow water, and because
the source of the water is so close to the surface, contamination from
surface pollutants can occur.

Drilled Wells
Most modern wells are drilled, which requires a fairly complicated
and expensive drill rig. Drill rigs are often mounted on big trucks.
They use rotary drill bits that chew away at the rock, percussion bits
that smash the rock, or, if the ground is soft,large auger bits. Drilled
wells can be drilled more than 1,000 feet deep. Often a pump is
placed at the bottom to push water up to the surface.

Water Levels in Wells

Ground-water users would find life easier if the water level in the
aquifer that supplied their well always stayed the same. Seasonal
variations in rainfall and the occasional drought affect the “height” of
the underground water level. If a well is pumped at a faster rate than
the aquifer around it is recharged by precipitation or other
underground flow, then water levels around the well can be lowered.
The water level in a well can also be lowered if other wells near it are
withdrawing too much water. When water levels drop below the
levels of the pump intakes, then wells will begin to pump air—they
will “go dry.”
 Figure 2. Aquifers and Wells

Public domain content

Groundwater: Wells. Authored by: Roger M. Waller.

Provided by: USGS. Located at:
http://water.usgs.gov/edu/earthgwwells.html. Project:
Ground Water and the Rural Homeowner. License: Public
Domain: No Known Copyright
 Reading: Groundwater Withdrawal

Is it good to make the desert bloom?

Many sunny, arid regions are good for growing crops as long as
water can be added. Some of the increase in productivity is due to
farming in regions that are technically too dry. Groundwater can be
used to make the desert bloom, but at what cost? And for how
long? Eventually the wells will run dry.

Groundwater Overuse

Some aquifers are overused; people pump out more water than is
replaced. As the water is pumped out, the water table slowly falls,
requiring wells to be dug deeper, which takes more money and
energy. Wells may go completely dry if they are not deep enough to
reach into the lowered water table.

Figure 1. Intense drought has reduced groundwater levels in the southern U.S.,
particularly in Texas and New Mexico.

Other problems may stem from groundwater overuse. Subsidence

and saltwater intrusion are two of them.

Ogallala Aquifer
The Ogallala Aquifer supplies about one-third of the irrigation water
in the United States. The Ogallala Aquifer is widely used by people
for municipal and agricultural needs. (Figure 2). The aquifer is found
from 30 to 100 meters deep over an area of about 440,000 square
kilometers!

Figure 2. The Ogallala Aquifer is found beneath eight states

and is heavily used.

The water in the aquifer is mostly from the last ice age. About eight
times more water is taken from the Ogallala
Aquifer each year than is replenished.
Much of the water is used for irrigation
.Farms in Kansas use central pivot
irrigation (Figure 3), which is more efficient
since water falls directly on the crops
instead of being shot in the air. These fields
are between 800 and 1600 meters (0.5 and Figure 3. Farms in Kansas

1 mile) in diameter.

Subsidence

Lowering the water table may cause the ground surface to sink.
Subsidence may occur beneath houses and other structures. The
San Joaquin Valley of California is one of the world’s major
agricultural areas. So much groundwater has been pumped that the
land has subsided many tens of feet.

Salt Water Intrusion

When coastal aquifers are overused, salt water from the ocean may
enter the aquifer, contaminating the aquifer and making it less useful
for drinking and irrigation. Salt water incursion is a problem in
developed coastal regions, such as on Hawaii.

Summary
 When water is pumped from an aquifer, the water table
declines and wells must be drilled deeper.

The Ogallala Aquifer was filled in the ice age but is being
used to irrigate the farms of the Midwestern U.S. at a rate
far greater than it is being replenished.
Ground subsidence and saltwater intrusion are two possible
consequences of groundwater overuse.

PRACTICE

Use this resource to answer the questions that follow.

An interactive or media element has been excluded from

this version of the text. You can view it online here:
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1. How has irrigation changed farming?

2. What is leading to people’s demands for additional water?

3. What do scientists need to see to better plan for future water use?

4. What is the GRACE satellite doing?

5. How does GRACE find groundwater aquifers?

6. How people know the aquifers are being depleted?

7. What is happening in India? what will happen if the water continues to

decline?
 8. What is the future of water?

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 Reading: Quality of Groundwater

As was noted at the very beginning of this chapter, one of the good
things about groundwater as a source of water is that it is not as
easily contaminated as surface water is. But there are two caveats to
that: one is that groundwater can become naturally contaminated
because of its very close connection to the materials of its aquifer,
and the second is that once contaminated by human activities,
groundwater is very difficult to clean up.

Natural Contamination of Groundwater

Groundwater moves slowly through an aquifer, and unlike the

surface water of a stream, it has a lot of contact with the surrounding
rock or sediment. In most aquifers, the geological materials that
make up the aquifer are relatively inert, or are made up of minerals
that dissolve very slowly into the groundwater. Over time, however,
all groundwater gradually has more and more material dissolved
within it as it remains in contact with the aquifer. In some areas, that
rock or sediment includes some minerals that could potentially
contaminate the water with elements that might make the water less
than ideal for human consumption or agricultural use. Examples
include copper, arsenic, mercury, fluorine, sodium, and boron. In
some cases, contamination may occur because the aquifer material
has particularly high levels of the element in question. In other
cases, the aquifer material is just normal rock or sediment, but some
particular feature of the water or the aquifer allows the contaminant
to build up to significant levels.

An example of natural contamination takes place in the bedrock

aquifers of the east coast of Vancouver Island and the adjacent Gulf
Islands. The aquifer is the Cretaceous (90 Ma to 65 Ma) Nanaimo
Group, which is made up of sandstone, mudstone, and
conglomerate (Figure 1).

Figure 1. Cretaceous Nanaimo Group sandstone exposed in a Nanaimo parking

lot [SE]
 The rocks of the Nanaimo Group are not particularly enriched in
any trace elements, but the submarine-fan sandstone that makes up
much of the group is a lithic wacke, and therefore has relatively high
levels of clay (for a sandstone). This clay is good at
[1]
adsorbing some elements from the water and desorbing others,
and in the process, its pH goes up (it becomes alkaline). At high pH
levels (some as high as 9 in the Nanaimo Group), the element
fluorine that is present naturally in the rock (as it is in almost any
rock) has an increased tendency to dissolve in the water. In some
areas, groundwater in the Nanaimo Group has fluorine levels that
are well above recommended levels for drinking water. The World
Health Organization (WHO) maximum acceptable concentration
(MAC) for fluorine is 1.5 mg/L (milligrams per litre). Between 5% and
10% of the domestic wells around Nanaimo and adjacent Gabriola
Island have more than that, some as much as 10 mg/L. A small
amount of fluorine in the human diet is considered important for
maintaining dental health, but high levels can lead to malformation
and discolouration of teeth, and long-term exposure can lead to
other more serious health effects such as skeletal problems.

Nanaimo Group groundwater can also have elevated levels of

boron, again related to pH and adsorption from clay minerals. While
boron at the levels found there is not toxic to humans, there is
enough boron in some wells to be toxic to plants, and the water
cannot be used for irrigation.
 Rural residents in the densely
populated country of
Bangladesh (over 1,000
residents/km2, compared with
3.4/km2 in Canada) used to rely
mostly on surface supplies for
their drinking water, and many
of these were subject to
bacterial contamination. Infant
mortality rates were among the
highest in the world and other
illnesses such as diarrhea,
dysentery, typhoid, cholera, and
hepatitis were common. In the
Figure 2. The distribution of arsenic in
1970s, international agencies, groundwater in Bangladesh. The WHO
recommended safe level for arsenic is 10 μg/L. All
including UNICEF, started a of the green, orange, and red areas on the map
exceed that limit. [From: BGS and DPHE. 2001.
program of drilling wells to
Arsenic contamination of groundwater in
access abundant groundwater Bangladesh. Kinniburgh, D G and Smedley, P
L, http://www.bgs.ac.uk/arsenic/bangladesh/.]
supplies at depths of 20 m to
100 m. Eventually over 8 million
such wells were drilled. Infant
mortality and illness rates dropped dramatically, but it was later
discovered that the water from a high proportion of these wells has
arsenic above safe levels (Figure 2).

Most of the wells in the affected areas are drilled into relatively
recent sediments of the vast delta of the Ganges and Brahmaputra
Rivers. While these sediments are not particularly enriched in
arsenic, they have enough organic matter in them to use up any
oxygen present. This leads to water with a naturally low oxidation
potential (anoxic conditions); arsenic is highly soluble under these
conditions, and so any arsenic present in the sediments easily gets
dissolved into the groundwater. Arsenic poisoning leads to
headaches, confusion, and diarrhea, and eventually to vomiting,
stomach pain, and convulsions. If not treated, the final outcomes are
heart disease, stroke, cancer, diabetes, coma, and death. There are
ways to treat arsenic-rich groundwater, but it is a challenge in
Bangladesh to implement the simple and effective technology that is
available.

Anthropogenic Contamination of Groundwater

Groundwater can become contaminated by pollution at the surface

(or at depth), and there are many different anthropogenic (human-
caused) sources of contamination.

The vulnerability of aquifers to pollution depends on several

factors, including the depth to the water table, the permeability of the
material between the surface and the aquifer, the permeability of the
aquifer, the slope of the surface, and the amount of precipitation.
Confined aquifers tend to be much less vulnerable than unconfined
ones, and deeper aquifers are less vulnerable than shallow ones.
Steeper slopes mean that surface water tends to run off rather than
infiltrate (and this can reduce the possibility of contamination).
Contamination risk is also less in dry areas than in areas with heavy
rainfall.

Studies of groundwater vulnerability have been completed for

various regions of British Columbia. A groundwater vulnerability map
for southern Vancouver Island is shown in Figure 3. The yellow to
red areas are considered to have high vulnerability to pollution from
surface sources, and most of these are where the aquifers are
unconfined in quite permeable unconsolidated sediments of either
glacial or fluvial origin, where the water table is relatively shallow and
the terrain is relatively flat.
 Figure 3. The vulnerability to anthropogenic contamination of aquifers on
southern Vancouver Island. Much of the island is not mapped (shown as white)
because of a lack of aquifer information in areas without wells. [From: Newton,
P. and Gilchrist, A. 2010. Technical summary of intrinsic vulnerability mapping
methods of Vancouver Island, Vancouver Island Water Resources Vulnerability
Mapping Project, Vancouver Island University, 45pp. Used with permission.
https://web.viu.ca/groundwater/PDF/VI_DRASTIC_Summary_Phase2_2010.pdf]

The important sources of anthropogenic groundwater

contamination include the following:

Chemicals and animal waste related to agriculture, and

chemicals applied to golf courses and domestic gardens
Landfills
 Industrial operations
Mines, quarries, and other rock excavations

Leaking fuel storage tanks (especially those at gas stations)

Septic systems

Runoff from roads (e.g., winter salting) or chemical spills of

materials being transported

Agriculture

Intensive agricultural operations and golf courses can have a

significant impact on the environment, especially where chemicals
and other materials are used to enhance growth or control pests. An
example of agricultural contamination is in the Abbotsford area of the
Fraser Valley, where nitrate levels above the 44 mg/L maximum
acceptable level (expressed as nitrate) in the Abbotsford-Sumas
aquifer have been observed since the 1950s; however, the problem
became much worse as agriculture intensity increased in the 1980s.
By 2004, groundwater with nitrate levels in excess of 44 mg/L was
reported over an area of about 75 km2 around Abbotsford, and the
problem extended across the border into the Sumas area of
Washington State.

This region is intensively used for berry crops (especially

raspberries and blueberries) and large poultry operations, as well as
lesser amounts of grazing and forage crops. Chicken manure is
typically stored in fields adjacent to chicken barns, and may release
nitrogen to the environment from runoff water, and from releases of
ammonia gas. Over decades, both chemical fertilizers and chicken
manure and other manures have been applied to the berry crops to
provide extra nitrogen to help maximize berry growth. If the fertilizer
added is in excess of what the plants need, or is poorly timed
compared to when it is needed, then the extra nitrogen may be
leached into the groundwater below. Berry crops are irrigated over
the summer to help the crops grow. Summer irrigation and winter
rainfall may carry excess nitrate from the near surface to the aquifer
below.

Since the 1990s, agricultural practices have been tightened up to

reduce the rate of groundwater contamination, but it will take
decades for nitrate levels to drop in the Abbotsford-Sumas aquifer.
Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada and many others are conducting
research on better irrigation and nitrate management techniques to
reduce the amount of nitrogen that leaches to groundwater.

Landfills

In the past, domestic and commercial refuse was commonly trucked

to a “dump” (typically a hole in the ground), and when the hole was
filled, it was covered with soil and forgotten. In situations like this,
rain and melting snow can easily pass through the soil used to cover
the refuse. This water passes into the waste itself, and the resulting
landfill leachate that flows from the bottom of the landfill can
seriously contaminate the surrounding groundwater and surface
water. In the past few decades, regulations around refuse disposal
have been significantly strengthened, and important steps have been
taken to reduce the amount of landfill waste by diverting recyclable
and compostable materials to other locations.

A modern engineered landfill has an impermeable liner (typically

heavy plastic, although engineered clay liners or natural clay may be
adequate in some cases), a plumbing system for draining leachate
(the rainwater that flows through the refuse and becomes
contaminated), and a network of monitoring wells both within and
around the landfill (Figure 4). Once part or all of a landfill site is full, it
is sealed over with a plastic cover, and a system is put in place to
extract landfill gas (typically a mixture of carbon dioxide and
methane). That gas can be sent to a nearby location where it is
burned to create heat or used to generate electricity. The leachate
must be treated, and that can be done in a normal sewage treatment
plant.
 Figure 4 A cross-section of a typical modern landfill [SE]

The monitoring wells are used to assess the level of the water
table around the landfill and to collect groundwater samples so that
any leakage can be detected. Because some leakage is almost
inevitable, the ideal placement for landfills is in areas where the
depth to the water table is significant (tens of metres if possible) and
where the aquifer material is relatively impermeable. Landfills should
also be situated far from streams, lakes, or wetlands so that
contamination of aquatic habitats can be avoided.

Today there are hundreds of abandoned dumps scattered across

the country; most have been left to contaminate groundwater that we
might wish to use sometime in the future. In many cases, it’s unlikely
that we’ll be able to do so.

EXERCISES: WHAT GOES ON AT YOUR LANDFILL?

Unless you live in a

remote rural area, there’s a
good chance that the refuse
you can’t recycle is picked
up at the curb and taken to a
landfill. Most landfills are
operated by cities or regional Figure 5. A landfill [SE photo]
districts, and you should be
able to find information about yours on the appropriate local
government website. See if you can answer some the
following questions:

1. Which government body operates your landfill?

2. Where is the landfill situated?

3. Is your waste all placed in a landfill, or are there other processes in

use (e.g., incineration or composting)?

4. Are landfill gases captured, and, if so, what is done with them?

5. What could be changed to improve the waste disposal situation in

your community (e.g., more recycling, compost collection, waste-to-
energy technology)?
Industrial Operations

Although western Canada

doesn’t have the same extent of
industrial pollution as other
parts of the country, there are
still seriously contaminated
sites in the west, most with the
potential to contaminate
Figure 6. The Trail lead-zinc smelter in 1929
groundwater. One example is [http://upload.wikimedia.org
/wikipedia/commons/2/20
the lead and zinc smelter at /Trail_Smelter_in_Year_1929.png]
Trail, B.C. The largest in the
world, it has been operating for
over 100 years and has left a residue of metal contamination around
the region (Figure 6). In some parts of Trail, the contamination is
serious enough that existing soil has been removed from residential
properties and replaced with clean soil brought in from elsewhere.
This contaminated soil has contributed to contamination of
groundwater in the Trail area. Groundwater beneath the actual
smelter site is contaminated, and the operator (Teck Resources) is
currently working on plans to prevent that water from reaching the
nearby Columbia River.

Mines, Quarries, and Rock Excavations

Mines and other operations that involve the excavation of large

amounts of rock (e.g., highway construction) have the potential to
create serious environmental
damage. The exposure of rock
that has previously not been
exposed to air and water can
lead to the oxidation of
sulphide-bearing minerals, such
Figure 7. Acidic runoff at the abandoned Mt.
a pyrite (FeS2), within the rock. Washington Mine near Courtenay, B.C. [SE]
The combination of pyrite,
water, oxygen, and a special
type of bacteria (Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans) that thrives in acidic
conditions leads to the generation of acidity, in some cases to pH
less than 2. Water that acidic is hazardous by itself, but the low pH
also has the property of increasing the solubility of certain heavy
metals. The water that is generated by this process is known as acid
rock drainage (ARD). ARD can occur naturally where sulphide-
bearing rocks are near the surface. The issue of ARD is a major
environmental concern at both operating mines and abandoned
mines. In streams around the Mt. Washington Mine on Vancouver
Island (Figure 7), copper levels are high enough to be toxic to fish.
Groundwater adjacent to the contaminated streams in the area is
very likely contaminated as well.

Leaking Fuel Tanks

Underground storage tanks (USTs) are used to store fuel at gas

stations, industrial sites, airports, and anywhere that large volumes
of fuel are used. They do not last forever, and eventually they start to
leak their contents into the
ground. This is a particular
problem at older gas stations —
although it may also become a
future problem at newer gas
stations. You may have noticed Figure 8. A closed and fenced gas station site in
Nanaimo, B.C. The white pipes in the background
gas stations that have been are wells for monitoring groundwater
closed and then surrounded by contamination on the site. [SE]

chain-link fence (Figure 8). In

virtually all such cases the
closure has been triggered by the discovery of leaking USTs and the
requirement to cease operations and remediate the site.Petroleum
fuels are complex mixtures of hydrocarbon compounds and the
properties of their components—such as density, viscosity, solubility
in water, and volatility — tend to vary widely. As a result, a petroleum
spill is like several spills for the price of one. The petroleum liquid
slowly settles through the unsaturated zone and then tends to float
on the surface of the groundwater (Figure 9). The more readily
soluble components of the spill dissolve in the groundwater and are
dispersed along with the normal groundwater flow, and the more
volatile components of the spill rise toward the surface, potentially
contaminating buildings.
 Figure 9. A depiction of the fate of different components of a petroleum spill
from an underground storage tank. [SE]

EXERCISES: FIND A LEAKING UST IN YOUR

COMMUNITY

There is almost certainly a leaking UST at a former gas

station near you. Look for an empty property that is
surrounded by a chain-link fence with “No Trespassing” signs.
You might see evidence of monitoring wells (like those shown
 in Figure 9), and there could be some petroleum barrels
around that are being used to store contaminated water.
Once you’ve identified one of these, you’ll probably start
seeing them everywhere!

Septic Systems

In areas that are not served by sewage networks leading to a central

sewage treatment plant, most homeowners rely on septic systems
for disposal of sewage. There are two primary components to a
simple septic system, the septic tank and the drainage field (Figure
10). A typical septic tank is constructed of either concrete or plastic
and has a volume of 5,000 L to 10,000 L (5 m3 to 10 m3). This forms
the first treatment and is designed to be anaerobic (without oxygen).
That promotes the activity of certain bacteria that help break down
the waste. As the waste is degraded, some portions tend to sink to
form sludge at the base of the tank, and others float to the surface,
forming a scum layer. A septic tank may be divided into two parts to
keep the sludge at the bottom and the scum on the top from draining
out. The water then moves to the drainage field, which provides the
right conditions for a different set of bacteria that operate in aerobic
conditions. The drainage field includes an array of plastic pipes that
are perforated to allow the effluent to drain out over a large area and
seep slowly into the ground. In order to install a drainage field, it is
first necessary to test the soil below, as it must be sufficiently
permeable to allow the effluent to percolate away, but not so
permeable that it flows too quickly and the soil is not able to filter out
the pathogenic bacteria.

Figure 10. A typical septic system. [SE]

If they are properly installed and used, and if the sludge is

periodically removed from the tank, a septic system should be
effective in treating the sewage for decades. The anaerobic and
aerobic bacteria should be able to break down the incoming waste
and there should be little risk to the surface environment or
groundwater. But many things can go wrong with a septic system,
including the following:

If inappropriate chemicals are added to the waste stream,

they may interfere with the natural breakdown of the
sewage.
If the tank is not periodically pumped out, solids can get into
the drainage field and compromise the drainage, resulting
in the flow of effluent toward the surface.
If the soil is either not sufficiently permeable or too
permeable, the effluent will not drain away (and will start to
pool at the surface) or it will drain too quickly.
If the drainage field is constructed in an area where the
water table is close to surface, some of the effluent is likely
to flow into the groundwater without being treated.

Prevention and Mitigation of Groundwater

Contamination

As illustrated in the landfill example above, there are two fairly

simple ways to significantly reduce the chance and degree of
groundwater contamination from surface sources. One is to prevent
rainwater from infiltrating down to the water table and picking up
contaminants; this can be achieved by simply capping or roofing
over the landfill, mine tailings, or spill site. The second is to provide
an impermeable barrier beneath the contaminant. Modern landfills
and mine tailings impoundments are all built using some combination
of clay and engineered plastic barriers. Both of these solutions —
caps and liners — are subject to failure due to leaks.

Once contaminants are in the groundwater, the main form of

remediation is to pump out the contaminated water and treat it at the
surface. This can be a slow process, and preventing the contaminant
from travelling significantly during this process can be accomplished
by manipulating local groundwater flow through the extraction or
injection of water at certain locations. Consider this in the exercise
below.

EXERCISES: MANIPULATING A CONTAMINANT PLUME

This diagram shows a groundwater contaminant plume in red.

The source of the contamination has been removed but if the
plume is not dealt with, it will eventually enter the stream and
threaten the health of wildlife. Pumping the contaminant from
well B for treatment will not be sufficient to prevent some of
the contamination from making it to the stream.

What could you do at wells A and C to prevent this? Explain

and use the diagram below to illustrate the expected changes
to the water table and the movement of the plume.
 Figure 11. Contaminant Plume

1. “Adsorb” (with a “d”) is not the same as “absorb” (with a “b”). Water can be

absorbed by a sponge. Ions dissolved in water can be adsorbed onto—or

desorbed from—the surfaces of clay minerals. ↵

CC licensed content, Shared previously

Groundwater Quality. Authored by: Steven Earle.

Provided by: BC Campus. Located at:
https://opentextbc.ca/geology/chapter/14-4-groundwater-
quality. Project: Physical Geology. License: CC BY:
Attribution
 Self Check: Components of Groundwater

Check Your Understanding

Answer the question(s) below to see how well you understand the
topics covered in the previous section. This short quiz
does not count toward your grade in the class, and you can retake it
an unlimited number of times.

Use this quiz to check your understanding and decide whether to

(1) study the previous section further or (2) move on to the next
section.

An interactive or media element has been excluded from this

version of the text. You can view it online here:
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/geo/?p=2769

CC licensed content, Original

Authored by: Kimberly Schulte and Lumen Learning.

Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution
 Outcome: Geologic Features

Identify various geologic features associated with

groundwater

Groundwater and its behavior can produce a variety of common

features. This section will discuss some of these features including
karst topography—what it is and where it is located, geysers—what
causes them and how they work, and springs—the different types of
springs and how they work.

What You’ll Learn to Do

Understand and identify features related to karst

topography

Identify the processes related to the formation of geysers

Identify the processes related to the different types of
springs

Learning Activities

The learning activities for this section include the following:

Reading: Karst Topography

 Reading: Geysers

Reading: Springs

Self Check: Geologic Features

CC licensed content, Original

Authored by: Kimberly Schulte and Lumen Learning.

Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution
 Reading: Karst Topography

Introduction

Throughout the world karst landscapes vary from rolling hills dotted
with sinkholes, as found in portions of the central United States, to
jagged hills and pinnacle karst found in the tropics. The development
of all karst landforms requires the presence of rock which is capable
of being dissolved by surface water or ground water.

The term karst describes a distinctive topography that indicates

dissolution (also called chemical solution) of underlying soluble
rocks by surface water or ground water. Although commonly
associated with carbonate rocks (limestone and dolomite) other
highly soluble rocks such as evaporates (gypsum and rock salt) can
be sculpted into karst terrain.

Understanding caves and karst is important because ten percent

of the Earth’s surface is occupied by karst landscape and as much
as a quarter of the world’s population depends upon water supplied
from karst areas. Though most abundant in humid regions where
carbonate rock is present, karst terrain occurs in temperate, tropical,
alpine and polar environments. Karst features range in scale from
microscopic (chemical precipitates) to entire drainage systems and
ecosystems which cover hundreds of square miles, and broad karst
plateaus.

Although karst processes sculpt beautiful landscapes, karst

systems are very vulnerable to ground water pollution due to the
relatively rapid rate of water flow and the lack of a natural filtration
system. This puts local drinking water supplies at risk of being
contaminated. In the mid 1980’s, flooding of caves in the highly
populated area of Bowling Green, Kentucky, caused industrial waste
to leak into the vast system of underground fissures polluting the
ground water in local wells. Due to urban expansion millions of
dollars is spent annually in the United States to repair damage to
roads, buildings and other structures which are built on unstable
karst surfaces.

Karst Topography

The degree of development of karst landforms varies greatly from

region to region. Large drainage systems in karst areas are likely to
have both fluvial (surface) and karst (underground) drainage
components. As stated in the introduction, the term karst describes
a distinctive topography that indicates dissolution of underlying
rocks by surface water or ground water.

Water falls as rain or snow and soaks into the soil. The water
becomes weakly acidic because it reacts chemically with carbon
dioxide that occurs naturally in the atmosphere and the soil. This
acid is named carbonic acid and is the same compound that makes
carbonated beverages taste tangy. Rainwater seeps downward
through the soil and through fractures in the rock responding to the
force of gravity. The carbonic acid in the moving ground water
dissolves the bedrock along the surfaces of joints, fractures and
bedding planes, eventually forming cave passages and caverns.

Limestone is a sedimentary rock consisting primarily of calcium

carbonate in the form of the mineral calcite. Rainwater dissolves the
limestone by the following reaction: Calcite + Carbonic acid =
Calcium ions dissolved in ground water + Bicarbonate ions dissolved
in ground water.

Cracks and joints that interconnect in the soil and bedrock allow
the water to reach a zone below the surface of the land where all the
fractures and void spaces are completely filled (also known as
saturated) with water. This water-rich zone is called the saturated
zone and its upper surface is called the water table. The volume of
void space (space filled with air or water) in soil or bedrock is termed
porosity. The larger the proportion of voids in a given volume of soil
or rock the greater the porosity. When these voids are
interconnected, water or air (or other fluids) can migrate from void to
void. Thus the soil or bedrock is said to be permeable because
fluids (air and water) can easily move through them. Permeable
bedrock makes a good aquifer, a rock layer that holds and conducts
water. If the ground water that flows through the underlying
permeable bedrock is acidic and the bedrock is soluble, a distinctive
type of topography, karst topography, can be created.

The first part of our animation shows evolution of karst landforms

created by downward movement of water accompanied by
dissolution of rock and mass transport of sediments in stream
channels. In tropical areas with thick massive limestones, a
remarkable and distinctive landscape of jagged hills and narrow
gorges completely dominates the landscape. Movement of solution
along fractures and joints etches the bedrock and leaves limestone
blocks as isolated spires or pinnacles. Pinnacles range from small
features a few inches tall to intermediate forms a few feet tall to large
pinnacles hundreds of feet tall. Besides the etching of pinnacles and
residual hills, sheets of flowing water move down sloping surfaces
creating a variety of etched surface features. Our computer
animation shows the dominant landforms, such as pinnacles, cones,
and towers, commonly found in the tropical karst environment of
northern Puerto Rico.

Our paper model represents another type of karst landscape, that

of a rolling limestone plain such as is found in south-central
Kentucky, northern Florida, and the Highland Rim of central
Tennessee where doline karst is the dominate feature. Doline karst
is the most widely distributed type of karst landscape. The landscape
is dotted with sinkholes (dolines) which can vary widely in number
and size. For the Sinkhole Plain in central Kentucky, there are
approximately 5.4 sinkholes per square kilometer over a 153 square
kilometer area. For north Florida there are almost 8 sinkholes per
square kilometer over a 427 square kilometer area (White, 1988,
table 4.1, page 100).

Karst topography dominated by sinkholes or dolines usually has

several distinct surface features. Our paper model shows features
normally associated with karst topography. Sinkholes (also known as
dolines) are surface depressions formed by either: 1) the dissolution
of bedrock forming a bowl-shaped depression, or 2) the collapse of
shallow caves that were formed by dissolution of the bedrock. These
sinkholes or shallow basins may fill with water forming lakes or
ponds. Springs are locations where ground water emerges at the
surface of the earth. Disappearing streams are streams which
terminate abruptly by flowing or seeping into the ground.
Disappearing streams are evidence of disrupted surface drainage
and thus indicate the presence of an underground drainage system.
Cave entrances are natural openings in the earth large enough to
allow a person to enter. Caves may reflect a complex underground
drainage system.
A Brief List of the Longest Caves in the United States
Name Location Distance Mapped*
Mammoth Cave—Flint Ridge System Kentucky 500 km
Jewel Cave South Dakota 118 km
Wind Cave South Dakota 73 km
Friars Hole System West Virginia 68 km
Fisher Ridge Cave System Kentucky 64 km

* Numbers are rounded to nearest kilometer

What do Caves Contain?

Moving water may transport earth materials into and through caves
physically or chemically. Caves contain interesting features as a
result of the physical and chemical processes that form them. Among
these features are breakdown blocks of rock formed by collapse of
cave ceilings. Also seen are sediments containing boulders, sand,
silt, and clay deposited from water flowing in and through cave
passages and conduits. Speleogens are irregular or distinctive
shapes of carbonate rock etched from bedrock by dripping or
running water. Speleogens can form where bedrock is not uniform in
chemical composition. Consequently, the less soluble rock dissolves
slower than adjacent more soluble rock through time. The less
soluble rock tends to stand in relief and projects from walls and
ceilings of caves.

Away from their entrances, caves usually provide a relatively

constant temperature and humidity over a long period of time. Thus,
caves provide an ideal environment for chemical deposition of
minerals. As water laden with dissolved carbonate seeps into the air-
filled cave passage, it may lose excess carbon dioxide to the cave
atmosphere, or the water itself may evaporate, causing the dripwater
to precipitate secondary carbonate or other minerals from solution,
creating cave formations or speleothems including cone-shaped
stalactites, stalagmites, flowstone or rimstone, or other interesting
shapes. Caves in karst areas often have stalactites (icicle-like
masses of chemical limestone) that hang from cave ceilings and
stout stalagmites protruding from the cave floor. Stalactites and
stalagmites can be a few inches to several feet long. Sometimes the
drip water will flow down the walls and over the cave floor creating
flowstone or rimstone deposits. Where drip water seeps from a joint
and then drips over the edges of ledges, deposits of great complexity
known as draperies are formed. The color of dripstones and
flowstones comes from organic and/or iron oxide compounds
brought in from the surface, giving the speleothems an orange brown
color or from the presence of oxides and hydroxides of iron and
manganese which give the speleothems a deep brown or black
color.

What Lives Underground?

Some scientists are interested in cave ecology and how cave

animals interact with cave microclimates. Animals found in caves
include everything from surface dwelling animals like raccoons that
occasionally use the cave, to animals that have adapted exclusively
to life in the cave (troglobites). Troglobites cannot survive outside
caves. These may include such diverse animals as eyeless fish and
crayfish, cave beetles, flatworms, and other unusual types of insects.
Many of these animals have lost body pigmentation and are white or
transparent in color. Although the cave environment appears to be
stable, change can and does occur. The temperature of the cave
varies due to air movement near the entrances and the temperature
of water entering the cave. In reality, some caves have their own
weather systems which create wind due to temperature and
pressure differences between the entrance and interior
passageways.

Many animals, such as bats, cave crickets, and pack rats,

regularly visit, raise their young, or hibernate in caves. These
animals are called trogloxenes . Caves may support large numbers
of different types of bats. Bats may be among the most beneficial
animals to people and the ecosystem as insect-eaters and plant
pollinators. The little brown bat can eat 600 mosquitoes in an hour
thus performing the work of a “natural insecticide,” helping control
crop pests and other insects. The Mammoth Cave-Flint Ridge
System in Kentucky, which is the most extensive cave system in the
world, has a biodiversity of 43 mammals, 15 reptiles, 19 amphibians
and 3 fish. In 1981, the United Nations designated Mammoth Cave
National Park as a World Heritage Site. Follow this link for
an excellent summary of the Mammoth Cave area and other caves
found in the U. S. National Park System.
 In 1988 the United States passed the Federal Cave Resource
Protection Act which preserves and protects all significant caves
found on federal land for future generations of Americans.

What’s in it for Me?

Knowing where karst features are located could help city and town
planners, as well as individual landowners, to make decisions on
where to build houses and other structures. This information could
save cities thousand of dollars in repairs to buildings that are built on
unstable karst terrain.

Karst springs supply drinking water to millions of people.

Knowledge of karst terrain and the movement of water in
underground drainage systems is important for maintaining good
quality and safe drinking water. Pollution of ground water is a major
problem in karst terrain.

Caves provide a venue for recreation. Although most of the caves

located in National Parks are protected, there are over 200
commercial show caves nationwide which are open to the public.
Recreational caving has become a popular hobby. The National
Speleological Society has about 20,000 active affiliates nationwide.

Deposits preserved in caves can tell geologists about past

climates. Fossils and artifacts found in caves help geologists and
archaeologists unravel the prehistory of an area.

Caves support a unique community of bacteria, fungi and animals

not seen on the surface of the Earth.

Questions

Why is there often a wind at the mouth of a cave?

Do large caves form in dry environments above the water
table?

Do dripstone features such as stalactites and stalagmites

form in caves that are below or above the water table? Why
or why not?
Is the water table always level?

Should a person explore a cave alone?

Should a person build a house near a sinkhole?

Should a person collect stalactites and stalagmites?

Should a person collect cave-dwelling animals?

Public domain content

Karst Topography - Teacher's Guide and Paper Model.

Authored by: Tau Rho Alpha, John P. Galloway, and John
C. Tinsley. Provided by: USGS. Located at:
http://geomaps.wr.usgs.gov/parks/cave/karst.html. License:
Public Domain: No Known Copyright
 Reading: Geysers

Geysers, fumaroles (also called solfataras), and hot springs are

generally found in regions of young volcanic activity. Surface water
percolates downward through the rocks below the Earth’s surface to
high-temperature regions surrounding a magma reservoir, either
active or recently solidified but still hot. There the water is heated,
becomes less dense, and rises back to the surface along fissures
and cracks. Sometimes these features are called “dying volcanoes”
because they seem to represent the last stage of volcanic activity as
the magma, at depth, cools and hardens.

Geysers

Heated groundwater may become trapped in spaces within rocks.

Pressure builds up as more water seeps into the spaces. When the
pressure becomes great enough, the water bursts out of the ground
at a crack or weak spot. This is called a geyser. When the water
erupts from the ground, the pressure is released. Then more water
collects and the pressure builds up again. This leads to another
eruption.

Old Faithful (Figure 1) is the best-known geyser in the world. The

geyser erupts faithfully every 90 minutes,
day after day. During each eruption, it
may release as much as 30,000 liters of
water!

Erupting geysers provide spectacular

displays of underground energy suddenly
unleashed, but their mechanisms are not
completely understood. Large amounts of Figure 1. Old Faithful Geyser,
Yellowstone National Park,
hot water are presumed to fill Wyoming.

underground cavities. The water, upon

further heating, is violently ejected when
a portion of it suddenly flashes into steam. This cycle can be
repeated with remarkable regularity, as for example, at Old Faithful
Geyser in Yellowstone National Park, which erupts on an average of
about once every 65 minutes.

Fumaroles

Fumaroles, which emit mixtures of steam and other gases, are fed
by conduits that pass through the water table before reaching the
surface of the ground. Hydrogen sulfide (H2S), one of the typical
gases issuing from fumaroles, readily oxidizes to sulfuric acid and
native sulfur. This accounts for the intense chemical activity and
brightly colored rocks in many thermal areas.
Hot Springs

Hot springs occur in many thermal areas

where the surface of the Earth intersects
the water table. The temperature and rate
of discharge of hot springs depend on
factors such as the rate at which water
circulates through the system of
underground channelways, the amount of
heat supplied at depth, and the extent of
dilution of the heated water by cool
Figure 2. Black Growler steam
ground water near the surface. vents (fumaroles), Norris Basin,
Yellowstone National Park,
Wyoming.
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 Reading: Springs

The top of an aquifer may be high enough in some places to meet

the surface of the ground. This often happens on a slope. The water
flows out of the ground and creates a spring. A spring may be just a
tiny trickle, or it may be a big gush of water.

Water flowing out of the ground at a spring may flow downhill and
enter a stream. If the water from a spring can’t flow downhill, it may
spread out to form a pond or lake instead. In the desert, the only
reliable water may be from springs (Figure 1). A spring may allow
wildlife to inhabit an uninhabitable area.
 Figure 1. A desert oasis is created by a spring in Libya.

Artesian Spring

Sometimes an aquifer is confined. A confined aquifer is trapped

between two impermeable rock layers. Pressure from the rock layer
on top forces the water out where the aquifer reaches the ground
surface. Water that flows up to the surface naturally is an artesian
spring. If people drill a well into a confined aquifer, the water may
flow to the surface without assistance. This is an artesian well
(Figure 2).

Figure 2. This artesian well supplies the water for Schönbrunn Palace in
Germany.
Mineral Springs and Hot Springs

Some springs have water that

contains minerals. Groundwater
dissolves minerals out of the
rock as it seeps through the
pores. The water in some
springs is hot because it is
heated by hot magma. Many
hot springs are also mineral Figure 3. Morning Glory Pool in Yellowstone
National Park is a mineral spring.
springs. That’s because hot
water can dissolve more
minerals than cold water.

Springs in Yellowstone National Park are hot and contain

dissolved minerals. Morning Glory Pool (Figure 3) has a bright green
color from dissolved minerals. Along the edge are thick orange mats
of bacteria. The bacteria use the minerals in the hot water to make
food.

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 Schlou00df Schonbrunn fountain. Authored by: Alastair
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 Self Check: Geologic Features

Check Your Understanding

Answer the question(s) below to see how well you understand the
topics covered in the previous section. This short quiz
does not count toward your grade in the class, and you can retake it
an unlimited number of times.

Use this quiz to check your understanding and decide whether to

(1) study the previous section further or (2) move on to the next
section.

An interactive or media element has been excluded from this

version of the text. You can view it online here:
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/geo/?p=2770

CC licensed content, Original

Authored by: Kimberly Schulte and Lumen Learning.

Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution
 Outcome: Oceans and Shorelines

Recognize features associated with oceans and

shorelines.

About 70% of Earth’s surface is covered by water, and the coast,

which forms the interface between land and water, is the sight of a
particular array of geomorphic processes and a range of landforms.
For example, waves and tides involve movement and dissipation of
large amounts of energy capable of causing rapid and spectacular
changes in landforms along coasts.

What You’ll Learn to Do

Identify types of ocean movement, including waves, tides,

and currents.

Identify features associated with shorelines.

Identify different types of costal hazards.

Discuss human impact on costal processes.

Learning Activities

The learning activities for this section include the following:

 Reading: Ocean Movement

Reading: Shorelines

Reading: Costal Hazards

Reading: Human Modifications of Coastal Processes

Self Check: Oceans and Shorelines

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Authored by: Kimberly Schulte and Lumen Learning.

Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution

Public domain content

Coastal Processes. Provided by: National Park Service.

Located at:
http://www.nature.nps.gov/views/KCs/CoastalG/HTML/ET_
Processes.htm. Project: Views of the National Park.
License: Public Domain: No Known Copyright
 Reading: Ocean Movement

Waves

Waves are characterized by

their length, height (amplitude),
velocity (rate of forward motion
of the wave peak), and period
(the interval of time between
successive wave peaks passing
the same point). These
properties, and the relationships Figure 1. Ocean waves
between them, vary greatly
depending on the nature of the
mechanism generating the wave, the intensity of this generating
mechanism, and the environment in which the wave exists.

Wind-generation of waves involves a transfer of energy from

moving air to a water surface. Although a very familiar process, the
way in which this occurs is still not fully understood (Summerfield
1991). The amount of energy exchanged depends mainly on
velocity, duration, and fetch (the distance over which the wind blows,
which has an important influence on wave height and period) of the
wind. The highest waves are produced by strong winds blowing in
the same direction over a long distance; such waves can reach
heights of 50 feet (15 m). Waves also are generated by low
atmospheric pressure (storm surges) and displacement of the ocean
floor, in particular by earthquakes (tsunami).

In the deep ocean, little forward motion of water in waves occurs

because the wave form moves rather than the water. As waves move
toward shallower water, however, their mode of movement changes
dramatically. The seafloor starts to interfere with the oscillatory
motion of waves where the water depth decreases to less than half
that of the wave length. The orbit of individual water particles
becomes less circular and more elliptical. Forward movement of
water now becomes important as the oscillatory (deep-ocean) waves
are transformed into translatory waves. As the water depth becomes
progressively more shallow, wave length and velocity decrease,
wave height increases and consequently the wave steepens.
Eventually the wave is over-steepened to the stage where it breaks
as its crest crashes forward creating surf. The zone of active
breaking waves is known as the surf zone. Once the wave form has
been destroyed, the remaining water moves up the shore as swash
and returns under the force of gravity as undertow.

Tides

Tides result from the gravitational attraction exerted on ocean

water by the Moon and the Sun. Because the Moon is closer to
Earth, it has more than twice
the gravitational effect of the
distant Sun, despite the
immense size and mass of the
Sun. The motions of Earth,
Moon, and Sun with respect to
one another produce semi-
diurnal tides along most coasts
in which there are two lows and Figure 2. High tide and low tide at Alma, New
Brunswick in the Bay of Fundy, 1972
two highs approximately every
24 hours. Tides higher than
normal, known as spring tides, occur every 14–17 days when the
Sun and Moon are aligned. In between these periods, lower than
normal—or neap tides—occur when the Sun and Moon are
positioned at an angle of 90° with respect to Earth. Spring and neap
tides involve deviations of about 20% above and below normal tidal
range.

Several factors complicate this general picture, including the size,

depth, and topography of ocean basins, shoreline configuration, and
meteorological conditions. Much of the Pacific coast, for instance,
experiences a regime of mixed tides in which highs and lows of each
24-hour period are of different magnitudes. Other coastlines, such as
much of Antarctica, have diurnal tides with only one high and one
low per 24 hours.
 Although contrasts between tidal types are important in some
coastal processes, of much greater overall geomorphic significance
is tidal range. The most extreme ranges occur where coastal
configuration and submarine topography induce an oscillation of
water in phase with the tidal period. This effect is particularly
pronounced in the Bay of Fundy, an inlet of the Atlantic Ocean in
southeastern Canada, where the typical tidal range is more than 50
feet (16 m).

Tidal range and type are important for several reasons. Tidal type
determines the interval between tides and therefore the time
available for the shore to dry after high tide, which is significant for
shoreline weathering processes and biological activity. Additionally,
tidal type affects the intensity of tidal currents since, for a given tidal
range, the velocity of water movement will be greater in semi-diurnal
regimes than for mixed or diurnal types because a shorter interval
between high and low tides occurs. This effect is particularly
important in narrow coastal embayments where tidal flows are
concentrated. Tidal range is important because it controls the vertical
distance over which waves and currents are effective in shaping
shorelines, and in conjunction with the slope of a shoreline, tidal
range determines the extent of the intertidal zone, that is, the area
between high and low tide (Summerfield 1991).

Currents
The horizontal movement of water (or air) is called a current.
Reflected, or turned back, by the beach slope, water from waves
becomes undertow or cross-shore currents, flowing seaward. As
cross-shore currents meet with incoming waves, some water
spreads sideward and merges with other sideward-moving water.
The combined waters form an elongated cell from which water flows
seaward as a rip current, which extends to the so-called rip end, as
much as half mile (0.80 km) offshore, where the water disperses in
various directions. Rip currents disperse outside of the surf zone.

Meanwhile, some water from undertow and incoming waves flow

sideward parallel to the shore as longshore currents. These are
created in part by waves meeting the shore obliquely. Longshore
currents can be very strong; they can transport sediments and
people along the coast. In areas with offshore mounds of sand,
known as sandbars, longshore currents are often very strong in the
trough that separates the sandbar from the beach. Longshore
currents commonly feed into rip currents, mainly those on the
downwind side.

Waves are often known as the “shakers” of the beach

environment. The motions of waves in shallow water act to suspend
sediment, while currents move or transport the sediments. Currents
associated with tides can transport and erode sediment where flow
velocities are high. This is usually confined to estuaries or other
enclosed sections of coast that experience semi-diurnal tides with a
high range.

Figure 3. Major ocean surface currents

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 Bay of Fundy High Tide. Authored by: Samuel Wantman.
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 Reading: Shorelines

There are a lot of different geologic features associated with

shorelines. Let’s take a moment to look at some of the most common
features.

Beaches

A beach is a landform along the coast of an ocean or sea. It usually

consists of loose particles, which are often composed of rock, such
as sand, gravel, shingle, pebbles, or cobblestones. The particles
comprising a beach are occasionally biological in origin, such as
mollusc shells or coralline algae.

Beaches typically occur in areas along the coast where wave or

current action deposits and reworks sediments.

Beach may refer to:

small systems where rock material moves onshore,

offshore, or alongshore by the forces of waves and
currents; or

geological units of considerable size.

 The former are described in detail below; the larger geological
units are discussed elsewhere under bars.

There are several

conspicuous parts to a beach
that relate to the processes that
form and shape it.

1. Swash zone: is
alternately covered
and exposed by wave
run-up. The four sections of most beaches.

2. Beach face: sloping

section below berm
that is exposed to the swash of the waves.
3. Wrack line: the highest reach of the daily tide where organic
and inorganic debris is deposited by wave action.

4. Berm: Nearly horizontal portion that stays dry except during

extremely high tides and storms. May have sand dunes.

The part mostly above water (depending upon tide), and more or
less actively influenced by the waves at some point in the tide, is
termed the beach berm. The berm is the deposit of material
comprising the active shoreline. The berm has a crest (top) and a
face—the latter being the slope leading down towards the water from
the crest. At the very bottom of the face, there may be a trough, and
further seaward one or more long shore bars: slightly raised,
underwater embankments formed where the waves first start to
break.

The sand deposit may extend well inland from the berm crest,
where there may be evidence of one or more older crests (the storm
beach) resulting from very large storm waves and beyond the
influence of the normal waves. At some point the influence of the
waves (even storm waves) on the material comprising the beach
stops, and if the particles are small enough (sand size or smaller),
winds shape the feature. Where wind is the force distributing the
grains inland, the deposit behind the beach becomes a dune.

These geomorphic features compose what is called the beach

profile. The beach profile changes seasonally due to the change in
wave energy experienced during summer and winter months. In
temperate areas where summer is characterised by calmer seas and
longer periods between breaking wave crests, the beach profile is
higher in summer. The gentle wave action during this season tends
to transport sediment up the beach towards the berm where it is
deposited and remains while the water recedes. Onshore winds
carry it further inland forming and enhancing dunes.

Conversely, the beach profile is lower in the storm season (winter

in temperate areas) due to the increased wave energy, and the
shorter periods between breaking wave crests. Higher energy waves
breaking in quick succession tend to mobilise sediment from the
shallows, keeping it in suspension where it is prone to be carried
along the beach by longshore currents, or carried out to sea to form
longshore bars, especially if the longshore current meets an outflow
from a river or flooding stream. The removal of sediment from the
beach berm and dune thus decreases the beach profile.

Cliffs

A cliffed coast, also called an abrasion coast, is a form of coast

where the action of marine waves has formed steep cliffs that may or
may not be precipitous.

In coastal areas in which the

land surface dips at a relatively
steep angle below the water
table, the continuous action of
marine waves on the coastline,
known as abrasion, may create
a steep declivity known as a
cliff, the slope angle of which Dingli Cliffs in Malta
depends on a variety of factors
including the jointing, bedding
and hardness of the materials making up the cliff as well as the
[1]
erosional processes themselves. The slope is constantly being
eroded. The waves attacking the cliff-foot form a wave-cut notch by
constant abrasion action producing an overhang. This overhang
grows in size as the cliff is undercut, until it collapses under its own
weight. The loose debris that has broken off is gradually carried
away from the area in front of the cliff by the action of the sea. As the
coastal cliffs collapse, the shoreline recedes inland. The speed at
which this happens depends, in particular, on the strength of the surf,
the height of the cliff, the frequency of storm surges and the
hardness of the bedrock. Thus, the Mecklenburg coast in Germany
recedes by about 25 centimetres per year, whereas the chalk cliffs of
southern England retreat by just ½ a centimetre each year. A cliffed
coast is made of a loose bedrock material, such as at the Red Cliff
on the German island of Sylt, but can also occur in hard rock like the
red sandstone cliffs on Heligoland. There are, however, differences
between the former and the latter regarding some peculiarities of the
coast line.

Deltas

Deltas form when a river carrying sediment reaches either (1) a

body of standing water, such as a lake, ocean, or reservoir, (2)
another river that cannot remove the sediment quickly enough to
stop delta formation, or (3) an inland region where the water spreads
out and deposits sediments.

The tidal currents also cannot be too strong, as sediment would

wash out into the water body faster than the river deposits it. Of
course, the river must carry
enough sediment to layer into
deltas over time. The river’s
velocity decreases rapidly,
causing it to deposit the
majority, if not all, of its load.
This alluvium builds up to form
the river delta. When the flow
enters the standing water, it is
no longer confined to its
channel and expands in width. The Ganges Delta in India and Bangladesh is the
largest delta in the world and it is also one of the
This flow expansion results in a most fertile regions in the world.
decrease in the flow velocity,
which diminishes the ability of
the flow to transport sediment. As a result, sediment drops out of the
flow and deposits. Over time, this single channel builds a deltaic lobe
(such as the bird’s-foot of the Mississippi or Ural river deltas),
pushing its mouth into the standing water. As the deltaic lobe
advances, the gradient of the river channel becomes lower because
the river channel is longer but has the same change in elevation (see
slope).

As the slope of the river channel decreases, it becomes unstable

for two reasons. First, gravity makes the water flow in the most direct
course down slope. If the river breaches its natural levees (i.e.,
during a flood), it spills out onto a new course with a shorter route to
 [2]
the ocean, thereby obtaining a more stable steeper slope. Second,
as its slope gets lower, the amount of shear stress on the bed
decreases, which results in deposition of sediment within the
channel and a rise in the channel bed relative to the floodplain. This
makes it easier for the river to breach its levees and cut a new
channel that enters the body of standing water at a steeper slope.
Often when the channel does this, some of its flow remains in the
abandoned channel. When these channel-switching events occur, a
mature delta develops a distributary network.

Another way these distributary networks form is from deposition of

mouth bars (mid-channel sand and/or gravel bars at the mouth of a
river). When this mid-channel bar is deposited at the mouth of a
river, the flow is routed around it. This results in additional deposition
on the upstream end of the mouth-bar, which splits the river into two
distributary channels. A good example of the result of this process is
the Wax Lake Delta in Louisiana.

In both of these cases, depositional processes force redistribution

of deposition from areas of high deposition to areas of low
deposition. This results in the smoothing of the planform (or map-
view) shape of the delta as the channels move across its surface
and deposit sediment. Because the sediment is laid down in this
fashion, the shape of these deltas approximates a fan. The more
often the flow changes course, the shape develops as closer to an
ideal fan, because more rapid changes in channel position results in
more uniform deposition of sediment on the delta front. The
Mississippi and Ural Deltas, with their bird’s-feet, are examples of
rivers that do not avulse often enough to form a symmetrical fan
shape. Alluvial fan deltas, as seen by their name, avulse frequently
and more closely approximate an ideal fan shape.

Reefs

A reef is a bar of rock, sand, coral or similar material, lying beneath

the surface of water. Reefs may be up to 261 feet (80 m) below the
surface. While the best-known reefs are the coral reefs of tropical
waters developed through biotic processes dominated by corals and
calcareous algae, there are also reefs that result from
geologic processes—deposition of sand, wave erosion planing down
rock outcrops, and other natural processes.

One useful definition distinguishes reefs from mounds as follows.

Both are considered to be varieties of organosedimentary buildups:
sedimentary features, built by the interaction of organisms and their
environment, that have synoptic relief and whose biotic composition
differs from that found on and beneath the surrounding sea floor.
Reefs are held up by a macroscopic skeletal framework. Coral reefs
are an excellent example of this kind. Corals and calcareous algae
grow on top of one another and form a three-dimensional framework
that is modified in various ways by other organisms and inorganic
processes. By contrast, mounds lack a macroscopic skeletal
framework. Mounds are built by microorganisms or by organisms
that don’t grow a skeletal framework. A microbial mound might be
built exclusively or primarily by cyanobacteria. Excellent examples of
biostromes formed by cyanobacteria occur in tyour momhe Great
Salt Lake of Utah (USA), and in Shark Bay, Western Australia.

Cyanobacteria do not have skeletons and individuals are

microscopic. Cyanobacteria encourage the precipitation or
accumulation of calcium carbonate and can produce distinct
sediment bodies in composition that have relief on the seafloor.
Cyanobacterial mounds were most abundant before the evolution of
shelly macroscopic organisms, but they still exist today (stromatolites
are microbial mounds with a laminated internal structure). Bryozoans
and crinoids, common contributors to marine sediments during the
Mississippian (for example), produced a very different kind of
mound. Bryozoans are small and the skeletons of crinoids
disintegrate. However, bryozoan and crinoid meadows can persist
over time and produce compositionally distinct bodies of sediment
with depositional relief.

The Proterozoic Belt Supergroup contains evidence of possible

microbial mat and dome structures similar to stromatolite reef
[3]
complexes.

Geologic reef structures

 Ancient reefs buried within
stratigraphic sections are of
considerable interest to
geologists because they
provide paleo-environmental
information about the location in
Earth’s history. In addition, reef
structures within a sequence of Reefs off Vanatinai in the Louisiade Archipelago.
sedimentary rocks provide a
discontinuity which may serve
as a trap or conduit for fossil fuels or mineralizing fluids to form
petroleum or ore deposits.

Corals, including some major extinct groups Rugosa and Tabulata,

have been important reef builders through much of the Phanerozoic
since the Ordovician Period. However, other organism groups, such
as calcifying algae, especially members of the red algae
Rhodophyta, and molluscs (especially the rudist bivalves during the
Cretaceous Period) have created massive structures at various
times. During the Cambrian Period, the conical or tubular skeletons
of Archaeocyatha, an extinct group of uncertain affinities (possibly
sponges), built reefs. Other groups, such as the Bryozoa have been
important interstitial organisms, living between the framework
builders. The corals which build reefs today, the Scleractinia, arose
after the Permian–Triassic extinction event that wiped out the earlier
rugose corals (as well as many other groups), and became
increasingly important reef builders throughout the Mesozoic Era.
They may have arisen from a rugose coral ancestor. Rugose corals
built their skeletons of calcite and have a different symmetry from
that of the scleractinian corals, whose skeletons are aragonite.
However, there are some unusual examples of well-preserved
aragonitic rugose corals in the late Permian. In addition, calcite has
been reported in the initial post-larval calcification in a few
scleractinian corals. Nevertheless, scleractinian corals (which arose
in the middle Triassic) may have arisen from a non-calcifying
ancestor independent of the rugosan corals (which disappeared in
the late Permian).

Barrier Islands

Barrier islands are coastal landforms and a type of dune system that
are exceptionally flat or lumpy areas of sand that form by wave and
tidal action parallel to the mainland coast. They usually occur in
chains, consisting of anything from a few islands to more than a
dozen. They are subject to change during storms and other action,
but absorb energy and protect the coastlines and create areas of
protected waters where wetlands may flourish. A barrier chain may
extend uninterrupted for over a hundred kilometers, excepting the
tidal inlets that separate the islands, the longest and widest being
[4]
Padre Island of Texas. The length and width of barriers and overall
morphology of barrier coasts are related to parameters including tidal
range, wave energy, sediment supply, sea-level trends, and
[5]
basement controls.
 Chains of barrier islands can be found along approximately
[6]
thirteen percent of the world’s coastlines. They display different
settings, suggesting that they can form and be maintained in a
variety of environmental settings. Numerous theories have been
given to explain their formation.

Barrier island contrasted with other coastal landforms.

Constituent parts

Barrier islands are made of several different elements:

Lower shoreface. The shoreface is the part of the barrier

where the ocean meets the shore of the island. The barrier
island body itself separates the shoreface from the
backshore and lagoon/tidal flat area. Characteristics
common to the lower shoreface are fine sands with mud
and possibly silt. Further out into the ocean the sediment
becomes finer. The effect from the waves at this point is
weak because of the depth. Bioturbation is common and
many fossils can be found here.
Middle shoreface. The middle shore face is located in the
upper shoreface. The middle shoreface is strongly
influenced by wave action because of its depth. Closer to
shore the grain size will be medium size sands with shell
pieces common. Since wave action is heavier, bioturbation
is not likely.

Upper shoreface. The upper shore face is constantly

effected by wave action. This results in development of
herringbone sedimentary structures because of the
constant differing flow of waves. Grain size is larger sands.

Foreshore. The foreshore is the area on land between high

and low tide. Like the upper shoreface, it is constantly
affected by wave action. Cross bedding and lamination are
present and coarser sands are present because of the high
energy present by the crashing of the waves. The sand is
also very well sorted.

Backshore. The backshore is always above the highest

water level point. The berm is also found here which marks
the boundary between the foreshore and backshore. Wind
is the important factor here, not water. During strong storms
 high waves and wind can deliver and erode sediment from
the backshore.
Dunes. The dunes are typical of a barrier island, located at
the top of the backshore. See Coastal Dunes for more
information. The dunes will display characteristics of typical
eolian wind blown dunes. The difference here is that dunes
on a barrier island typically contain coastal vegetation roots
and marine bioturbation.

Lagoon and tidal flats. The lagoon and tidal flat area is
located behind the dune and backshore area. Here the
water is still and this allows for fine silts, sands, and mud to
settle out. Lagoons can become host to an anaerobic
environment. This will allow high amounts of organic rich
mud to form. Vegetation is also common.

1. Whittow, John (1984). Dictionary of Physical Geography. London: Penguin, 1984,

p. 97. See also Herbert Louis and Klaus Fischer: Allgemeine Geomorphologie,
de Gruyter, 4th ed., Berlin 1979, pp. 532–537 ↵

2. Slingerland, R. and N. D. Smith (1998), "Necessary conditions for a meandering-

river avulsion," Geology (Boulder), 26, 435–438. ↵

3. Jürgen Schieber, Possible indicators of microbial mat deposits in shales and

sandstones: examples from the Mid-Proterozoic Belt Supergroup, Montana,

U.S.A., Sedimentary Geology, 120 (1998) pp. 105–124 ↵

4. Garrison, J.R., Jr., Williams, J., Potter Miller, S., Weber, E.T., II, McMechan, G.,

and Zeng, X., 2010, "Ground-penetrating radar study of North Padre Island;
Implications for barrier island interval architecture, model for growth of
 progradational microtidal barrier islands, and Gulf of Mexico sea-level cyclicity:"
Journal of Sedimentary Research, v. 80, p. 303–319. ↵

5. Davis Jr., Richard A.; Fitzgerald, Duncan M. (2004), Beaches and Coasts, United
Kingdom: Blackwell Publishing, p. 144. ↵

6. Smith, Q.H.T., Heap, A.D., and Nichol, S.L., 2010, "Origin and formation of an
estuarine barrier island, Tapora Island, New Zealand:" Journal of Coastal

Research, v. 26, p. 292–300. ↵

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 Reading: Coastal Hazards

Natural geomorphic processes are considered hazards when human

populations are affected by them. For example, storms, hurricanes,
and tsunamis are natural driving forces of coastal processes and
landforms, but also cause loss of life and property in coastal
communities. Storms provide much of the sediment to shallow-
marine and estuarine ecosystems. Many wetland environments and
barrier islands depend on storm activities for sediment build-up and
survival when faced with rising sea levels. When combined with
increasing sea levels, these events may have tremendous impacts
on coastal environments and beaches.

Rip Currents

Rip currents are strong and swift, moving 3 to 6 feet (1 to 2 m) per

second, which is faster than an average person can swim! These
currents are created because of “set-up” near the shoreline. Set-up
is a slight increase in water levels compared to those found seaward
of the surf zone and creates unstable conditions that eventually are
relieved through the formation of rip currents. These dangerous
currents generally form at a low point or saddle in a sandbar.
Because rip currents tend to be narrow, swimmers caught in a rip
current should swim parallel to the shore to escape being taken out
to sea. Swimmers should be especially cautious during storm
events, which may increase the frequency and strength of rip
currents.

Storm Surges

Storm surges—extraordinarily high water levels—are generated by

the combined effects of low atmospheric pressure and very high
wind speeds. The strong onshore winds that accompany tropical
storms, hurricanes, and frontal storms of the midlatitudes drag and
stack water against coasts, creating a storm surge. In the center of
tropical-storm systems, atmospheric pressure may drop as much as
100 millibars below normal, and this can “suck up” sea level below
the center of the cyclone by as much as 3.3 feet (1 m) (Summerfield
1991). Winds blowing toward coastal embayments produce the
largest storm surges, which are accentuated if they coincide with
high tides. By the time the waves generated by the storm surge
reach the coast, they may have built up to a height of nearly 10 feet
(several meters) above normal high tides.

When low-pressure storm systems approach land, strong winds

can affect a coast in a variety of ways. High velocity onshore winds,
particularly the kind associated with hurricanes, drive water ashore
and elevate the water line well above the predicted tidal variation.
The effect of storm surges can be catastrophic because the elevated
water surface results in widespread coastal flooding and allows
waves to break much further inland than they would normally. In
addition, torrential rainfall associated with the storm causes
widespread river flooding. The combination of these effects can
result in extensive property damage and loss of life (Pinet 1992).

Although comparatively uncommon on a global basis, storm

surges occur repeatedly along coasts experiencing tropical cyclones
and in midlatitude areas subject to intense storms where the coastal
configuration is particularly favorable. Storm surges are most
destructive along very low-lying coasts where their effects can
extend many miles (kilometers) inland, but their geomorphic
significance arises in large part from the way in which they lead to
wave attack at much higher levels along a shoreline than is reached
by normal waves.

For more information about hurricanes, check out these Web sites:

NASA satellite photos

NASA “recipe for a hurricane”

NASA information on Hurricane Isabel

Story and photos of Hurricane Isabel by Hurricane Hunters

Listing of more Web sites on hurricanes

Hurricane Hunters home page
Tsunamis

Tsunamis are very large seismic ocean waves that are radially
generated from volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, or subaqueous
slumping. In the open ocean, these waves may travel at speeds in
excess of 493 miles per hour (793 kph)! Strangely, sailors on deep
ocean vessels may not notice the passing of these waves on
account of the waves’ flat, low propagation. In contrast, when
tsunamis reach shallow water, they slow down considerably and may
reach great heights [up to 33 ft (10 m)]. Tsunamis have caused great
destruction and loss of life because of abrupt changes in water levels
above the normal high water mark. Numerous areas in the United
States have experienced tsunamis including Hawaii, the Pacific
Northwest, and Alaska. A new system, the International Tsunami
Warning System, is used now to alert the public to impending
tsunamis.

Use these Web links for more information about tsunamis: where
they occur, why they occur, and what happens in a tsunami.

Local tsunamis of the Pacific Northwest—USGS

Tsunami and Earthquake Links—USGS

Backgrounder: Tsunami—FEMA
Tsunami: the Great Waves—NOAA

Public domain content

Coastal Processes. Provided by: National Park Service.
Located at:
http://www.nature.nps.gov/views/KCs/CoastalG/HTML/ET_
Processes.htm. Project: Views of the National Park.
License: Public Domain: No Known Copyright
 Reading: Human Modifications of Coastal
Processes

People love living near the beach. More than 50% of the U.S.
population lives within 50 miles (80 km) of a shoreline. Once
developed, communities make an effort to protect their beach homes
and coastal businesses. Throughout history, humans have attempted
to slow or alter the dynamic coastal zone. The anthropogenic
(human-influenced) changes to coastal environments may take
many forms: creation or stabilization of inlets, beach nourishment
and sediment bypassing, creation of dunes for property protection,
dredging of waterways for shipping and commerce, and introduction
of hard structures such as jetties, groins, and seawalls. These
modifications change coastal features and have far-reaching effects
on coastal processes and ecosystems. An understanding of how
human changes alter shoreline environments and park resources is
vital for the protection and preservation of coastal areas.

Variations in sea levels are natural responses to climate change,

geodetic variations, movements of the sea floor, and other Earth
processes. Human actions, including drainage of wetlands,
withdrawal of groundwater (which eventually flows to the sea), and
deforestation (which reduces terrestrial water-storage capacity), may
also contribute to global rise in sea level. Additionally, human-
induced climate change, primarily through the burning of fossil fuels,
is also of importance. Local changes may be caused by large
engineering works nearby, such as river channeling or dam
construction that influence sediment delivery and deposition in
deltaic areas.

The National Park Service allows natural coastal processes to

continue without interference. However, when natural processes,
including coastal erosion and storm events, interfere with the
preservation of cultural resources and park infrastructure,
modifications to coastal dynamics may be necessary. How coastal
modifications will affect natural park resources (biological and
physical) must be investigated thoroughly in order that wise
decisions are made. Park managers in coastal parks strive to
achieve a balance between preservation of historic landmarks (e.g.,
forts and lighthouses) and the protection of natural ecosystems. In
addition, a history of long-term human alteration, combined with a
lack of historical documentation, makes defining a natural coastal
system difficult. An understanding of how anthropogenic
modifications will alter shoreline environments and park resources is
vital for effective coastal management.

Soft Structures

Dredging
Dredging, the removal of sediment, including sand, silt, rock, and
other subaqueous materials from our coastal waterways is a hotly
debated topic in coastal management. The effects of dredging
waterways and ports to benefit shipping, transport, and recreation
are not fully understood. Opponents claim that coastal dredging may
have detrimental environmental impacts and may interfere with
sediment transport and flow dynamics in coastal and marine
systems.

Dredged sediments may include harmful contaminants and

pollutants. After dredging, these sediments are often redeposited
offshore or used for the creation of dredge spoil islands adjacent to
the scoured waterways. In addition, dredged sediment may be
incorporated into beach nourishment projects; however, the
sediment grain size of dredged materials may not be compatible with
native beach sediment. Grain-size alterations and contamination
may exceed flora and fauna tolerances, negatively impacting native
ecosystem functions.

Proponents of dredging cite that this method of removal is

necessary for commerce, recreation, and national defense.
Interagency partnerships, such as the Nature Conservancy and the
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, have been established to promote a
better understanding of how dredging could impact coastal
environments.
 For more information about dredging, check out the Web sites:

Information on dredging research, benefits, and resources;

Dredging Operations Technical Support (DOTS) provides
direct environmental and engineering support to the U.S.
Army Corps of Engineers’ Operations and Maintenance
(O&M) dredging missions

Overview of dredging by the Monterey Bay National Marine

Sanctuary (NOAA)

Beach Nourishment

Beach nourishment is the process of placing additional sediment on

a beach. This material is obtained from another source that either
lies inland or is dredged offshore. Nourishment entails the removal of
sediment from “borrow sites,” and the subsequent transport of the
sediment to beach areas. Borrow sites may alter sediment transport,
hydrodynamic patterns, marine ecosystems, and sediment transport,
such as creating erosional “hot spots” on adjacent shorelines.

Subaqueous nourishment is an alternative form of replenishment.

The creation of offshore berms (mounds) may be utilized for the
subsequent landward migration of sediments, often leading to
sediment accretion on adjacent beaches. Although still a fairly new
replenishment method, and not documented as fully effective,
subaqueous nourishment may be substituted on account of cost
limitations or biotic complications (e.g., migration and preserving
endangered species) resulting from direct beach nourishment.

Often, beach nourishment is needed to counteract the effects of

the hard-structure stabilization of coastlines. These structures (e.g.,
jetties, groins, and seawalls) typically increase downdrift erosion
rates, promoting a need for continued coastal modifications through
nourishment. The need for beach nourishment after human alteration
is quite evident at Assateague Island National Seashore (Maryland).
In the mid-1930s, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers established a
jetty system to stabilize the Ocean City inlet. While sediment
transported by north-to-south longshore currents increased sediment
accretion updrift of the jetties at Ocean City, excessive erosion and
barrier island migration have occurred on the island to the south of
the jetties. That is, Assateague Island has migrated westward more
than 1,148 feet (350 m) since 1933! The deterrence of longshore
sediment transport to Assateague Island National Park has had
numerous detrimental impacts on biological, geologic, and cultural
resources. Both short-term and long-term beach nourishment plans
are in place to mitigate the destructive effects of jetty placement.

For more information about Assateague Island National Seashore,

check out these Web sites:

Ocean City–Assateague Island, Maryland, studies by

Gregory Bass, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
 Report by the U.S. Geological Survey on coastal conflicts
that highlights Ocean City jetty construction and
Assateague Island migration

Article in Maryland Newsline that describes nourishment

efforts by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers on Assateague
Island

For more information about methods, environmental impacts, and

costs of beach nourishment, check out these Web sites:

Overview of NOAA dredging activities, including legal and

political constraints, sand resources for beach nourishment,
and potential impacts of nourishment projects
NOAA Web site containing a national overview of state,
territory, and commonwealth beach nourishment programs

Environmental review of beach nourishing projects by the

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers

Beach Scraping

Beach scraping (i.e., grading and bulldozing) is the process of

reshaping beach and dune landforms with heavy machinery. Usually
a layer of sand from the lower beach is moved to the upper beach.
Beach scraping creates dunes, which are used to give property
owners some security from beach erosion, severe storms, and winter
washover events. During the summers, the created sandbanks may
be bulldozed flat, providing water views to property owners.
However, the effects of beach scraping on coastal environments are
little known, and this procedure may be harmful to coastal biota and
habitats. Proponents claim that beach scraping is a time and cost-
effective method to ensure shoreline protection, while opponents
state that this method may be the most ecologically destructive form
of coastal manipulation to date.

Please see this Web site for more information on beach scraping:

Brief summary of how beach scraping affects biology and

turbidity in North Carolina

Hard Structures

Hard structures are often placed in marine environments to

counteract erosion in sediment-deficient areas, or to deter accretion
in sediment-rich areas such as inlets. Unfortunately, these
anthropogenic modifications may accelerate erosion in adjacent
downdrift areas, increasing the need for additional hard structures.
The creation of new hard structures is currently banned in many
states, or strongly discouraged as coastal management practice.

Groins are shore-perpendicular structures, used to maintain updrift

beaches or to restrict longshore sediment transport. Permeable
groins are becoming popular, and may negate some of the negative
effects of impermeable groins. Another type of shore-perpendicular
hard structure are jetties, which are normally placed adjacent to tidal
inlets to control inlet migration and to minimize sediment deposition
within the inlet.

Shore parallel structures include seawalls, bulkheads, and

revetments. These structures are designed to protect coastal
property. Development permits are relatively easy to obtain in many
states because seawalls may be built above the high-water mark on
private property, and they are relatively inexpensive, compared to
beach nourishment. Ironically, seawalls usually accelerate erosion
on beaches they are intended to protect. Wave energy is reflected off
seawalls, increasing erosion in front of them. The placement of a
seawall will decrease the sediment supply near seawalls, increasing
erosion on adjacent beaches. In many areas, beaches have
completely eroded and disappeared on account of seawalls.

Other anthropogenic structures that are used to stop or alter

natural coastal changes include breakwaters, headlands, sills, and
reefs. These structures are composed of either natural or artificial
materials, and are designed to alter the effects of waves and slow
coastline erosion and change. Submerged reefs and sills dampen
wave energy and may create new habitat, which is significant for
local fisheries. However, the long-term effects of these structures, on
both physical and biological processes, are not understood and
require thorough examination.
 For more information concerning these and other anthropogenic
modifications, check out these Web sites:

Wilmington Morning Star article concerning the construction

of hard structures on North Carolina shores; contains links
to other articles discussing coastal management issues, Dr.
Orrin Pilkey, and barrier-island geomorphology

Associated Press article “Development-protecting seawalls

debated”

Public domain content

Coastal Processes. Provided by: National Park Service.

Located at:
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Processes.htm. Project: Views of the National Park.
License: Public Domain: No Known Copyright
 Self Check: Oceans and Shorelines

Check Your Understanding

Answer the question(s) below to see how well you understand the
topics covered in the previous section. This short quiz
does not count toward your grade in the class, and you can retake it
an unlimited number of times.

Use this quiz to check your understanding and decide whether to

(1) study the previous section further or (2) move on to the next
section.

An interactive or media element has been excluded from this

version of the text. You can view it online here:
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 Putting It Together: Hydrology

Summary

The hydrologic cycle is anything but a simple straight forward loop.

As you saw in the lesson, it is a very complex and ever changing
dynamic. In this section you learned:

1. What the hydrologic cycle is and the various steps within

the cycle
2. How important the hydrologic cycle is to life on earth
3. About streams and stream loads

4. What an aquifer is and the various types of aquifers

5. Why permeability and porosity are an important component
of aquifers

6. The issues associated with groundwater withdrawal

7. The various types of features groundwater can produce

Synthesis

In the opening of this section, we discussed the Ogallala Aquifer.

Now that we understand more about hydrology in general, we know
that even though we may not live in one of the states overlying the
Ogallala we will all be affected by its continued depletion. Not only
will those states suffer from not enough drinking water or water for
irrigation, but the rest of the country will suffer as well. We will see an
increase in prices of goods as farmers have to adapt to using crops
that require less water. We will see a decline in certain crops and
livestock production. This could make some products very scarce.
Not only this but we will also need to figure out a way to get water to
these deprived areas, exactly as California is having to do today.

We also talked about the flooding in the Midwest. Do you now see
any advantages of flooding? Floods, like fires, are a normal and
natural part of the Earth’s cycles. They become an issue when
humans are involved. One of the advantages of the flooding in the
Midwest is that the flood water will in fact help recharge the Ogallala
Aquifer. This is a good example of how the Earth maintains a
balance. The question for us is how to best adapt and manage this
balance.

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MODULE 12: GEOLOGICAL
RESOURCES
 Why It Matters: Geological Resources

Identify common geological resources and discuss how

people use them.

Introduction

This section takes into consideration everything we have discussed

so far. We will take a glance back at the formation of rocks and
minerals, concentrating on mineral and energy resources. These
resources focus mainly on our fossil fuels—oil, natural gas and coal.
However, we use a variety of other material as well. Most of the
resources we use are done so indirectly. For example, each person
will use over 450,000 pounds of coal in their lifetime. While you may
not go to the store and purchase coal to use like you would gasoline
for your car, you do it in other indirect ways—for instance, most
electricity in the US is generated by coal burning. The following
graphic illustrates the type and amount of resources each American
will need and use throughout their lives.
This chart provides us with some staggering statistics on the
amount of resources we use:

Were you surprised see some of the items listed? How about the
quantities—3.11 million pounds of resources per person?!

One item not shown on the figure is tantalum. If you have a cell
phone, tablet, computer, camera or gaming system you own some
tantalum. This resource is used because it has many desirable
properties including high heat capacity, ductile and the ability to
conduct electricity (Tantalum, 2015). However, tantalum is
considered to be a “conflict resource.” This means that it is mined in
an area where a dispute or conflict is occurring. It could also mean
that the resource is used to perpetuate the conflict. In the case of
tantalum, it is mined in an area of the Congo where it is believed to
have played a role in helping finance war in the area. This conflict is
believed to have caused the death of 5,400,000 since 1998
(Tantalum, 2015)!

These resources are collected in a variety of ways from drilling to

mining. Depending on the resource and its location, different mining
methods may be used. And these resources are mined on every
continent (except Antarctica).

Unfortunately not all of our resources will be around forever. Our

nonrenewable resources are in jeopardy of depletion. Alternative or
renewable resources will play a bigger role in meeting our energy
needs in the future.

Learning Outcomes

Learn common processes of geologic formation of rock and

mineral resources.
 Describe some of the extraction methods and identify
different types of mining.

Describe geologic materials as current or potential energy

resources and categorize sources as renewable or
nonrenewable.

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Authored by: Kimberly Schulte and Lumen Learning.

Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution

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Education Coalition. Located at:
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s/uploads/2015percapita.jpg. License: All Rights Reserved.
License Terms: Unless otherwise noted, MEC materials
may be used unaltered and in their entirety for educational
purposes. This includes, but is not limited to individual
educators in a classroom setting and Science Teacher
Workshops. Materials may be downloaded, printed and
copied at no charge when used for educational purposes.

CC licensed content, Specific attribution

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Coalition. Located at:
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License Terms: Unless otherwise noted, MEC materials
may be used unaltered and in their entirety for educational
purposes. This includes, but is not limited to individual
educators in a classroom setting and Science Teacher
Workshops. Materials may be downloaded, printed and
copied at no charge when used for educational purposes.
 Outcome: Rock and Mineral Resources

Learn common processes of geologic formation of rock

and mineral resources.

This section introduces you to the processes leading to the formation

of common rock and mineral resources. You will learn how and why
these processes work and how they are different.

What You’ll Learn to Do

Describe the different processes that lead to various ore

formation

Describe the processes that lead to the formation of all

fossil fuels: petroleum, natural gas, and coal

Learning Activities

The learning activities for this section include the following:

Reading: Ore Genesis

Reading: Petroleum

Reading: Natural Gas

 Reading: Coal

Self Check: Rock and Mineral Resources

CC licensed content, Original

Authored by: Kimberly Schulte and Lumen Learning.

Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution
 Reading: Ore Genesis

The various theories of ore genesis explain how the various types of
mineral deposits form within the Earth’s crust. Ore genesis theories
are dependent on the mineral or commodity.

Ore genesis theories generally involve three components: source,

transport or conduit, and trap. This also applies to the petroleum
industry, which was first to use this methodology.

Source is required because metal must come from

somewhere, and be liberated by some process
Transport is required first to move the metal bearing fluids
or solid minerals into the right position, and refers to the act
of physically moving the metal, as well as chemical or
physical phenomenon which encourage movement

Trapping is required to concentrate the metal via some

physical, chemical or geological mechanism into a
concentration which forms mineable ore

The biggest deposits are formed when the source is large, the
transport mechanism is efficient, and the trap is active and ready at
the right time.
Ore Genesis Processes

Endogenous

Magmatic Processes

Fractional crystallization: separates ore and non-ore

minerals according to their crystallization temperature. As
early crystallizing minerals form, they incorporate certain
elements, some of which are metals. These crystals may
settle onto the bottom of the intrusion, concentrating ore
minerals there. Chromite and magnetite are ore minerals
that form in this way.

Liquid immiscibility: sulfide ores containing copper, nickel or

platinum may form from this process. As a magma
changes, parts of it may separate from the main body of
magma. Two liquids that will not mix are called immiscible;
oil and water are an example. In magmas, sulfides may
separate and sink below the silicate-rich part of the
intrusion or be injected into the rock surrounding it. These
deposits are found in mafic and ultramafic rocks.

Hydrothermal Processes

These processes are the physicochemical phenomena and reactions

caused by movement of hydrothermal water within the crust, often as
a consequence of magmatic intrusion or tectonic upheavals. The
foundations of hydrothermal processes are the source-transport-trap
mechanism.
 Sources of hydrothermal solutions include seawater and meteoric
water circulating through fractured rock, formational brines (water
trapped within sediments at deposition) and metamorphic fluids
created by dehydration of hydrous minerals during metamorphism.

Metal sources may include a plethora of rocks. However most

metals of economic importance are carried as trace elements within
rock-forming minerals, and so may be liberated by hydrothermal
processes. This happens because of:

incompatibility of the metal with its host mineral, for

example zinc in calcite, which favours aqueous fluids in
contact with the host mineral during diagenesis.
solubility of the host mineral within nascent hydrothermal
solutions in the source rocks, for example mineral salts
(halite), carbonates (cerussite), phosphates (monazite and
thorianite) and sulfates (barite)

elevated temperatures causing decomposition reactions of

minerals

Transport by hydrothermal solutions usually requires a salt or

other soluble species which can form a metal-bearing complex.
These metal-bearing complexes facilitate transport of metals within
aqueous solutions, generally as hydroxides, but also by processes
similar to chelation.
 This process is especially well understood in gold metallogeny
where various thiosulfate, chloride and other gold-carrying chemical
complexes (notably tellurium-chloride/sulfate or antimony-
chloride/sulfate). The majority of metal deposits formed by
hydrothermal processes include sulfide minerals, indicating sulfur is
an important metal-carrying complex.

Sulfide deposition: Sulfide deposition within the trap zone occurs

when metal-carrying sulfate, sulfide or other complexes become
chemically unstable due to one or more of the following processes;

falling temperature, which renders the complex unstable or

metal insoluble

loss of pressure, which has the same effect

reaction with chemically reactive wall rocks, usually of
reduced oxidation state, such as iron bearing rocks, mafic
or ultramafic rocks or carbonate rocks

degassing of the hydrothermal fluid into a gas and water

system, or boiling, which alters the metal carrying capacity
of the solution and even destroys metal-carrying chemical
complexes

Metal can also become precipitated when temperature and

pressure or oxidation state favour different ionic complexes in the
water, for instance the change from sulfide to sulfate, oxygen
fugacity, exchange of metals between sulfide and chloride
complexes, et cetera.

Metamorphic Processes

Lateral secretion: Ore deposits formed by lateral secretion are

formed by metamorphic reactions during shearing, which liberate
mineral constituents such as quartz, sulfides, gold, carbonates and
oxides from deforming rocks and focus these constituents into zones
of reduced pressure or dilation such as faults. This may occur
without much hydrothermal fluid flow, and this is typical of podiform
chromite deposits.

Metamorphic processes also control many physical processes

which form the source of hydrothermal fluids, outlined above.

Surficial Processes (Exogenous)

Surficial processes are the physical and chemical phenomena which

cause concentration of ore material within the regolith, generally by
the action of the environment. This includes placerdeposits, laterite
deposits and residual or eluvial deposits. The physical processes of
ore deposit formation in the surficial realm include;

erosion
deposition by sedimentary processes, including winnowing,
density separation (e.g.; gold placers)
 weathering via oxidation or chemical attack of a rock, either
liberating rock fragments or creating chemically deposited
clays, laterites or supergene enrichment

Deposition in low-energy environments in beach

environments

Classification of Ore Deposits

Ore deposits are usually classified by ore formation processes and

geological setting. For example, SEDEX deposits, literally meaning
“sedimentary exhalative” are a class of ore deposit formed on the
sea floor (sedimentary) by exhalation of brines into seawater
(exhalative), causing chemical precipitation of ore minerals when the
brine cools, mixes with sea water and loses its metal carrying
capacity.

Ore deposits rarely fit snugly into the boxes in which geologists
wish to place them. Many may be formed by one or more of the
basic genesis processes above, creating ambiguous classifications
and much argument and conjecture. Often ore deposits are
classified after examples of their type, for instance Broken Hill type
lead-zinc-silver deposits or Carlin–type gold deposits.

Classification of hydrothermal ore deposits is also achieved by

classifying according to the temperature of formation, which roughly
also correlates with particular mineralising fluids, mineral
associations and structural styles. This scheme, proposed by
Waldemar Lindgren (1933) classified hydrothermal deposits as
hypothermal, mesothermal, epithermal and telethermal.

Genesis of Common Ores

As they require the conjunction of specific environmental conditions

to form, particular mineral deposit types tend to occupy specific
geodynamic niches,[1] therefore, this page has been organised by
metal commodity. It is also possible to organise theories the other
way, namely according to geological criteria of formation. Often ores
of the same metal can be formed by multiple processes, and this is
described here under each metal or metal complex.

Iron

Iron ores are overwhelmingly derived from ancient sediments known

as banded iron formations (BIFs). These sediments are composed of
iron oxide minerals deposited on the sea floor. Particular
environmental conditions are needed to transport enough iron in sea
water to form these deposits, such as acidic and oxygen-poor
atmospheres within the Proterozoic Era.

Often, more recent weathering is required to convert the usual

magnetite minerals into more easily processed hematite. Some iron
deposits within the Pilbara of West Australia are placer deposits,
formed by accumulation of hematite gravels called pisolites which
form channel-iron deposits. These are preferred because they are
cheap to mine.

Lead Zinc Silver

Lead-zinc deposits are generally accompanied by silver, hosted

within the lead sulfide mineral galena or within the zinc sulfide
mineral sphalerite.

Lead and zinc deposits are formed by discharge of deep

sedimentary brine onto the sea floor (termed sedimentary exhalative
or SEDEX), or by replacement of limestone, in skarn deposits, some
associated with submarine volcanoes (called volcanogenic massive
sulfide ore deposits or VMS) or in the aureole of subvolcanic
intrusions of granite. The vast majority of SEDEX lead and zinc
deposits are Proterozoic in age, although there are significant
Jurassic examples in Canada and Alaska.

The carbonate replacement type deposit is exemplified by the

Mississippi valley type (MVT) ore deposits. MVT and similar styles
occur by replacement and degradation of carbonate sequences
byhydrocarbons, which are thought important for transporting lead.

Gold
 Gold deposits are formed via
a very wide variety of geological
processes. Deposits are
classified as primary, alluvial or
placerdeposits, or residual or
laterite deposits. Often a
deposit will contain a mixture of
all three types of ore. Figure 1. High-grade (bonanza) gold ore,
brecciated quartz-adularia rhyolite. Native gold
(Au) occurs in this rock as colloform bands,
partially replaces breccia clasts, and is also
Plate tectonics is the disseminated in the matrix. Published research
indicates that Sleeper Mine rocks represent an
underlying mechanism for ancient epithermal gold deposit (hot springs gold
generating gold deposits. The deposit), formed by volcanism during Basin &
Range extensional tectonics. Sleeper Mine,
majority of primary gold Humboldt County, Nevada.

deposits fall into two main

categories: lode gold deposits
or intrusion-related deposits.

Lode gold deposits are generally high-grade, thin, vein and fault
hosted. They are primarily made up of quartz veins also known as
lodes or reefs, which contain either native gold or gold sulfides and
tellurides. Lode gold deposits are usually hosted in basalt or in
sediments known as turbidite, although when in faults, they may
occupy intrusive igneous rocks such as granite.

Lode-gold deposits are intimately associated with orogeny and

other plate collision events within geologic history. Most lode gold
deposits sourced from metamorphic rocks because it is thought that
the majority are formed by dehydration of basalt during
metamorphism. The gold is transported up faults by hydrothermal
waters and deposited when the water cools too much to retain gold
in solution.

Intrusive related gold is generally hosted in granites, porphyry or

rarely dikes. Intrusive related gold usually also contains copper, and
is often associated with tin and tungsten, and rarely molybdenum,
antimony and uranium. Intrusive-related gold deposits rely on gold
existing in the fluids associated with the magma (White, 2001), and
the inevitable discharge of thesehydrothermal fluids into the wall-
rocks (Lowenstern, 2001). Skarn deposits are another manifestation
of intrusive-related deposits.

Placer deposits are sourced from pre-existing gold deposits and

are secondary deposits. Placer deposits are formed by
alluvialprocesses within rivers, streams and on beaches. Placer gold
deposits form via gravity, with the density of gold causing it to sink
into trap sites within the river bed, or where water velocity drops,
such as bends in rivers and behind boulders. Often placer deposits
are found within sedimentary rocks and can be billions of years old,
for instance the Witwatersrand deposits in South Africa. Sedimentary
placer deposits are known as “leads” or “deep leads.”

Placer deposits are often worked by fossicking, and panning for

gold is a popular pastime.

Laterite gold deposits are formed from pre-existing gold deposits

(including some placer deposits) during prolonged weathering of the
bedrock. Gold is deposited within iron oxides in the weathered rock
or regolith, and may be further enriched by reworking by erosion.
Some laterite deposits are formed by wind erosion of the bedrock
leaving a residuum of native gold metal at surface.

A bacterium, Cupriavidus metallidurans plays a vital role in the

formation of gold nuggets, by precipitating metallic gold from a
solution of gold (III) tetrachloride, a compound highly toxic to most
other microorganisms. Similarly, Delftia acidovorans can form gold
nuggets.

Platinum

Platinum and palladium are precious metals generally found in

ultramafic rocks. The source of platinum and palladium deposits is
ultramafic rocks which have enough sulfur to form a sulfide mineral
while the magma is still liquid. This sulfide mineral (usually
pentlandite, pyrite, chalcopyrite or pyrrhotite) gains platinum by
mixing with the bulk of the magma because platinum is chalcophile
and is concentrated in sulfides. Alternatively, platinum occurs in
association with chromite either within the chromite mineral itself or
within sulfides associated with it.
 Sulfide phases only form in ultramafic magmas when the magma
reaches sulfur saturation. This is generally thought to be nearly
impossible by pure fractional crystallisation, so other processes are
usually required in ore genesis models to explain sulfur saturation.
These include contamination of the magma with crustal material,
especially sulfur-rich wall-rocks or sediments; magma mixing; volatile
gain or loss.

Often platinum is associated with nickel, copper, chromium, and

cobalt deposits.

Nickel

Nickel deposits are generally found in two forms, either as sulfide or

laterite.

Sulfide type nickel deposits are formed in essentially the same

manner as platinum deposits. Nickel is a chalcophile element which
prefers sulfides, so an ultramafic or mafic rock which has a sulfide
phase in the magma may form nickel sulfides. The best nickel
deposits are formed where sulfide accumulates in the base of lava
tubes or volcanic flows—especially komatiite lavas.

Komatiitic nickel-copper sulfide deposits are considered to be

formed by a mixture of sulfide segregation, immiscibility, and thermal
erosion of sulfidic sediments. The sediments are considered to be
necessary to promote sulfur saturation.

Some subvolcanic sills in the Thompson Belt of Canada host

nickel sulfide deposits formed by deposition of sulfides near the
feeder vent. Sulfide was accumulated near the vent due to the loss
of magma velocity at the vent interface. The massive Voisey’s Bay
nickel deposit is considered to have formed via a similar process.

The process of forming nickel laterite deposits is essentially similar

to the formation of gold laterite deposits, except that ultramafic or
mafic rocks are required. Generally nickel laterites require very large
olivine-bearing ultramafic intrusions. Minerals formed in laterite
nickel deposits include gibbsite.

Copper

Copper is found in association with many other metals and deposit

styles. Commonly, copper is either formed within sedimentary rocks,
or associated with igneous rocks.

The world’s major copper deposits are formed within the granitic
porphyry copper style. Copper is enriched by processes during
crystallisation of the granite and forms as chalcopyrite—a sulfide
mineral, which is carried up with the granite.
 Sometimes granites erupt to surface as volcanoes, and copper
mineralisation forms during this phase when the granite and volcanic
rocks cool via hydrothermal circulation.

Sedimentary copper forms within ocean basins in sedimentary

rocks. Generally this forms by brine from deeply buried sediments
discharging into the deep sea, and precipitating copper and
oftenlead and zinc sulfides directly onto the sea floor. This is then
buried by further sediment. This is a process similar to SEDEX zinc
and lead, although some carbonate-hosted examples exist.

Often copper is associated with gold, lead, zinc and nickel

deposits.

Uranium

Uranium deposits are usually sourced from radioactive granites,

where certain minerals such as monazite are leached during
hydrothermal activity or during circulation of groundwater. The
uranium is brought into solution by acidic conditions and is deposited
when this acidity is neutralised. Generally this occurs in certain
carbon-bearing sediments, within an unconformity in sedimentary
strata. The majority of the world’s nuclear power is sourced from
uranium in such deposits.

Uranium is also found in nearly all coal at several parts per million,
and in all granites. Radon is a
common problem during mining
of uranium as it is a radioactive
gas.

Uranium is also found

associated with certain igneous
rocks, such as granite and Figure 2. Citrobacter species can have
concentrations of uranium in their bodies 300
porphyry. The Olympic Dam times higher than in the surrounding environment.

deposit in Australia is an
example of this type of uranium
deposit. It contains 70% of Australia’s share of 40% of the known
global low-cost recoverable uranium inventory.

Titanium and Zirconium

Mineral sands are the predominant type of titanium, zirconium and

thorium deposit. They are formed by accumulation of such heavy
minerals within beach systems, and are a type of placer deposits.
The minerals which contain titanium are ilmenite, rutile and
leucoxene, zirconium is contained within zircon, and thorium is
generally contained within monazite. These minerals are sourced
from primarily granite bedrock by erosion and transported to the sea
by rivers where they accumulate within beach sands. Rarely, but
importantly, gold, tin and platinum deposits can form in beach placer
deposits.
Tin, Tungsten, and Molybdenum

These three metals generally form in a certain type of granite, via a

similar mechanism to intrusive-related gold and copper. They are
considered together because the process of forming these deposits
is essentially the same. Skarn type mineralisation related to these
granites is a very important type of tin, tungsten and molybdenum
deposit. Skarn deposits form by reaction of mineralised fluids from
the granite reacting with wall rocks such as limestone. Skarn
mineralisation is also important in lead, zinc, copper, gold and
occasionally uranium mineralisation.

Greisen granite is another related tin-molybdenum and topaz

mineralisation style.

Rare Earth Elements, Niobium, Tantalum, Lithium

The overwhelming majority of rare earth elements, tantalum and

lithium are found within pegmatite. Ore genesis theories for these
ores are wide and varied, but most involve metamorphism
and igneous activity. Lithium is present as spodumene or lepidolite
within pegmatite.

Carbonatite intrusions are an important source of these elements.

Ore minerals are essentially part of the unusual mineralogy of
carbonatite.
Phosphate

Phosphate is used in fertilisers. Immense quantities of phosphate

rock or phosphorite occur in sedimentary shelf deposits, ranging in
age from the Proterozoic to currently forming
environments. Phosphate deposits are thought to be sourced from
the skeletons of dead sea creatures which accumulated on the
seafloor. Similar to iron ore deposits and oil, particular conditions in
the ocean and environment are thought to have contributed to these
deposits within the geological past.

Phosphate deposits are also

formed from alkaline igneous
rocks such as nepheline
syenites, carbonatites and
associated rock types. The
phosphate is, in this case,
contained within
magmaticapatite, monazite or
other rare-earth phosphates.
Figure 3. Tunicates such as this bluebell tunicate
contain vanadium as vanabin.

Vanadium

Due to the presence of vanabins, concentration of vanadium found in

the blood cells of Ascidia gemmata belonging to the suborder
Phlebobranchia is 10,000,000 times higher than that in the
surrounding seawater. A similar biological process might have played
a role in the formation of vanadium ores. Vanadium is also present in
fossil fuel deposits such as crude oil, coal, oil shale and oil sands. In
crude oil, concentrations up to 1200 ppm have been reported.

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 Reading: Petroleum

Petroleum is a naturally
occurring, yellow-to-black liquid
found in geological
formations beneath the Earth’s
surface, which is commonly
refined into various types of
fuels.

Figure 1. Pumpjack pumping an oil well near

It consists of hydrocarbons of Lubbock, Texas
various molecular weights and
other organic compounds. The
name petroleum covers both naturally occurring unprocessed crude
oil and petroleum products that are made up of refined crude oil. A
fossil fuel, petroleum is formed when large quantities of dead
organisms, usually zooplankton and algae, are buried underneath
sedimentary rock and subjected to intense heat and pressure.

Petroleum is recovered mostly through oil drilling (natural

petroleum springs are rare). This comes after the studies of
structural geology (at the reservoir scale), sedimentary basin
analysis, reservoir characterization (mainly in terms of the porosity
and permeability of geologic reservoir structures). It is refined and
separated, most easily by distillation, into a large number of
consumer products, from gasoline (petrol) and kerosene to asphalt
and chemical reagents used to make plastics and
pharmaceuticals. Petroleum is used in manufacturing a wide variety
of materials, and it is estimated that the world consumes about 90
million barrels each day.

Concern over the depletion of the earth’s finite reserves of oil, and
the effect this would have on a society dependent on it, is a concept
known as peak oil. The use of fossil fuels, such as petroleum, has a
negative impact on Earth’s biosphere, damaging ecosystems
through events such as oil spills and releasing a range of pollutants
into the air including ground-level ozone and sulfur dioxide from
sulfur impurities in fossil fuels.

Composition

In its strictest sense, petroleum includes only crude oil, but in

common usage it includes all liquid, gaseous, and solid
hydrocarbons. Under surface pressure and temperature conditions,
lighter hydrocarbons methane, ethane, propane and butane occur as
gases, while pentane and heavier ones are in the form of liquids or
solids. However, in an underground oil reservoir the proportions of
gas, liquid, and solid depend on subsurface conditions and on the
phase diagram of the petroleum mixture.
 An oil well produces predominantly crude oil, with some natural
gas dissolved in it. Because the pressure is lower at the surface than
underground, some of the gas will come out of solution and be
recovered (or burned) as associated gas or solution gas. A gas well
produces predominantly natural gas. However, because the
underground temperature and pressure are higher than at the
surface, the gas may contain heavier hydrocarbons such as
pentane, hexane, and heptane in the gaseous state. At surface
conditions these will condense out of the gas to form natural gas
condensate, often shortened to condensate. Condensate resembles
gasoline in appearance and is similar in composition to some volatile
light crude oils.

The proportion of light hydrocarbons in the petroleum mixture

varies greatly among different oil fields, ranging from as much as 97
percent by weight in the lighter oils to as little as 50 percent in the
heavier oils and bitumens.

The hydrocarbons in crude oil are mostly alkanes, cycloalkanes

and various aromatic hydrocarbons while the other organic
compounds contain nitrogen, oxygen and sulfur, and trace amounts
of metals such as iron, nickel, copper and vanadium. Many oil
reservoirs contain live bacteria. The exact molecular composition
varies widely from formation to formation but the proportion
of chemical elements vary over fairly narrow limits as follows:
 Composition by weight

Element Percent range

Carbon 83 to 85%
Hydrogen 10 to 14%
Nitrogen 0.1 to 2%

Oxygen 0.05 to 1.5%

Sulfur 0.05 to 6.0%
Metals < 0.1%

Four different types of hydrocarbon molecules appear in crude oil.

The relative percentage of each varies from oil to oil, determining the
properties of each oil.

Composition by weight

Hydrocarbon Average Range

Alkanes (paraffins) 30% 15 to 60%
Naphthenes 49% 30 to 60%
Aromatics 15% 3 to 30%
Asphaltics 6% remainder

Crude oil varies greatly in appearance depending on its

composition. It is usually black or dark brown (although it may be
yellowish, reddish, or even greenish). In the reservoir it is usually
found in association with natural gas, which being lighter forms a gas
cap over the petroleum, and saline water which, being heavier than
most forms of crude oil, generally sinks beneath it. Crude oil may
also be found in semi-solid form mixed with sand and water, as in the
Athabasca oil sands in Canada, where it is usually referred to as
crude bitumen. In Canada, bitumen is considered a sticky, black, tar-
like form of crude oil which is so thick and heavy that it must be
heated or diluted before it will flow. Venezuela also has large
amounts of oil in the Orinoco oil sands, although the hydrocarbons
trapped in them are more fluid than in Canada and are usually called
extra heavy oil. These oil sands resources are called unconventional
oil to distinguish them from oil which can be extracted using
traditional oil well methods. Between them, Canada and Venezuela
contain an estimated 3.6 trillion barrels (570 × 109 m3) of bitumen
and extra-heavy oil, about twice the volume of the world’s reserves
of conventional oil.

Petroleum is used mostly, by volume, for producing fuel oil and

gasoline, both important “primary energy” sources. 84 percent by
volume of the hydrocarbons present in petroleum is converted into
energy-rich fuels (petroleum-based fuels), including gasoline, diesel,
jet, heating, and other fuel oils, and liquefied petroleum gas. The
lighter grades of crude oil produce the best yields of these products,
but as the world’s reserves of light and medium oil are depleted, oil
refineries are increasingly having to process heavy oil and bitumen,
and use more complex and expensive methods to produce the
products required. Because heavier crude oils have too much carbon
and not enough hydrogen, these processes generally involve
removing carbon from or adding hydrogen to the molecules, and
using fluid catalytic cracking to convert the longer, more complex
molecules in the oil to the shorter, simpler ones in the fuels.
 Due to its high energy density, easy transportability and relative
abundance, oil has become the world’s most important source of
energy since the mid-1950s. Petroleum is also the raw material for
many chemical products, including pharmaceuticals, solvents,
fertilizers, pesticides, and plastics; the 16 percent not used for
energy production is converted into these other materials. Petroleum
is found in porous rock formations in the upper strata of some areas
of the Earth’s crust. There is also petroleum in oil sands (tar sands).
Known oil reserves are typically estimated at around 190 km3(1.2
trillion (short scale) barrels) without oil sands, or 595 km3 (3.74
trillion barrels) with oil sands. Consumption is currently around 84
million barrels (13.4×106 m3) per day, or 4.9 km3 per year. Which in
turn yields a remaining oil supply of only about 120 years, if current
demand remain static.

Formation

Petroleum is a fossil fuel derived from ancient fossilized organic

materials, such as zooplankton and algae. Vast quantities of these
remains settled to sea or lake bottoms, mixing with sediments and
being buried under anoxic conditions. As further layers settled to the
sea or lake bed, intense heat and pressure build up in the lower
regions. This process caused the organic matter to change, first into
a waxy material known as kerogen, which is found in various oil
shales around the world, and then with more heat into liquid and
gaseous hydrocarbons via a process known as catagenesis.
Formation of petroleum occurs from hydrocarbon pyrolysis in a
variety of mainly endothermic
reactions at high temperature
and/or pressure.

There were certain warm

nutrient-rich environments such
as the Gulf of Mexico and the
ancient Tethys Sea where the
Figure 2. Natural petroleum spring in Korňa,
large amounts of organic Slovakia
material falling to the ocean
floor exceeded the rate at which
it could decompose. This resulted in large masses of organic
material being buried under subsequent deposits such as shale
formed from mud. This massive organic deposit later became heated
and transformed under pressure into oil.

Geologists often refer to the temperature range in which oil forms

as an “oil window”—below the minimum temperature oil remains
trapped in the form of kerogen, and above the maximum
temperature the oil is converted to natural gas through the process
of thermal cracking. Sometimes, oil formed at extreme depths may
migrate and become trapped at a much shallower level. The
Athabasca Oil Sands are one example of this.

An alternative mechanism was proposed by Russian scientists in

the mid-1850s, the Abiogenic petroleum origin, but this is
contradicted by the geological and geochemical evidence.

Reservoirs

Crude Oil Reservoirs

Three conditions must be present for oil reservoirs to form: a source

rock rich in hydrocarbon material buried deep enough for
subterranean heat to cook it into oil, a porous and permeable
reservoir rock for it to accumulate in, and a cap rock (seal) or other
mechanism that prevents it from escaping to the surface. Within
these reservoirs, fluids will typically organize themselves like a three-
layer cake with a layer of water below the oil layer and a layer of gas
above it, although the different layers vary in size between
reservoirs. Because most hydrocarbons are less dense than rock or
water, they often migrate upward through adjacent rock layers until
either reaching the surface or becoming trapped within porous rocks
(known as reservoirs) by impermeable rocks above. However, the
process is influenced by underground water flows, causing oil to
migrate hundreds of kilometres horizontally or even short distances
downward before becoming trapped in a reservoir. When
hydrocarbons are concentrated in a trap, an oil field forms, from
which the liquid can be extracted by drilling and pumping.

The reactions that produce oil and natural gas are often modeled
as first order breakdown reactions, where hydrocarbons are broken
down to oil and natural gas by a set of parallel reactions, and oil
eventually breaks down to natural gas by another set of reactions.
The latter set is regularly used in petrochemical plants and oil
refineries.

Wells are drilled into oil reservoirs to extract the crude oil. “Natural
lift” production methods that rely on the natural reservoir pressure to
force the oil to the surface are usually sufficient for a while after
reservoirs are first tapped. In some reservoirs, such as in the Middle
East, the natural pressure is sufficient over a long time. The natural
pressure in most reservoirs, however, eventually dissipates. Then
the oil must be extracted using “artificial lift” means. Over time, these
“primary” methods become less effective and “secondary” production
methods may be used. A common secondary method is “waterflood”
or injection of water into the reservoir to increase pressure and force
the oil to the drilled shaft or “wellbore.” Eventually “tertiary” or
“enhanced” oil recovery methods may be used to increase the oil’s
flow characteristics by injecting steam, carbon dioxide and other
gases or chemicals into the reservoir. In the United States, primary
production methods account for less than 40 percent of the oil
produced on a daily basis, secondary methods account for about
half, and tertiary recovery the remaining 10 percent. Extracting oil (or
“bitumen”) from oil/tar sand and oil shale deposits requires mining
the sand or shale and heating it in a vessel or retort, or using “in-situ”
methods of injecting heated liquids into the deposit and then
pumping out the oil-saturated liquid.

Unconventional oil reservoirs

Oil-eating bacteria biodegrade oil that has escaped to the surface.

Oil sands are reservoirs of partially biodegraded oil still in the
process of escaping and being biodegraded, but they contain so
much migrating oil that, although most of it has escaped, vast
amounts are still present—more than can be found in conventional
oil reservoirs. The lighter fractions of the crude oil are destroyed first,
resulting in reservoirs containing an extremely heavy form of crude
oil, called crude bitumen in Canada, or extra-heavy crude oil in
Venezuela. These two countries have the world’s largest deposits of
oil sands.

On the other hand, oil shales are source rocks that have not been
exposed to heat or pressure long enough to convert their trapped
hydrocarbons into crude oil. Technically speaking, oil shales are not
always shales and do not contain oil, but are fined-grain sedimentary
rocks containing an insoluble organic solid called kerogen. The
kerogen in the rock can be converted into crude oil using heat and
pressure to simulate natural processes. The method has been
known for centuries and was patented in 1694 under British Crown
Patent No. 330 covering, “A way to extract and make great quantities
of pitch, tar, and oil out of a sort of stone.” Although oil shales are
found in many countries, the United States has the world’s largest
deposits.

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 Reading: Natural Gas

Natural gas is a fossil fuel formed when layers of buried plants,

gases, and animals are exposed to intense heat and pressure over
thousands of years. The energy that the plants originally obtained
from the sun is stored in the form of chemical bonds in natural gas.
Natural gas is a nonrenewable resource because it cannot be
replenished on a human time frame. Natural gas is a hydrocarbon
gas mixture consisting primarily of methane, but commonly includes
varying amounts of other higher alkanes and sometimes a usually
lesser percentage of carbon dioxide, nitrogen, and/or hydrogen
sulfide. Natural gas is an energy source often used for heating,
cooking, and electricity generation. It is also used as fuel for vehicles
and as a chemical feedstock in the manufacture of plastics and other
commercially important organic chemicals.

Natural gas is found in deep underground rock formations or

associated with other hydrocarbon reservoirs in coal beds and
as methane clathrates. Petroleum is another resource and fossil fuel
found in close proximity to, and with natural gas. Most natural gas
was created over time by two mechanisms: biogenic and
thermogenic. Biogenic gas is created by methanogenic organisms
in marshes, bogs, landfills, and shallow sediments. Deeper in the
earth, at greater temperature and pressure, thermogenic gas is
created from buried organic material.

Before natural gas can be used as a fuel, it must be processed to

remove impurities, including water, to meet the specifications of
marketable natural gas. The by-products of this processing include:
ethane, propane, butanes, pentanes, and higher molecular weight
hydrocarbons, hydrogen sulfide (which may be converted into pure
sulfur), carbon dioxide, water vapor, and sometimes helium and
nitrogen.

Natural gas is often informally referred to simply as “gas,”

especially when compared to other energy sources such as oil or
coal. However, it is not to be confused with gasoline, especially in
North America, where the term gasoline is often shortened in
colloquial usage to gas.

Natural gas was used by the Chinese in about 500 BC. They
discovered a way to transport gas seeping from the ground in crude
pipelines of bamboo to where it was used to boil salt water to extract
the salt, in the Ziliujing District of Sichuan. The world’s first industrial
extraction of natural gas started at Fredonia, New York, USA in
1825. By 2009, 66 trillion cubic meters (or 8%) had been used out of
the total 850 trillion cubic meters of estimated remaining recoverable
reserves of natural gas. Based on an estimated 2015 world
consumption rate of about 3.4 trillion cubic meters of gas per year,
the total estimated remaining economically recoverable reserves of
natural gas would last 250 years at current consumption rates. An
annual increase in usage of 2–3% could result in currently
recoverable reserves lasting significantly less, perhaps as few as 80
to 100 years.

Figure 1. Natural gas extraction by countries in cubic meters per year.

Sources
Natural Gas

In the 19th century, natural gas

was usually obtained as a by-product
of producing oil, since the small, light
gas carbon chains came out of
solution as the extracted fluids
underwent pressure reduction from
the reservoir to the surface, similar to
uncapping a soft drink bottle where
the carbon dioxide effervesces.
Unwanted natural gas was a
disposal problem in the active oil
fields. If there was not a market for
natural gas near the wellhead it was
virtually valueless since it had to be Figure 2. Natural gas drilling rig in Texas.

piped to the end user.

In the 19th century and early 20th century, such unwanted gas
was usually burned off at oil fields. Today, unwanted gas (or stranded
gas without a market) associated with oil extraction often is returned
to the reservoir with ‘injection’ wells while awaiting a possible future
market or to repressurize the formation, which can enhance
extraction rates from other wells. In regions with a high natural gas
demand (such as the US), pipelines are constructed when it is
economically feasible to transport gas from a wellsite to an end
consumer.
 In addition to transporting gas via pipelines for use in power
generation, other end uses for natural gas include export as liquefied
natural gas (LNG) or conversion of natural gas into other liquid
products via gas-to-liquids (GTL) technologies. GTL technologies
can convert natural gas into liquids products such as gasoline, diesel
or jet fuel. A variety of GTL technologies have been developed,
including Fischer–Tropsch (F–T), methanol to gasoline (MTG) and
STG+. F–T produces a synthetic crude that can be further refined
into finished products, while MTG can produce synthetic gasoline
from natural gas. STG+ can produce drop-in gasoline, diesel, jet fuel
and aromatic chemicals directly from natural gas via a single-loop
process. In 2011, Royal Dutch Shell’s 140,000 barrel per day F–T
plant went into operation in Qatar.

Natural gas can be “associated” (found in oil fields), or “non-

associated” (isolated in natural gas fields), and is also found in coal
beds (as coalbed methane). It sometimes contains a significant
amount of ethane, propane, butane, and pentane—heavier
hydrocarbons removed for commercial use prior to the methane
being sold as a consumer fuel or chemical plant feedstock. Non-
hydrocarbons such as carbon dioxide, nitrogen, helium (rarely),
andhydrogen sulfide must also be removed before the natural gas
can be transported.

Natural gas extracted from oil wells is called casinghead gas

(whether or not truly produced up the annulus and through a
casinghead outlet) or associated gas. The natural gas industry is
extracting an increasing quantity of gas from challenging resource
types: sour gas, tight gas, shale gas, and coalbed methane.

There is some disagreement on which country has the largest

proven gas reserves. Sources that consider that Russia has by far
the largest proven reserves include the US CIA (47.6 trillion cubic
meters), the US Energy Information Administration (47.8 tcm), and
OPEC (48.7 tcm). However, BP credits Russia with only 32.9
tcm, which would place it in second place, slightly behind Iran (33.1
to 33.8 tcm, depending on the source). With Gazprom, Russia is
frequently the world’s largest natural gas extractor. Major proven
resources (in billion cubic meters) are world 187,300 (2013), Iran
33,600 (2013), Russia 32,900 (2013), Qatar 25,100 (2013),
Turkmenistan 17,500 (2013) and the United States 8,500 (2013).

It is estimated that there are about 900 trillion cubic meters of

“unconventional” gas such as shale gas, of which 180 trillion may be
recoverable. In turn, many studies from MIT, Black & Veatchand the
DOE predict that natural gas will account for a larger portion of
electricity generation and heat in the future.

The world’s largest gas field is the offshore South Pars / North
Dome Gas-Condensate field, shared between Iran and Qatar. It is
estimated to have 51 trillion cubic meters of natural gas and 50
billion barrels of natural gas condensates.
 Because natural gas is not a pure product, as the reservoir
pressure drops when non-associated gas is extracted from a field
under supercritical (pressure/temperature) conditions, the higher
molecular weight components may partially condense upon
isothermic depressurizing—an effect called retrograde condensation.
The liquid thus formed may get trapped as the pores of the gas
reservoir get depleted. One method to deal with this problem is to re-
inject dried gas free of condensate to maintain the underground
pressure and to allow re-evaporation and extraction of condensates.
More frequently, the liquid condenses at the surface, and one of the
tasks of the gas plant is to collect this condensate. The resulting
liquid is called natural gas liquid (NGL) and has commercial value.

Shale gas

Shale gas is natural gas produced from shale. Because shale has
matrix permeability too low to allow gas to flow in economical
quantities, shale gas wells depend on fractures to allow the gas to
flow. Early shale gas wells depended on natural fractures through
which gas flowed; almost all shale gas wells today require fractures
artificially created by hydraulic fracturing. Since 2000, shale gas has
become a major source of natural gas in the United States and
Canada. Following the success in the United States, shale gas
exploration is beginning in countries such as Poland, China, and
South Africa. With the increase of shale production it has caused the
United States to become the number one natural gas producer in the
world.
Town Gas

Town gas is a flammable gaseous fuel made by the destructive

distillation of coal and contains a variety of calorific gases including
hydrogen, carbon monoxide, methane, and other volatile
hydrocarbons, together with small quantities of non-calorific gases
such as carbon dioxide and nitrogen, and is used in a similar way to
natural gas. This is a historical technology, not usually economically
competitive with other sources of fuel gas today. But there are still
some specific cases where it is the best option and it may be so into
the future.

Most town “gashouses” located in the eastern US in the late 19th

and early 20th centuries were simple by-product coke ovens that
heated bituminous coal in air-tight chambers. The gas driven off from
the coal was collected and distributed through networks of pipes to
residences and other buildings where it was used for cooking and
lighting. (Gas heating did not come into widespread use until the last
half of the 20th century.) The coal tar (or asphalt) that collected in the
bottoms of the gashouse ovens was often used for roofing and other
waterproofing purposes, and when mixed with sand and gravel was
used for paving streets.

Biogas

Methanogenic archaea are responsible for all biological sources of

methane. Some live in symbiotic relationships with other life forms,
including termites, ruminants, and cultivated crops. Other sources of
methane, the principal component of natural gas, include landfill gas,
biogas, and methane hydrate. When methane-rich gases are
produced by the anaerobic decay of non-fossilorganic matter
(biomass), these are referred to as biogas (or natural biogas).
Sources of biogas include swamps, marshes, and landfills (see
landfill gas), as well as agricultural waste materials such as sewage
sludge and manure by way of anaerobic digesters, in addition to
enteric fermentation, particularly in cattle. Landfill gas is created by
decomposition of waste in landfill sites. Excluding water vapor, about
half of landfill gas is methane and most of the rest is carbon dioxide,
with small amounts of nitrogen, oxygen, and hydrogen, and variable
trace amounts of hydrogen sulfide and siloxanes. If the gas is not
removed, the pressure may get so high that it works its way to the
surface, causing damage to the landfill structure, unpleasant odor,
vegetation die-off, and an explosion hazard. The gas can be vented
to the atmosphere, flared or burned to produce electricity or heat.
Biogas can also be produced by separating organic materials from
waste that otherwise goes to landfills. This method is more efficient
than just capturing the landfill gas it produces. Anaerobic lagoons
produce biogas from manure, while biogas reactors can be used for
manure or plant parts. Like landfill gas, biogas is mostly methane
and carbon dioxide, with small amounts of nitrogen, oxygen and
hydrogen. However, with the exception of pesticides, there are
usually lower levels of contaminants.
 Landfill gas cannot be distributed through utility natural gas
pipelines unless it is cleaned up to less than 3 per cent CO2, and a
few parts per million H2S, because CO2 and H2S corrode the
pipelines. The presence of CO2 will lower the energy level of the gas
below requirements for the pipeline. Siloxanes in the gas will form
deposits in gas burners and need to be removed prior to entry into
any gas distribution or transmission system. Consequently it may be
more economical to burn the gas on site or within a short distance of
the landfill using a dedicated pipeline. Water vapor is often removed,
even if the gas is burned on site. If low temperatures condense water
out of the gas, siloxanes can be lowered as well because they tend
to condense out with the water vapor. Other non-methane
components may also be removed to meet emission standards, to
prevent fouling of the equipment or for environmental considerations.
Co-firing landfill gas with natural gas improves combustion, which
lowers emissions.

Biogas, and especially landfill gas, are already used in some

areas, but their use could be greatly expanded. Experimental
systems were being proposed for use in parts of Hertfordshire, UK,
and Lyon in France. Using materials that would otherwise generate
no income, or even cost money to get rid of, improves the profitability
and energy balance of biogas production. Gas generated in sewage
treatment plants is commonly used to generate electricity. For
example, the Hyperion sewage plant in Los Angeles burns 8 million
cubic feet (230,000 m3) of gas per day to generate power New York
City utilizes gas to run equipment in the sewage plants, to generate
electricity, and in boilers. Using sewage gas to make electricity is not
limited to large cities. The city of Bakersfield, California, uses
cogeneration at its sewer plants. California has 242 sewage
wastewater treatment plants, 74 of which have installed anaerobic
digesters. The total biopower generation from the 74 plants is about
66 MW.

Crystallized Natural Gas—Hydrates

Huge quantities of natural

gas (primarily methane) exist in
the form of hydrates under
sediment on offshore
continental shelves and on land
in arctic regions that experience
permafrost, such as those in
Siberia. Hydrates require a Figure 3. The McMahon natural gas processing
plant in Taylor, British Columbia, Canada.
combination of high pressure
and low temperature to form.

In 2010, the cost of extracting natural gas from crystallized natural

gas was estimated to 100–200 per cent the cost of extracting natural
gas from conventional sources, and even higher from offshore
deposits.
 In 2013, Japan Oil, Gas and Metals National Corporation
(JOGMEC) announced that they had recovered commercially
relevant quantities of natural gas from methane hydrate.

Depletion

Natural gas production in the U.S. reached a peak in 1973, and went
over a second lower peak in 2001, but recently has peaked again
and is continuing to rise.

Uses

Mid-Stream Natural Gas

Natural gas flowing in the distribution lines and at the natural gas
well head are often used to power natural gas powered engines.
These engines rotate compressors to facilitate the natural gas
transmission. These compressors are required in the mid-stream line
to pressurize and to re-pressurize the natural gas in the transmission
line as the gas travels. The natural gas transmission lines extend to
the natural gas processing plant or unit which removes the higher
molecular weighted natural gas hydrocarbons to produce a British
thermal unit (BTU) value between 950 and 1050 BTUs. The
processed natural gas may then be used for residential, commercial
and industrial uses.
 Often mid-stream and well head gases require removal of many of
the various hydrocarbon species contained within the natural gas.
Some of these gases include heptane, pentane, propane and other
hydrocarbons with molecular weights above Methane (CH4) to
produce a natural gas fuel which is used to operate the natural gas
engines for further pressurized transmission. Typically, natural gas
compressors require 950 to 1050 BTU per cubic foot to operate at
the natural gas engines rotational name plate specifications.

Several methods are used to remove these higher molecular

weighted gases for use at the natural gas engine. A few technologies
are as follows:

Joule–Thomson skid
Cryogenic or chiller system

Chemical enzymology system

Power Generation

Natural gas is a major source of electricity generation through the

use of cogeneration, gas turbines and steam turbines. Natural gas is
also well suited for a combined use in association with renewable
energy sources such as wind or solar and for alimenting peak-load
power stations functioning in tandem with hydroelectric plants. Most
grid peaking power plants and some off-grid engine-generators use
natural gas. Particularly high efficiencies can be achieved through
combining gas turbines with a steam turbine in combined cycle
mode. Natural gas burns more cleanly than other hydrocarbon fuels,
such as oil and coal, and produces less carbon dioxide per unit of
energy released. For transportation, burning natural gas produces
about 30 per cent less carbon dioxide than burning petroleum. For
an equivalent amount of heat, burning natural gas produces about
45 per cent less than burning coal for power. The US Energy
Information Administration reports the following emissions in million
metric tons of carbon dioxide in the world for 2012:

Natural gas: 6,799

Petroleum: 11,695
Coal: 13,787

Coal-fired electric power generation emits around 2,000 pounds of

carbon dioxide for every megawatt hour generated, which is almost
double the carbon dioxide released by a natural gas-fired electric
plant per megawatt hour generated. Because of this higher carbon
efficiency of natural gas generation, as the fuel mix in the United
States has changed to reduce coal and increase natural gas
generation, carbon dioxide emissions have unexpectedly fallen.
Those measured in the first quarter of 2012 were the lowest of any
recorded for the first quarter of any year since 1992.

Combined cycle power generation using natural gas is currently

the cleanest available source of power using hydrocarbon fuels, and
this technology is widely and increasingly used as natural gas can be
obtained at increasingly reasonable costs. Fuel cell technology may
eventually provide cleaner options for converting natural gas into
electricity, but as yet it is not price-competitive. Locally produced
electricity and heat using natural gas powered Combined Heat and
Power plant (CHP or Cogeneration plant) is considered energy
efficient and a rapid way to cut carbon emissions. Natural gas power
plants are increasing in popularity and generate 22% of the worlds
total electricity. Approximately half as much as generated with coal.

Domestic Use

Natural gas dispensed from a simple stovetop can generate

temperatures in excess of 1100 °C (2000 °F) making it a powerful
domestic cooking and heating fuel. In much of the developed world it
is supplied through pipes to homes, where it is used for many
purposes including ranges and ovens, gas-heated clothes dryers,
heating/cooling, and central heating. Heaters in homes and other
buildings may include boilers, furnaces, and water heaters.

Compressed natural gas (CNG) is used in rural homes without

connections to piped-in public utility services, or with portable
grills. Natural gas is also supplied by independent natural gas
suppliers through Natural Gas Choice programs throughout the
United States. However, as CNG costs more than LPG, LPG
(propane) is the dominant source of rural gas.
Transportation

CNG is a cleaner and also

cheaper alternative to other
automobile fuels such as
gasoline (petrol) and diesel. By
the end of 2012 there were
17.25 millionnatural gas
vehicles worldwide, led by Iran
(3.3 million), Pakistan (3.1
million), Argentina (2.18 million), Figure 4. A Washington, D.C. Metrobus, which
runs on natural gas.
Brazil (1.73 million), India (1.5
million), and China(1.5
million). The energy efficiency is
generally equal to that of gasoline engines, but lower compared with
modern diesel engines. Gasoline/petrol vehicles converted to run on
natural gas suffer because of the low compression ratio of their
engines, resulting in a cropping of delivered power while running on
natural gas (10%–15%). CNG-specific engines, however, use a
higher compression ratio due to this fuel’s higher octane number of
120–130.

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 Reading: Coal

Coal (from the Old English term col,

which has meant “mineral of fossilized
carbon” since the thirteent century)is a
combustible black or brownish-black
sedimentary rock usually occurring in rock
strata in layers or veins called coal beds or
coal seams. The harder forms, such as
anthracite coal, can be regarded as
metamorphic rock because of later
exposure to elevated temperature and Figure 1. Bituminous coal

pressure. Coal is composed primarily of

carbon along with variable quantities of
other elements, chiefly hydrogen, sulfur, oxygen, and nitrogen.

Throughout history, coal has been used as an energy resource, primarily

burned for the production of electricity and/or heat, and is also used for industrial
purposes, such as refining metals. A fossil fuel, coal forms when dead plant
matter is converted into peat, which in turn is converted into lignite, then sub-
bituminous coal, after that bituminous coal, and lastly anthracite. This involves
biological and geological processes that take place over a long period. The
United States Energy Information Administration estimates coal reserves at
948×109 short tons (860 Gt). One estimate for resources is 18 000 Gt.

Coal is the largest source of energy for the generation of electricity worldwide,
as well as one of the largest worldwide anthropogenic sources ofcarbon dioxide
releases. In 1999, world gross carbon dioxide emissions from coal usage were
8,666 million tonnes of carbon dioxide. In 2011, world gross emissions from coal
usage were 14,416 million tonnes. Coal-fired electric power generation emits
around 2,000 pounds of carbon dioxide for every megawatt-hour generated,
which is almost double the approximately 1100 pounds of carbon dioxide
released by a natural gas-fired electric plant per megawatt-hour generated.
Because of this higher carbon efficiency of natural gas generation, as the market
in the United States has changed to reduce coal and increase natural gas
generation, carbon dioxide emissions have fallen. Those measured in the first
quarter of 2012 were the lowest of any recorded for the first quarter of any year
since 1992 In 2013, the head of the UN climate agency advised that most of the
world’s coal reserves should be left in the ground to avoid catastrophic global
warming.

Coal is extracted from the ground by coal mining, either underground by shaft
mining, or at ground level by open pit mining extraction. Since 1983 the world top
coal producer has been China. In 2011 China produced 3,520 million tonnes of
coal – 49.5% of 7,695 million tonnes world coal production. In 2011 other large
producers were United States (993 million tonnes), India (589), European Union
(576) and Australia (416). In 2010 the largest exporters were Australia with 328
million tonnes (27.1% of world coal export) and Indonesia with 316 million tonnes
(26.1%), while the largest importers were Japan with 207 million tonnes (17.5%
of world coal import), China with 195 million tonnes (16.6%) and South Korea
with 126 million tonnes (10.7%).

Formation

At various times in the geologic past, the Earth had dense forests in low-lying
wetland areas. Due to natural processes such as flooding, these forests were
buried underneath soil. As more and more soil deposited over them, they were
compressed. The temperature also rose as they sank deeper and deeper. As the
process continued the plant matter was protected from biodegradation and
oxidation, usually by mud or acidic
water. This trapped the carbon in
immense peat bogs that were
eventually covered and deeply buried
by sediments. Under high pressure
and high temperature, dead
vegetation was slowly converted to
coal. As coal contains mainly carbon,
the conversion of dead vegetation into Figure 2. Coastal exposure of the Point Aconi Seam (Nova
coal is called carbonization. Scotia)

The wide, shallow seas of the

Carboniferous Period provided ideal conditions for coal formation, although coal
is known from most geological periods. The exception is the coal gap in the
Permian–Triassic extinction event, where coal is rare. Coal is known from
Precambrian strata, which predate land plants—this coal is presumed to have
originated from residues of algae.

Ranks

As geological processes apply pressure to dead biotic material over time, under
suitable conditions, its metamorphic grade increases successively into:

Peat, considered to be a precursor of coal, has industrial importance as

a fuel in some regions, for example, Ireland and Finland. In its
dehydrated form, peat is a highly effective absorbent for fuel and oil
spills on land and water. It is also used as a conditioner for soil to make
it more able to retain and slowly release water.
Lignite, or brown coal, is the lowest rank of coal and used almost
exclusively as fuel for electric power generation. Jet, a compact form of
 lignite, is sometimes polished and has been used as an ornamental
stone since the Upper Palaeolithic.

Sub-bituminous coal, whose properties range from those of lignite to

those of bituminous coal, is used primarily as fuel for steam-electric
power generation and is an important source of light aromatic
hydrocarbons for the chemical synthesis industry.
Bituminous coal is a dense sedimentary rock, usually black, but
sometimes dark brown, often with well-defined bands of bright and dull
material; it is used primarily as fuel in steam-electric power generation,
with substantial quantities used for heat and power applications in
manufacturing and to make coke.
“Steam coal” is a grade between bituminous coal and anthracite, once
widely used as a fuel for steam locomotives. In this specialized use, it is
sometimes known as “sea-coal” in the United States. Small steam coal
(dry small steam nuts or DSSN) was used as a fuel for domestic water
heating.
Anthracite, the highest rank of coal, is a harder, glossy black coal used
primarily for residential and commercial space heating. It may be divided
further into metamorphically altered bituminous coal and “petrified oil,”
as from the deposits in Pennsylvania.
Graphite, technically the highest rank, is difficult to ignite and is not
commonly used as fuel—it is mostly used in pencils and, when
powdered, as a lubricant.

The classification of coal is generally based on the content of volatiles.

However, the exact classification varies between countries. According to the
German classification, coal is classified as follows:
 Heat
German English C H O S
Volatiles % content
Classification Designation Carbon % Hydrogen % Oxygen % Sulfur %
kJ/kg
Lignite
Braunkohle 45–65 60–75 6.0–5.8 34-17 0.5-3 <28,470
(brown coal)
Flammkohle Flame coal 40-45 75-82 6.0-5.8 >9.8 ~1 <32,870
Gas flame
Gasflammkohle 35-40 82-85 5.8-5.6 9.8-7.3 ~1 <33,910
coal
Gaskohle Gas coal 28-35 85-87.5 5.6-5.0 7.3-4.5 ~1 <34,960
Fettkohle Fat coal 19-28 87.5-89.5 5.0-4.5 4.5-3.2 ~1 <35,380
Esskohle Forge coal 14-19 89.5-90.5 4.5-4.0 3.2-2.8 ~1 <35,380
Nonbaking
Magerkohle 10-14 90.5-91.5 4.0-3.75 2.8-3.5 ~1 35,380
coal
Anthrazit Anthracite 7-12 >91.5 <3.75 <2.5 ~1 <35,300

Note, the percentages are percent by mass of the indicated elements

The middle six grades in the table represent a progressive transition from the
English-language sub-bituminous to bituminous coal, while the last class is an
approximate equivalent to anthracite, but more inclusive (US anthracite has < 6%
volatiles).

Cannel coal (sometimes called “candle coal”) is a variety of fine-grained, high-

rank coal with significant hydrogen content. It consists primarily of “exinite”
macerals, now termed “liptinite.”

Hilt’s law

Hilt’s law is a geological term that states that, in a small area, the deeper the
coal, the higher its rank (grade). The law holds true if the thermal gradient is
entirely vertical, but metamorphism may cause lateral changes of rank,
irrespective of depth.

Content
 Average content

Substance Content
Mercury (Hg) 0.10±0.01 ppm
Arsenic (As) 1.4 – 71 ppm
Selenium (Se) 3 ppm

Uses Today

Coal as Fuel

Coal is primarily used as a solid fuel

to produce electricity and heat through
combustion. World coal consumption
was about 7.25 billion tonnes in
2010 (7.99 billion short tons) and is
expected to increase 48% to 9.05
billion tonnes (9.98 billion short tons)
by 2030.
Figure 3. Castle Gate Power Plant near Helper, Utah, USA

China produced 3.47 billion tonnes

(3.83 billion short tons) in 2011. India
produced about 578 million tonnes (637.1 million short tons) in 2011. 68.7% of
China’s electricity comes from coal. The USA consumed about 13% of the world
total in 2010, i.e. 951 million tonnes (1.05 billion short tons), using 93% of it for
generation of electricity. 46% of total power generated in the USA was done
using coal.

When coal is used for electricity generation, it is usually pulverized and then
combusted (burned) in a furnace with a boiler. The furnace heat converts boiler
water to steam, which is then used to spin turbines which turn generators and
create electricity. The thermodynamic efficiency of this process has been
improved over time; some older coal-fired power stations have thermal
efficiencies in the vicinity of
25% whereas the newest supercritical
and “ultra-supercritical” steam cycle
turbines, operating at temperatures
over 600 °C and pressures over 27
MPa (over 3900 psi), can practically
achieve thermal efficiencies in excess
of 45% (LHV basis) using anthracite
fuel, or around 43% (LHV basis) even
Figure 4. Coal rail cars
when using lower-grade lignite
fuel. Further thermal efficiency
improvements are also achievable by
improved pre-drying (especially relevant with high-moisture fuel such as lignite or
biomass) and cooling technologies.

An alternative approach of using coal for electricity generation with improved

efficiency is the integrated gasification combined cycle (IGCC) power plant.
Instead of pulverizing the coal and burning it directly as fuel in the steam-
generating boiler, the coal can be first gasified (see coal gasification) to
create syngas, which is burned in a gas turbine to produce electricity (just like
natural gas is burned in a turbine). Hot exhaust gases from the turbine are used
to raise steam in a heat recovery steam generator which powers a supplemental
steam turbine. Thermal efficiencies of current IGCC power plants range from 39-
42% (HHV basis) or ~42-45% (LHV basis) for bituminous coal and assuming
utilization of mainstream gasification technologies (Shell, GE Gasifier, CB&I).
IGCC power plants outperform conventional pulverized coal-fueled plants in
terms of pollutant emissions, and allow for relatively easy carbon capture.

At least 40% of the world’s electricity comes from coal, and in 2012, about one-
third of the United States’ electricity came from coal, down from approximately
49% in 2008. As of 2012 in the United States, use of coal to generate electricity
was declining, as plentiful supplies of natural gas obtained by hydraulic fracturing
of tight shale formations became available at low prices.

In Denmark, a net electric efficiency of > 47% has been obtained at the coal-
fired Nordjyllandsværket CHP Plant and an overall plant efficiency of up to 91%
with cogeneration of electricity and district heating. The multifuel-fired
Avedøreværket CHP Plant just outside Copenhagen can achieve a net electric
efficiency as high as 49%. The overall plant efficiency with cogeneration of
electricity and district heating can reach as much as 94%.

An alternative form of coal combustion is as coal-water slurry fuel (CWS),

which was developed in the Soviet Union. CWS significantly reduces emissions,
improving the heating value of coal. Other ways to use coal are combined heat
and power cogeneration and an MHD topping cycle.

The total known deposits recoverable by current technologies, including highly

polluting, low-energy content types of coal (i.e., lignite, bituminous), is sufficient
for many years. However, consumption is increasing and maximal production
could be reached within decades (see world coal reserves, below). On the other
hand much may have to be left in the ground to avoid climate change.

Gasification

Coal gasification can be used to produce syngas, a mixture of carbon monoxide

(CO) and hydrogen (H2) gas. Often syngas is used to fire gas turbines to produce
electricity, but the versatility of syngas also allows it to be converted into
transportation fuels, such as gasoline and diesel, through the Fischer-Tropsch
process; alternatively, syngas can be converted into methanol, which can be
blended into fuel directly or converted to gasoline via the methanol to gasoline
process.[59] Gasification combined with Fischer-Tropsch technology is currently
used by the Sasol chemical company of South Africa to make motor vehicle fuels
from coal and natural gas. Alternatively, the hydrogen obtained from gasification
can be used for various purposes, such as powering ahydrogen economy,
making ammonia, or upgrading fossil fuels.

During gasification, the coal is mixed with oxygen and steam while also being
heated and pressurized. During the reaction, oxygen and water molecules
oxidize the coal into carbon monoxide (CO), while also releasing hydrogen gas
(H2). This process has been conducted in both underground coal mines and in
the production of town gas.

C (as Coal) + O2 + H2O → H2 + CO

If the refiner wants to produce gasoline, the syngas is collected at this state
and routed into a Fischer-Tropsch reaction. If hydrogen is the desired end-
product, however, the syngas is fed into thewater gas shift reaction, where more
hydrogen is liberated.

CO + H2O → CO2 + H2

In the past, coal was converted to make coal gas (town gas), which was piped
to customers to burn for illumination, heating, and cooking.

Liquefaction

Coal can also be converted into synthetic fuels equivalent to gasoline or diesel by
several different direct processes (which do not intrinsically require gasification or
indirect conversion). In the direct liquefaction processes, the coal is either
hydrogenated or carbonized. Hydrogenation processes are the Bergius
process, the SRC-I and SRC-II (Solvent Refined Coal) processes, the NUS
Corporation hydrogenation process and several other single-stage and two-stage
processes. In the process of low-temperature carbonization, coal is coked at
temperatures between 360 and 750 °C (680 and 1,380 °F). These temperatures
optimize the production of coal tars richer in lighter hydrocarbons than normal
coal tar. The coal tar is then further processed into fuels. An overview of coal
liquefaction and its future potential is available.

Coal liquefaction methods involve carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions in the

conversion process. If coal liquefaction is done without employing either carbon
capture and storage (CCS) technologies or biomass blending, the result is
lifecycle greenhouse gas footprints that are generally greater than those released
in the extraction and refinement of liquid fuel production from crude oil. If CCS
technologies are employed, reductions of 5–12% can be achieved in Coal to
Liquid (CTL) plants and up to a 75% reduction is achievable when co-gasifying
coal with commercially demonstrated levels of biomass (30% biomass by weight)
in coal/biomass-to-liquids plants. For future synthetic fuel projects, carbon dioxide
sequestration is proposed to avoid releasing CO2 into the atmosphere.
Sequestration adds to the cost of production.

Refined Coal

Refined coal is the product of a coal-upgrading technology that removes moisture

and certain pollutants from lower-rank coals such as sub-bituminous and lignite
(brown) coals. It is one form of several precombustion treatments and processes
for coal that alter coal’s characteristics before it is burned. The goals of
precombustion coal technologies are to increase efficiency and reduce emissions
when the coal is burned. Depending on the situation, precombustion technology
can be used in place of or as a supplement to postcombustion technologies to
control emissions from coal-fueled boilers.

Industrial Processes

Finely ground bituminous coal, known in this application as sea coal, is a

constituent of foundry sand. While the molten metal is in the mould, the coal
burns slowly, releasing reducing gases at pressure, and so preventing the metal
from penetrating the pores of the sand. It is also contained in “mould wash,” a
paste or liquid with the same function applied to the mould before casting. Sea
coal can be mixed with the clay lining (the “bod”) used for the bottom of a cupola
furnace. When heated, the coal decomposes and the bod becomes slightly
friable, easing the process of breaking open holes for tapping the molten metal.

Production of Chemicals

Coal is an important feedstock in production of a wide range of chemical

fertilizers and other chemical products. The main route to these products is coal
gasification to produce syngas. Primary chemicals that are produced directly from
the syngas include methanol, hydrogen and carbon monoxide, which are the
chemical building blocks from which a whole spectrum of derivative chemicals
are manufactured, including olefins, acetic acid, formaldehyde, ammonia,urea
and others. The versatility of syngas as a precursor to primary chemicals and
high-value derivative products provides the option of using relatively inexpensive
coal to produce a wide range of valuable commodities.

Historically, production of chemicals from coal has been used since the 1950s
and has become established in the market. According to the 2010 Worldwide
Gasification Database, a survey of current and planned gasifiers, from 2004 to
2007 chemical production increased its gasification product share from 37% to
45%. From 2008 to 2010, 22% of new gasifier additions were to be for chemical
production.

Because the slate of chemical products that can be made via coal gasification
can in general also use feedstocks derived from natural gas and petroleum, the
chemical industry tends to use whatever feedstocks are most cost-effective.
Therefore, interest in using coal tends to increase for higher oil and natural gas
prices and during periods of high global economic growth that may strain oil and
gas production. Also, production of chemicals from coal is of much higher interest
in countries like South Africa, China, India and the United States where there are
abundant coal resources. The abundance of coal combined with lack of natural
gas resources in China is strong inducement for the coal to chemicals industry
pursued there. In the United States, the best example of the industry is Eastman
Chemical Company which has been successfully operating a coal-to-chemicals
plant at its Kingsport, Tennessee, site since 1983. Similarly, Sasol has built and
operated coal-to-chemicals facilities in South Africa.

Coal to chemical processes do require substantial quantities of water. As of

2013 much of the coal to chemical production was in the People’s Republic of
China where environmental regulation and water management was weak.

World Coal Reserves

The 948 billion short tons of recoverable coal reserves estimated by the Energy
Information Administration are equal to about 4,196 BBOE (billion barrels of oil
equivalent). The amount of coal burned during 2007 was estimated at 7.075
billion short tons, or 133.179 quadrillion BTU’s. This is an average of 18.8 million
BTU per short ton. In terms of heat content, this is about 57,000,000 barrels
(9,100,000 m3) of oil equivalent per day. By comparison in 2007, natural gas
provided 51,000,000 barrels (8,100,000 m3) of oil equivalent per day, while oil
provided 85,800,000 barrels (13,640,000 m3) per day.

British Petroleum, in its 2007 report, estimated at 2006 end that there were 147
years reserves-to-production ratio based on proven coal reserves worldwide.
This figure only includes reserves classified as “proven”; exploration drilling
programs by mining companies, particularly in under-explored areas, are
continually providing new reserves. In many cases, companies are aware of coal
deposits that have not been sufficiently drilled to qualify as “proven.” However,
some nations haven’t updated their information and assume reserves remain at
the same levels even with
withdrawals.

Of the three fossil fuels, coal has

the most widely distributed reserves;
coal is mined in over 100 countries,
and on all continents except
Antarctica. The largest reserves are
found in the United States, Russia, Figure 5. A coal mine in Wyoming, United States. The
United States has the world’s largest coal reserves.
China, Australia and India.

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 Self Check: Rock and Mineral Resources

Check Your Understanding

Answer the question(s) below to see how well you understand the
topics covered in the previous section. This short quiz
does not count toward your grade in the class, and you can retake it
an unlimited number of times.

Use this quiz to check your understanding and decide whether to

(1) study the previous section further or (2) move on to the next
section.

An interactive or media element has been excluded from this

version of the text. You can view it online here:
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/geo/?p=2778

CC licensed content, Original

Authored by: Kimberly Schulte and Lumen Learning.

Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution
 Outcome: Extraction of Resources

Describe some of the extraction methods and identify

different types of mining.

In order to use the resources at our disposal, we need to be able to

get to them. This section introduces the different techniques used to
extract or remove these resources.

What You’ll Learn to Do

Describe the processes involved in mining.

Identify the effects of different types of mining: surface
mining, underground mining and open pit mining.

Learning Activities

The learning activities for this section include the following:

Reading: Mining

Reading: Effects of Mining

Self Check: Extraction Methods

CC licensed content, Original

Authored by: Kimberly Schulte and Lumen Learning.
Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution
 Reading: Mining

Mining is the extraction of

valuable minerals or other
geological materials from the
earth from an orebody, lode,
vein, seam, or reef, which forms
the mineralized package of
economic interest to the miner.
Figure 1. Surface coal mining

Ores recovered by mining

include metals, coal, oil shale,
gemstones, limestone, dimension stone, rock salt, potash, gravel,
and clay. Mining is required to obtain any material that cannot be
grown through agricultural processes, or created artificially in a
laboratory or factory. Mining in a wider sense includes extraction of
any non-renewable resource such as petroleum, natural gas, or even
water.

Mining of stone and metal has been done since pre-historic times.
Modern mining processes involve prospecting for ore bodies,
analysis of the profit potential of a proposed mine, extraction of the
desired materials, and final reclamation of the land after the mine is
closed.

The nature of mining processes creates a potential negative

impact on the environment both during the mining operations and for
years after the mine is closed. This impact has led most of the
world’s nations to adopt regulations designed to moderate the
negative effects of mining operations. Safety has long been a
concern as well, and modern practices have improved safety in
mines significantly.

Mine Development and Lifecycle

The process of mining from discovery of an ore body through

extraction of minerals and finally to returning the land to its natural
state consists of several distinct steps. The first is discovery of the
ore body, which is carried out through prospecting or exploration to
find and then define the extent, location and value of the ore body.
This leads to a mathematical resource estimation to estimate the
size and grade of the deposit.

This estimation is used to conduct a pre-feasibility study to

determine the theoretical economics of the ore deposit. This
identifies, early on, whether further investment in estimation and
engineering studies is warranted and identifies key risks and areas
for further work. The next step is to conduct a feasibility study to
evaluate the financial viability, the technical and financial risks, and
the robustness of the project.

This is when the mining company makes the decision whether to

develop the mine or to walk away from the project. This includes
mine planning to evaluate the economically recoverable portion of
the deposit, the metallurgy and ore recoverability, marketability and
payability of the ore concentrates, engineering concerns, milling and
infrastructure costs, finance and equity requirements, and an
analysis of the proposed mine from the initial excavation all the way
through to reclamation. The proportion of a deposit that is
economically recoverable is dependent on the enrichment factor of
the ore in the area.

To gain access to the mineral deposit within an area it is often

necessary to mine through or remove waste material which is not of
immediate interest to the miner. The total movement of ore and
waste constitutes the mining process. Often more waste than ore is
mined during the life of a mine, depending on the nature and location
of the ore body. Waste removal and placement is a major cost to the
mining operator, so a detailed characterization of the waste material
forms an essential part of the geological exploration program for a
mining operation.

Once the analysis determines a given ore body is worth

recovering, development begins to create access to the ore body.
The mine buildings and processing plants are built, and any
necessary equipment is obtained. The operation of the mine to
recover the ore begins and continues as long as the company
operating the mine finds it economical to do so. Once all the ore that
the mine can produce profitably is recovered, reclamation begins to
make the land used by the mine suitable for future use.

Mining Techniques

Mining techniques can be divided into two common excavation

types: surface mining and sub-surface (underground) mining. Today,
surface mining is much more common, and produces, for example,
85% of minerals (excluding petroleum and natural gas) in the United
States, including 98% of metallic ores.

Targets are divided into two general categories of materials: placer

deposits, consisting of valuable minerals contained within river
gravels, beach sands, and other unconsolidated materials; and lode
deposits, where valuable minerals are found in veins, in layers, or in
mineral grains generally distributed throughout a mass of actual
rock. Both types of ore deposit, placer or lode, are mined by both
surface and underground methods.

Some mining, including much of the rare earth elements and

uranium mining, is done by less-common methods, such as in-situ
leaching: this technique involves digging neither at the surface nor
underground. The extraction of target minerals by this technique
requires that they be soluble, e.g., potash, potassium chloride,
sodium chloride, sodium sulfate, which dissolve in water. Some
minerals, such as copper minerals and uranium oxide, require acid
or carbonate solutions to dissolve.

Surface Mining

Surface mining is done by removing (stripping) surface vegetation,

dirt, and, if necessary, layers of bedrock in order to reach buried ore
deposits. Techniques of surface mining include: open-pit mining,
which is the recovery of materials from an open pit in the ground,
quarrying or gathering building materials from an open-pit mine; strip
mining, which consists of stripping surface layers off to reveal
ore/seams underneath; and mountaintop removal, commonly
associated with coal mining, which involves taking the top of a
mountain off to reach ore deposits at depth. Most (but not all) placer
deposits, because of their shallowly buried nature, are mined by
surface methods. Finally, landfill mining involves sites where landfills
are excavated and processed.

Figure 2. Garzweiler surface mine, Germany

Open-Pit Mining

Open-pit mining, or open-cast mining is a surface mining

technique of extracting rock or minerals from the earth by their
removal from an open pit or borrow.

This form of mining differs from extractive methods that require

tunneling into the earth, such as long wall mining. Open-pit mines
are used when deposits of commercially useful minerals or rocks are
found near the surface; that is, where the overburden (surface
material covering the valuable deposit) is relatively thin or the
material of interest is structurally unsuitable for tunneling (as would
be the case for sand, cinder, and gravel). For minerals that occur
deep below the surface—where the overburden is thick or the
mineral occurs as veins in hard rock—underground mining methods
extract the valued material.

Open-pit mines that produce building materials and dimension

stone are commonly referred to as “quarries.”

Open-pit mines are typically enlarged until either the mineral

resource is exhausted, or an increasing ratio of overburden to ore
makes further mining uneconomic. When this occurs, the exhausted
mines are sometimes converted to landfills for disposal of solid
wastes. However, some form of water control is usually required to
keep the mine pit from becoming a lake, if the mine is situated in a
climate of considerable precipitation or if any layers of the pit forming
the mine border productive aquifers.

Open-cast mines are dug on

benches, which describe
vertical levels of the hole. These
benches are usually on four to
sixty meter intervals, depending
on the size of the machinery
that is being used. Many Figure 3. Note the angled and stepped sides of the
Sunrise Dam Gold Mine, Australia.
quarries do not use benches, as
they are usually shallow.

Most walls of the pit are generally dug on an angle less than
vertical, to prevent and minimize damage and danger from rock falls.
This depends on how weathered the rocks are, and the type of rock,
and also how many structural weaknesses occur within the rocks,
such as a faults, shears, joints orfoliations.

The walls are stepped. The inclined section of the wall is known as
the batter, and the flat part of the step is known as the bench or
berm. The steps in the walls help prevent rock falls continuing down
the entire face of the wall. In some instances additional ground
support is required and rock bolts, cable bolts and shotcrete are
used. De-watering bores may be used to relieve water pressure by
drilling horizontally into the wall, which is often enough to cause
failures in the wall by itself.

A haul road is usually situated at the side of the pit, forming a ramp
up which trucks can drive, carrying ore and waste rock.

Waste rock is piled up at the surface, near the edge of the open
pit. This is known as the waste dump. The waste dump is also tiered
and stepped, to minimize degradation.

Ore which has been processed is known as tailings, and is

generally a slurry. This is pumped to a tailings dam or settling pond,
where the water evaporates. Tailings dams can often be toxic due to
the presence of unextracted sulfide minerals, some forms of toxic
minerals in the gangue, and often cyanide which is used to treat gold
ore via the cyanide leach process. This toxicity can harm the
surrounding environment.

Typical Open Cut Grades

Gold is generally extracted in open-pit mines at 1 to 2 ppm (parts per

million) but in certain cases, 0.75 ppm gold is economical. This was
achieved by bulk heap leaching at the Peak Hill mine in western New
South Wales, near Dubbo, Australia.

Nickel, generally as laterite, is extracted via open-pit down to

0.2%. Copper is extracted at grades as low as 0.15% to 0.2%,
generally in massive open-pit mines in Chile, where the size of the
resources and favorable metallurgy allows economies of scale.

Materials typically extracted from open-pit mines include:

Bitumen

Clay

Coal
Copper

Coquina

Diamonds

Gravel and stone (stone refers to bedrock, while gravel is

unconsolidated material)

Granite

Gritstone
Gypsum

Limestone

Marble
Metal ores, such as Copper, Iron, Gold, Silver and
Molybdenum

Uranium
Phosphate
Underground Mining

Sub-surface mining consists

of digging tunnels or shafts into
the earth to reach buried ore
deposits. Ore, for processing,
and waste rock, for disposal,
are brought to the surface
through the tunnels and shafts.
Sub-surface mining can be
classified by the type of access Figure 4. Mantrip used for transporting miners
within an underground mine
shafts used, the extraction
method or the technique used
to reach the mineral deposit.
Drift mining utilizes horizontal access tunnels, slope mining uses
diagonally sloping access shafts, and shaft mining utilizes vertical
access shafts. Mining in hard and soft rock formations require
different techniques.

Other methods include shrinkage stope mining, which is mining

upward, creating a sloping underground room, long wall mining,
which is grinding a long ore surface underground, and room and
pillar mining, which is removing ore from rooms while leaving pillars
in place to support the roof of the room. Room and pillar mining often
leads to retreat mining, in which supporting pillars are removed as
miners retreat, allowing the room to cave in, thereby loosening more
ore. Additional sub-surface mining methods include hard rock
mining, which is mining of hard rock (igneous, metamorphic or
sedimentary) materials, bore hole mining, drift and fill mining, long
hole slope mining, sub level caving, and block caving.

Machines

Heavy machinery is used in mining to explore and develop sites, to

remove and stockpile overburden, to break and remove rocks of
various hardness and toughness, to process the ore, and to carry out
reclamation projects after the mine is closed. Bulldozers, drills,
explosives and trucks are all necessary for excavating the land. In
the case of placer mining, unconsolidated gravel, or alluvium, is fed
into machinery consisting of a hopper and a shaking screen or
trommel which frees the desired minerals from the waste gravel. The
minerals are then concentrated using sluices or jigs.

Large drills are used to sink shafts, excavate stopes, and obtain
samples for analysis. Trams are used to transport miners, minerals
and waste. Lifts carry miners into and out of mines, and move rock
and ore out, and machinery in and out, of underground mines. Huge
trucks, shovels and cranes are employed in surface mining to move
large quantities of overburden and ore. Processing plants utilize
large crushers, mills, reactors, roasters and other equipment to
consolidate the mineral-rich material and extract the desired
compounds and metals from the ore.
 Figure 5. The Bagger 288 is a bucket-wheel excavator used in strip mining. It is
also the largest land vehicle of all time.

Processing

Once the mineral is extracted, it is often then processed. The

science of extractive metallurgy is a specialized area in the science
of metallurgy that studies the extraction of valuable metals from their
ores, especially through chemical or mechanical means.

Mineral processing (or mineral dressing) is a specialized area in

the science of metallurgy that studies the mechanical means of
crushing, grinding, and washing that enable the separation
(extractive metallurgy) of valuable metals or minerals from their
gangue (waste material). Processing of placer ore material consists
of gravity-dependent methods of separation, such as sluice boxes.
Only minor shaking or washing may be necessary to disaggregate
(unclump) the sands or gravels before processing. Processing of ore
from a lode mine, whether it is a surface or subsurface mine,
requires that the rock ore be crushed and pulverized before
extraction of the valuable minerals begins. After lode ore is crushed,
recovery of the valuable minerals is done by one, or a combination of
several, mechanical and chemical techniques.

Since most metals are present in ores as oxides or sulfides, the

metal needs to be reduced to its metallic form. This can be
accomplished through chemical means such as smelting or through
electrolytic reduction, as in the case of aluminium. Geometallurgy
combines the geologic sciences with extractive metallurgy and
mining.

Mining Industry

Mining exists in many countries. London is known as the capital of

global “mining houses” such as Rio Tinto Group, BHP Billiton, and
Anglo American PLC. The US mining industry is also large, but it is
dominated by the coal and other nonmetal minerals (e.g., rock and
sand), and various regulations have worked to reduce the
significance of mining in the United States. In 2007 the totalmarket
capitalization of mining companies was reported at US$962 billion,
which compares to a total global market cap of publicly traded
companies of about US$50 trillion in 2007. In 2002, Chile and Peru
were reportedly the major mining countries of South America. The
mineral industry of Africa includes the mining of various minerals; it
produces relatively little of the industrial metals copper, lead, and
zinc, but according to one estimate has as a percent of world
reserves 40% of gold, 60% of cobalt, and 90% of the world’s
platinum group metals. Mining in India is a significant part of that
country’s economy. In the developed world, mining in Australia, with
BHP Billiton founded and headquartered in the country, and mining
in Canada are particularly significant. For rare earth minerals mining,
China reportedly controlled 95% of production in 2013.

Mining operations can be grouped into five major categories in

terms of their respective resources. These are oil and gas extraction,
coal mining, metal ore mining, nonmetallic mineral mining and
quarrying, and mining support activities. Of all of these categories, oil
and gas extraction remains one of the largest in terms of its global
economic importance. Prospecting potential mining sites, a vital area
of concern for the mining industry, is now done using sophisticated
new technologies such as seismic prospecting and remote-sensing
satellites. Mining is heavily affected by the prices of the commodity
minerals, which are often volatile. The 2000s commodities boom
(“commodities supercycle”) increased the prices of commodities,
driving aggressive mining. In addition, the price of gold increased
dramatically in the 2000s, which increased gold mining; for example,
one study found that conversion of forest in the Amazon increased
six-fold from the period 2003–2006 (292 ha/yr) to the period 2006–
2009 (1,915 ha/yr), largely due to artisanal mining.

Safety

Safety has long been a concern in the mining business especially in

sub-surface mining. The Courrières mine disaster, Europe’s worst
mining accident, involved the death of 1,099 miners in Northern
France on March 10, 1906. This disaster was surpassed only by the
Benxihu Colliery accident in China on April 26, 1942, which killed
1,549 miners. While mining today is substantially safer than it was in
previous decades, mining accidents still occur. Government figures
indicate that 5,000 Chinese miners die in accidents each year, while
other reports have suggested a figure as high as 20,000. Mining
accidents continue worldwide, including accidents causing dozens of
fatalities at a time such as the 2007 Ulyanovskaya Mine disaster in
Russia, the 2009 Heilongjiang mine explosion in China, and the
2010 Upper Big Branch Mine disaster in the United States.

Mining ventilation is a significant safety concern for many miners.

Poor ventilation inside sub-surface mines causes exposure to
harmful gases, heat, and dust, which can cause illness, injury, and
death. The concentration of methane and other airborne
contaminants underground can generally be controlled by dilution
(ventilation), capture before entering the host air stream (methane
drainage), or isolation (seals and stoppings). Rock dusts, including
coal dust and silicon dust, can cause long-term lung problems
including silicosis, asbestosis, and pneumoconiosis (also known as
miners lung or black lungdisease). A ventilation system is set up to
force a stream of air through the working areas of the mine. The air
circulation necessary for effective ventilation of a mine is generated
by one or more large mine fans, usually located above ground. Air
flows in one direction only, making circuits through the mine such
that each main work area constantly receives a supply of fresh air.
Watering down in coal mines also helps to keep dust levels down: by
spraying the machine with water and filtering the dust-laden water
with a scrubber fan, miners can successfully trap the dust.

Gases in mines can poison the workers or displace the oxygen in

the mine, causing asphyxiation. For this reason, the U.S. Mine
Safety and Health Administration requires that groups of miners in
the United States carry gas detection equipment that can detect
common gases, such as CO, O2, H2S, CH4, as well as calculate %
Lower Explosive Limit. Regulation requires that all production stop if
there is a concentration of 1.4% of flammable gas present.
Additionally, further regulation is being requested for more gas
detection as newer technology such as nanotechnology is
introduced.

Ignited methane gas is a common source of explosions in coal

mines, which in turn can initiate more extensive coal dust explosions.
For this reason, rock dusts such as limestone dust are spread
throughout coal mines to diminish the chances of coal dust
explosions as well as to limit the extent of potential explosions, in a
process known as rock dusting. Coal dust explosions can also begin
independently of methane gas explosions. Frictional heat and sparks
generated by mining equipment can ignite both methane gas and
coal dust. For this reason, water is often used to cool rock-cutting
sites.

Miners utilize equipment strong enough to break through

extremely hard layers of the Earth’s crust. This equipment, combined
with the closed work space in which underground miners work, can
cause hearing loss. For example, a roof bolter (commonly used by
mine roof bolter operators) can reach sound power levels of up to
115 dB. Combined with the reverberant effects of underground
mines, a miner without proper hearing protection is at a high risk
forhearing loss. By age 50, nearly 90% of U.S. coal miners have
some hearing loss, compared to only 10% among workers not
exposed to loud noises. Roof bolters are among the loudest
machines, but auger miners, bulldozers, continuous mining
machines, front end loaders, and shuttle cars and trucks are also
among those machines most responsible for excessive noise in mine
work.

Since mining entails removing dirt and rock from its natural
location, thereby creating large empty pits, rooms, and tunnels,
cave-ins as well as ground and rock falls are a major concern within
mines. Modern techniques for timbering and bracing walls and
ceilings within sub-surface mines have reduced the number of
fatalities due to cave-ins, but ground falls continue to represent up to
50% of mining fatalities. Even in cases where mine collapses are not
instantly fatal, they can trap mine workers deep underground. Cases
such as these often lead to high-profile rescue efforts, such as when
33 Chilean miners were trapped deep underground for 69 days in
2010.

High temperatures and humidity may result in heat-related

illnesses, including heat stroke, which can be fatal. The presence of
heavy equipment in confined spaces also poses a risk to miners. To
improve the safety of mine workers, modern mines use automation
and remote operation including, for example, such equipment as
automated loaders and remotely operated rockbreakers. However,
despite modern improvements to safety practices, mining remains a
dangerous occupation throughout the world.

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 Reading: Effects of Mining

Environmental Effects

Environmental issues can include erosion, formation of sinkholes,

loss of biodiversity, and contamination of soil, groundwater and
surface water by chemicals from mining processes. In some cases,
additional forest logging is done in the vicinity of mines to create
space for the storage of the created debris and soil. Contamination
resulting from leakage of chemicals can also affect the health of the
local population if not properly controlled. Extreme examples of
pollution from mining activities include coal fires, which can last for
years or even decades, producing massive amounts of
environmental damage.

Mining companies in most countries are required to follow

stringent environmental and rehabilitation codes in order to minimize
environmental impact and avoid impacting human health. These
codes and regulations all require the common steps of
environmental impact assessment, development of environmental
management plans, mine closure planning (which must be done
before the start of mining operations), and environmental monitoring
during operation and after closure. However, in some areas,
particularly in the developing world, government regulations may not
be well enforced.

Waste

Ore mills generate large amounts of waste, called tailings. For

example, 99 tons of waste are generated per ton of copper, with
even higher ratios in gold mining. These tailings can be toxic.
Tailings, which are usually produced as a slurry, are most commonly
dumped into ponds made from naturally existing valleys. These
ponds are secured by impoundments (dams or embankment
dams). In 2000 it was estimated that 3,500 tailings impoundments
existed, and that every year, 2 to 5 major failures and 35 minor
failures occurred; for example, in the Marcopper mining disaster at
least 2 million tons of tailings were released into a local
river. Subaqueous tailings disposal is another option. The mining
industry has argued that submarine tailings disposal (STD), which
disposes of tailings in the sea, is ideal because it avoids the risks of
tailings ponds; although the practice is illegal in the United States
and Canada, it is used in the developing world.

The waste is classified as either sterile or mineralised, with acid

generating potential, and the movement and storage of this material
forms a major part of the mine planning process. When the
mineralised package is determined by an economic cut-off, the near-
grade mineralised waste is usually dumped separately with view to
later treatment should market conditions change and it becomes
economically viable. Civil engineering design parameters are used in
the design of the waste dumps, and special conditions apply to high-
rainfall areas and to seismically active areas. Waste dump designs
must meet all regulatory requirements of the country in whose
jurisdiction the mine is located. It is also common practice to
rehabilitate dumps to an internationally acceptable standard, which
in some cases means that higher standards than the local regulatory
standard are applied.

Open-Pit Mining

After mining finishes, the

mine area must undergo
rehabilitation. Waste dumps are
contoured to flatten them out, to
further stabilise them. If the ore
contains sulfides it is usually
covered with a layer of clay to
prevent access of rain and Figure 1. Opencut coal mine loadout station and
reclaimed land at the North Antelope Rochelle
oxygen from the air, which can coal mine in Wyoming, United States.
oxidise the sulfides to
produce sulfuric acid, a
phenomenon known as acid mine drainage. This is then generally
covered with soil, and vegetation is planted to help consolidate the
material. Eventually this layer will erode, but it is generally hoped
that the rate of leaching or acid will be slowed by the cover such that
the environment can handle the load of acid and associated heavy
metals. There are no long term studies on the success of these
covers due to the relatively short time in which large scale open pit
mining has existed. It may take hundreds to thousands of years for
some waste dumps to become “acid neutral” and stop leaching to
the environment. The dumps are usually fenced off to prevent
livestock denuding them of vegetation. The open pit is then
surrounded with afence, to prevent access, and it generally
eventually fills up with ground water. In arid areas it may not fill due
to deep groundwater levels.

Figure 2. An open-pit sulfur mine at Tarnobrzeg, Poland undergoing land

rehabilitation

Metal Reserves and Recycling

During the twentieth century, the variety of metals used in society

grew rapidly. Today, the development of major nations such as China
and India and advances in technologies are fueling an ever greater
demand. The result is that metal mining activities are expanding and
more and more of the world’s metal stocks are above ground in use
rather than below ground as unused reserves. An example is the in-
use stock of copper. Between 1932 and 1999, copper in use in the
USA rose from 73 kilograms (161 lb) to 238 kilograms (525 lb) per
person.

95% of the energy used to make aluminum from bauxite ore is

saved by using recycled material. However, levels of metals
recycling are generally low. In 2010, the International Resource
Panel, hosted by the United Nations Environment Programme
(UNEP), published reports on metal stocks that exist within
society and their recycling rates.

The report’s authors observed that the metal stocks in society can
serve as huge mines above ground. However, they warned that the
recycling rates of some rare metals used in applications such as
mobile phones, battery packs for hybrid cars, and fuel cells are so
low that unless future end-of-life recycling rates are dramatically
stepped up these critical metals will become unavailable for use in
modern technology.

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 Self Check: Extraction of Resources

Check Your Understanding

Answer the question(s) below to see how well you understand the
topics covered in the previous section. This short quiz
does not count toward your grade in the class, and you can retake it
an unlimited number of times.

Use this quiz to check your understanding and decide whether to

(1) study the previous section further or (2) move on to the next
section.

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 Outcome: Getting Energy from Resources

Describe geologic materials as current or potential

energy resources and categorize sources as renewable
or nonrenewable.

This section discusses the importance of both non-renewable and

renewable resources. It also stresses the importance of resource
conservation.

What You’ll Learn to Do

Identify available resources current or potential resources

and as renewable or nonrenewable.
Identify the type of energy currently consumed.

Describe various ways to conserve resources and

recognize alternative fuels options.

Learning Activities

The learning activities for this section include the following:

Reading: Earth’s Energy

Reading: Energy Consumption on Earth

Reading: Use and Conservation of Resources

Self Check: Geologic Materials as Energy Sources

 Reading: Earth's Energy

Much of Earth’s energy comes from the Sun. Nearly all life on Earth
depends on solar energy since plants use sunlight to make food
through the process of photosynthesis. Photosynthesis was the
process that fed plants and animals, which in turn, over the course of
millions of years, became fossil fuels. The Sun heats some areas of
Earth more than other areas, which causes wind. The Sun’s energy
also drives the water cycle, which moves water over the surface of
the Earth. Some of these types of energy can be harnessed for use
by people.

The other main source of energy is Earth’s internal heat. This heat
has two origins: the breakdown of chemical elements by
radioactivity, and the heat that is left over from when the planet came
together. These two sources will be described in more detail in later
chapters.

Energy Resources

Everything requires energy. Even when you are sitting as still as you
possibly can, your body is using energy to breathe, circulate blood,
digest food, and perform many other functions. Producing light or
heat requires energy. Making something requires energy. Plants and
animals all require energy to function. To repeat, everything requires
energy!

The Need for Energy

Energy is the ability to do

work or produce change. Every
living thing needs energy to
perform its daily functions and
even more energy to grow.
Plants get energy from the
“food” they make by
photosynthesis, and animals
get energy directly or indirectly Figure 1. Electrical transmission towers like the
one shown in this picture help deliver the
from that food. People also use electricity people use for energy every day.

energy for many things, such as

cooking food, keeping ice
cream cold in the freezer, heating a house, constructing a
skyscraper, or lighting their homes. Because billions of people all
around the world use energy, there is a huge need for energy
resources (figure 1). Energy conservation is something everyone can
do now to help reduce the strain on energy resources.

The law of conservation of energy says that energy cannot be

created or destroyed. This means that even though energy changes
form, the total amount of energy always stays the same. How does
energy get converted from one type to another when you kick a
soccer ball? When your body breaks down the food you eat, it stores
the energy from the food as chemical energy. Chemical energy is
stored within chemical bonds. But some of this stored energy has to
be released to make your leg muscles move. The chemical energy is
converted to another form of energy called kinetic energy. Kinetic
energy is the energy of anything in motion. Your muscles move your
leg, your foot kicks the ball, and the ball gains kinetic energy from
the kick. So you can think of the action of kicking the ball as a story
of energy changing forms.

To learn the quadratic equations related to getting a rapidly moving

car to overcome its kinetic energy and come to a stop, watch this
video:

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Potential energy is energy that is stored. Potential energy has the

potential to do work or the potential to be converted into other forms
of energy. If a ball is sitting on the very edge at the top of the hill, it is
not moving, but it has a lot of potential energy.

Animations showing the conversion of potential energy to kinetic

energy can be seen at the following sites:

Energy Transformation for Downhill Skiing

Energy Transformation on a Roller Coaster

Energy Transformation for a Dart

Energy, Fuel, and Heat

If you read a book beneath a lit lamp, that lamp has energy from
electricity. The energy to make the electricity comes from fuel. Fuel
has energy that it releases. A fuel is any material that can release
energy in a chemical change.

What are some examples of fuel, and what are they used for?

1. Food is fuel for your body.

2. Sunlight is the energy plants need to make food by
photosynthesis.

3. Gasoline is fuel for cars.

4. Hydrogen is fuel for the Sun.
 For a fuel to be useful, its energy must be
released in a way that can be controlled.
Controlling the release of energy makes it possible
for the energy to be used to do work. When fuel is
used for its energy, it is usually burned, and most
of the energy is released as heat (figure 2). The
heat may then be used to do work. Think of a
person striking a match to set some small twigs on Figure 2. A controlled
fire. After the twigs burn for a while, they get hot fire.

enough to make some larger sticks burn. The fire

keeps getting hotter, and soon it is hot enough to
burn whole logs. Pretty soon the fire is roaring, and a pot of water
placed on the fire starts to boil. Some of the liquid water evaporates.

What is the source of energy for boiling and evaporating the

water? Although some chemical energy from the match was put into
starting the fire, the heat to boil and evaporate the water comes from
the energy that was stored in the wood. The wood is the fuel for the
fire.

Types of Energy Resources

Energy resources are either renewable or non-renewable. Non-

renewable resources are used faster than they can be replaced,so
the supply available to society is limited (see example in figure 3).
Renewable resources will not run out because they are replaced as
quickly as they are used. Can you think of
some renewable and non-renewable energy
sources?

Non-renewable Resources

Fossil fuels—coal, oil, and natural gas—are

the most common example of non-renewable
Figure 3. Anthracite coal is a
energy resources. Fossil fuels are formed non-renewable energy
resource.
from fossils, the partially decomposed
remains of once living plants and animals.
These fossils took millions of years to form.
When fossil fuels are burned for energy, they release pollutants into
the atmosphere. Fossil fuels also release carbon dioxide and other
greenhouse gases, which are causing global temperatures to rise.
The environmental effects of fossil fuel use are discussed in the
“Climate” and “Human Actions and the Atmosphere” chapters.

Renewable Resources

Renewable energy resources include solar, water, wind, biomass,

and geothermal. These resources are either virtually limitless like the
Sun, which will continue to shine for billions of years, or will be
replaced faster than we can use them. Amounts of falling water or
wind will change over the course of time, but they are quite
abundant. Biomass energy, like wood for fire, can be replaced
quickly.
 The use of renewable resources may also cause problems. Some
are expensive, while some, such as trees, have other uses. Some
cause environmental problems. As the technology improves and
more people use renewable energy, the prices may come down. At
the same time, as we use up fossil fuels, coal, oil, and natural gas,
these non-renewable resources will become more expensive. At
some point, even if renewable energy costs are high, non-renewable
energy will be even more expensive. Ultimately, we will have to use
renewable sources.

Important Things to Consider about Energy Resources

With both renewable and non-renewable resources, there are at

least two important things to consider. One is that we have to have a
practical way to turn the resource into a useful form of energy. The
other is that we have to consider what happens when we turn the
resource into energy.

For example, if we get much less energy from burning a fuel than
we put into making it, then that fuel is probably not a practical energy
resource. On the other hand, if another fuel gives us large amounts
of energy but creates large amounts of pollution, that fuel also may
not be the best choice for an energy resource.

Today we rely on electricity more than ever, but the resources that
currently supply our power are finite. The race is on to harness more
renewable resources, but getting all that clean energy from
production sites to homes and businesses is proving to be a major
challenge.

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Non-renewable Energy Resources

Millions of years ago, plants used energy from the Sun to form
sugars, carbohydrates, and other energy-rich carbon compounds
that were later transformed into coal, oil, or natural gas. The solar
energy stored in these fuels is a rich source of energy. Although
fossil fuels provide very high quality energy, they are non-renewable.

In large part, non-renewable energy sources are responsible for

the world’s lights seen in this animation.

Formation of Fossil Fuels

Can you name some fossils? How about dinosaur bones or

dinosaur footprints? Animal skeletons, teeth, shells, coprolites
(otherwise known as feces), or
any other remains or trace from
a living creature that becomes a
rock is a fossil.

The same processes that

formed these fossils also Figure 4. This wetland may look something like
an ancient coal-forming swamp.
created some of our most
important energy resources,
fossil fuels. Coal, oil, and
natural gas are fossil fuels. Fossil fuels come from living matter
starting about 500 million years ago. As plants and animals died,
their remains settled on the ground on land and in swamps, lakes,
and seas (figure 4).

Over time, layer upon layer of these remains accumulated.

Eventually, the layers were buried so deeply that they were crushed
by an enormous mass of earth. The weight of this earth pressing
down on these plant and animal remains created intense heat and
pressure. After millions of years of heat and pressure, the material in
these layers turned into chemicals called hydrocarbons (figure 5).
Here is an animated view of a hydrocarbon.

Hydrocarbons can be solid, liquid, or gaseous. The solid form is

what we know as coal. The liquid form is petroleum, or crude oil.
Natural gas is the gaseous form.
Coal

Coal, a solid fossil fuel formed from the

partially decomposed remains of ancient
forests, is burned primarily to produce
electricity. Coal use is undergoing
enormous growth as the availability of oil
and natural gas decreases and cost
Figure 5. Hydrocarbons are
increases. This increase in coal use is made of carbon and hydrogen
atoms. This molecule with one
happening particularly in developing carbon and four hydrogen atoms
is methane.
nations, such as China, where coal is cheap
and plentiful.

Coal Formation

Coal forms from dead plants that settled at the bottom of ancient
swamps. Lush coal swamps were common in the tropics during the
Carboniferous period, which took place more than 300 million years
ago (figure 6). The climate was warmer then.
 Figure 6. The location of the continents during the Carboniferous period. Notice
that quite a lot of land area is in the region of the tropics.

Mud and other dead plants buried the

organic material in the swamp, and burial
kept oxygen away. When plants are buried
without oxygen, the organic material can be
preserved or fossilized. Sand and clay
settling on top of the decaying plants
squeezed out the water and other Figure 7. Bituminous coal is a
sedimentary rock.
substances. Millions of years later, what
remains is a carbon-containing rock that we
know as coal.

Coal is black or brownish-black. The most common form of coal is

bituminous, a sedimentary rock that contains impurities such as
sulfur (figure 7). Anthracite coal, seen in figure 3, has been
metamorphosed and is nearly all carbon. For this reason, anthracite
coal burns more cleanly than bituminous coal.

Coal Use

Around the world, coal is the largest source of energy for electricity.
The United States is rich in coal (figure 8). California once had a
number of small coal mines, but the state no longer produces coal.
To turn coal into electricity, the rock is crushed into powder, which is
then burned in a furnace that has a boiler. Like other fuels, coal
releases its energy as heat when it burns. Heat from the burning coal
boils the water in the boiler to make steam. The steam spins
turbines, which turn generators to create electricity. In this way, the
energy stored in the coal is converted to useful energy like electricity.
 Figure 8. United States coal-producing regions in 1996. Orange is highest grade
anthracite; red is low volatile bituminous; gray and gray-green is medium to
high-volatile bituminous; green is subbituminous; and yellow is the lowest grade
lignite

Coal that has been located but is not being used is part of our
reserves. Reserves are important because if the price of the
resource goes up or the cost of extracting it goes down, they may be
useful.

Consequences of Coal Use

For coal to be used as an energy source, it must first be mined. Coal
mining occurs at the surface or underground by methods that are
described in the “Earth’s Minerals” chapter (figure 9). Mining,
especially underground mining, can be dangerous. In April 2010,
twenty-nine miners were killed at a West Virginia coal mine when
gas that had accumulated in the mine tunnels exploded and started
a fire.

Figure 9. The coal used in power plants must be mined. One method to mine coal
is by mountaintop removal.

Some possible types of environmental damage from mining are

discussed in the “Earth’s Minerals” chapter. Coal mining exposes
minerals and rocks from underground to air and water at the surface.
Many of these minerals contain the element sulfur, which mixes with
air and water to make sulfuric acid, a highly corrosive chemical. If the
sulfuric acid gets into streams, it can kill fish, plants, and animals that
live in or near the water.

Oil

Oil is a liquid fossil fuel that is extremely useful because it can be

transported easily and can be used in cars and other vehicles. Oil is
currently the single largest source of energy in the world.

Oil Formation

Oil from the ground is called crude oil, which is a mixture of many
different hydrocarbons. Crude oil is a thick dark brown or black liquid
hydrocarbon. Oil also forms from buried dead organisms, but these
are tiny organisms that live on the sea surface and then sink to the
seafloor when they die. The dead organisms are kept away from
oxygen by layers of other dead creatures and sediments. As the
layers pile up, heat and pressure increase. Over millions of years,
the dead organisms turn into liquid oil.

Oil Production

In order to be collected, the oil must be located between a porous

rock layer and an impermeable layer (figure 10). Trapped above the
porous rock layer and beneath the impermeable layer, the oil will
remain between these layers until it is extracted from the rock.

Here is an animation of an oil deposit forming.

 The oil pocket is then drilled into
from the surface. Here is an
animation of an oil deposit being
drilled.
Sideways drilling allows a deposit
Figure 10. Oil (red) is found in
that lies beneath land that cannot the porous rock layer (yellow)
and trapped by the impermeable
be drilled to be mined for oil. layer (brown). The folded
structure has allowed the oil to
To separate the different types of pool so a well can be drilled into
the reservoir.
hydrocarbons in crude oil for different uses,
the crude oil must be refined in refineries
like the one shown in figure 11. Refining is possible because each
hydrocarbon in crude oil boils at a different temperature. When the
oil is boiled in the refinery, separate equipment collects the different
compounds.
 Figure 11. Refineries like this one separate crude oil into many useful fuels and
other chemicals.

Oil Use

Most of the compounds that come out of the refining process are
fuels, such as gasoline, diesel, and heating oil. Because these fuels
are rich sources of energy and can be easily transported, oil
provides about 90% of the energy used for transportation around the
world. The rest of the compounds from crude oil are used for waxes,
plastics, fertilizers, and other products.

Gasoline is in a convenient form for use in cars and other

transportation vehicles. In a car engine, the burned gasoline mostly
turns into carbon dioxide and water vapor. The fuel releases most of
its energy as heat, which causes the gases to expand. This creates
enough force to move the pistons inside the engine and to power the
car.

Consequences of Oil Use

The United States does produce oil, but the amount produced is only
about one-quarter as much as the nation uses. The United States
has only about 1.5% of the world’s proven oil reserves, and so most
of the oil used by Americans must be imported from other nations.

The main oil-producing regions in the United States are the Gulf of
Mexico, Texas, Alaska, and California. Most offshore drilling occurs
in the Gulf of Mexico, but there are offshore platforms in California as
well (Figure 12). Here is an animation of the location of petroleum
basins in the contiguous United States.
 Figure 12. Offshore well locations in the Gulf of Mexico. Note that some wells
are located in very deep water.

As in every type of mining, mining for oil has environmental

consequences. Oil rigs are unsightly (figure 13), and spills are too
common (figure 14).

Figure 13. Drill rigs at the San Ardo Oil Field in Monterey, California.
 A deadly explosion on an oil rig in the Gulf of Mexico in April 2010 led to a
massive oil spill. When this picture was taken in July 2010, oil was still spewing
into the Gulf. The long-term consequences of the spill are being studied and are
as yet unknown.

Natural Gas

Natural gas, often known simply as gas, is composed mostly of the

hydrocarbon methane (refer to figure 5 for the structure).

Natural Gas Formation

Natural gas forms under the same conditions that create oil. Organic
material buried in the sediments harden to become a shale formation
that is the source of the gas. Although natural gas forms at higher
temperatures than crude oil, the two are often found together. The
formation of a minable oil and gas deposit is seen in this animation.

The largest natural gas reserves in the United States are in the
Appalachian Basin, Texas, and the Gulf of Mexico region (Figure 15).
California also has natural gas, found mostly in the Central Valley. In
the northern Sacramento Valley and the Sacramento Delta, a
sediment-filled trough formed along a location where crust was
pushed together (an ancient convergent margin). Here is an
animation of global natural gas reserves.
 Figure 15. Gas production in the Lower 48 United States.

Natural Gas Use

Like crude oil, natural gas must be processed before it can be used
as a fuel. Some of the chemicals in unprocessed natural gas are
poisonous to humans. Other chemicals, such as water, make the gas
less useful as a fuel. Processing natural gas removes almost
everything except the methane. Once the gas is processed, it is
ready to be delivered and used. Natural gas is delivered to homes
for uses such as cooking and heating. Like coal and oil, natural gas
is also burned to generate heat for powering turbines. The spinning
turbines turn generators, and the generators create electricity.
Consequences of Natural Gas Use

Natural gas burns much cleaner than

other fossil fuels, meaning that it causes
less air pollution. Natural gas also produces
less carbon dioxide than other fossil fuels
do for the same amount of energy, so its
global warming effects are less (figure 16). Figure 16. A natural gas drill rig.

See the pollution created by a car burning

gasoline and a car burning natural gas in
this animation.

Unfortunately, drilling for natural gas can be environmentally

destructive. One technique used is hydraulic fracturing, also called
fracking, which increases the rate of recovery of natural gas. Fluids
are pumped through a borehole to create fractures in the reservoir
rock that contains the natural gas. Material is added to the fluid to
prevent the fractures from closing. The damage comes primarily
from chemicals in the fracturing fluids. Chemicals that have been
found in the fluids may be carcinogens (cancer-causing), radioactive
materials, or endocrine disruptors, which interrupt hormones in the
bodies of humans and animals. The fluids may get into groundwater
or may runoff into streams and other surface waters.

Fossil Fuel Reserves

Fossil fuels provide about 85% of the world’s energy at this time.
Worldwide fossil fuel usage has increased many times over in the
past half century (coal: 2.6x, oil: 8x, natural gas: 14x) because of
population increases, because of increases in the number of cars,
televisions, and other fuel-consuming uses in the developed world,
and because of lifestyle improvements in the developing world. Past
and predicted use of different types of energy in the United States
can be seen in this animation.

Figure 17. Worldwide oil reserves.

The amount of fossil fuels that remain untapped is unknown but

can likely be measured in decades for oil and natural gas and in a
few centuries for coal (figure 17). Alternative sources of fossil fuels,
such as oil shales and tar sands, are increasingly being exploited
(figure 18).

Figure 18. A satellite image of an oil-sands mine in Canada.

The environmental consequences of mining these fuels, and of

fossil fuel use in general, along with the fact that these fuels do not
have a limitless supply, are prompting the development of alternative
energy sources.

Nuclear Energy

When the nucleus of an atom is split, it releases a huge amount of

energy called nuclear energy. For nuclear energy to be used as a
power source, scientists and engineers have
learned to split nuclei and to control the release of
energy (Figure 19).

Nuclear Energy Use

Nuclear power plants, such as the one seen in

figure 20, use uranium, which is mined, processed,
Figure 19. When
and then concentrated into fuel rods. When the struck by a tiny
uranium atoms in the fuel rods are hit by other particle, Uranium-
235 breaks apart and
extremely tiny particles, they split apart. The releases energy.

number of tiny particles allowed to hit the fuel rods

needs to be controlled or they would cause a
dangerous explosion. The energy from a nuclear power plant heats
water, which creates steam and causes a turbine to spin. The
spinning turbine turns a generator, which in turn produces electricity.
 Figure 20. Nuclear power plants like this one provide France with almost 80% of
its electricity.

Many countries around the world use nuclear energy as a source

of electricity. In the United States, a little less than 20% of electricity
comes from nuclear energy.

Consequences of Nuclear Power

Nuclear power is clean. It does not pollute the air or release

carbon dioxide. However, the use of nuclear energy does create
other environmental problems. Uranium must be mined (figure 21).
The process of splitting atoms creates radioactive waste, which
remains dangerous for thousands or hundreds of thousands of
years. As yet, there is no long-term solution for storing this waste.
 The development of nuclear
power plants has been on hold
for three decades. Accidents at
Three Mile Island and
Chernobyl, Ukraine verified
people’s worst fears about the
dangers of harnessing nuclear
power (figure 22). Figure 21. Uranium mine in Kakadu National
Park, Australia.

Figure 22. Damaged building near the site of the Chernobyl disaster.

Recently, nuclear power appeared to be making a comeback as

society looked for alternatives to fossil fuels. But the 2011 disaster at
the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant in Japan may have
resulted in a new fear of nuclear power. The cause of the disaster
was a 9.0 magnitude earthquake and subsequent tsunami, which
compromised the plant. Although a total meltdown was averted, the
plant experienced multiple partial meltdowns, core breaches,
radiation releases, and cooling failures. The plant is scheduled for a
complete cold shutdown before the end of 2011.

KQED: Nuclear Energy Use. Nuclear power is a controversial

subject in California and most other places. Nuclear power has no
pollutants including carbon emissions, but power plants are not
always safe and the long-term disposal of wastes is a problem that
has not yet been solved. The future of nuclear power is murky.

Renewable Energy Resources

Fossil fuels have the advantage of being cheap and transportable,

but they cause environmental damage and will eventually run out.
Renewable energy sources, by definition, will not run out, and most
do not cause much pollution. But renewable energy sources do have
a downside, too. Both the advantages and disadvantages of solar,
water, wind, biomass, and geothermal energy will be described in
this lesson.

Solar Power

The Sun is Earth’s main source of energy, making the development

of solar power a natural choice for an alternative energy source.
Solar Energy

Energy from the Sun comes from the lightest element, hydrogen,
fusing together to create the second lightest element, helium.
Nuclear fusion releases tremendous amounts of solar energy. The
energy travels to the Earth, mostly as visible light. The light carries
the energy through the empty space between the Sun and the Earth
as radiation.

Solar Power Use

Solar energy has been used

for power on a small scale for
hundreds of years, and plants
have used it for billions of year.
Unlike energy from fossil fuels,
which almost always come from
a central power plant or refinery,
solar power can be harnessed Figure 23. Solar panels supply power to the
International Space Station.
locally (figure 23). A set of solar
panels on a home’s rooftop can
be used to heat water for a
swimming pool or can provide electricity to the house.

Society’s use of solar power on a larger scale is just starting to

increase. Scientists and engineers have very active, ongoing
research into new ways to harness energy from the Sun more
efficiently. Because of the tremendous amount of incoming sunlight,
solar power is being developed in the United States in southeastern
California, Nevada, and Arizona.

Solar power plants turn sunlight into electricity using a large group
of mirrors to focus sunlight on one place, called a receiver (figure
24). A liquid, such as oil or water, flows through this receiver and is
heated to a high temperature by the focused sunlight. The heated
liquid transfers its heat to a nearby object that is at a lower
temperature through a process called conduction. The energy
conducted by the heated liquid is used to make electricity.

Figure 24. This solar power plant uses mirrors to focus sunlight on the tower in
the center. The sunlight heats a liquid inside the tower to a very high
temperature, producing energy to make electricity.

Here’s a video of how solar energy can be concentrated so that it

can be used for power.
Consequences of Solar Power Use

Solar energy has many

benefits. It is extremely
abundant, widespread, and will
never run out. But there are
problems with the widespread
use of solar power.

Sunlight must be Figure 25. This experimental car is one example

of the many uses that engineers have found for
present. Solar power is solar energy.
not useful in locations
that are often cloudy or
at night. However, storage technology is being developed.
The technology needed for solar power is still expensive.
An increase in interested customers will provide incentive
for companies to research and develop new technologies
and to figure out how to mass-produce existing
technologies (figure 25).
Solar panels require a lot of space. Fortunately, solar
panels can be placed on any rooftop to supply at least
some of the power required for a home or business.

Water Power

Water covers 70% of the planet’s surface, and water power

(hydroelectric power) is the most widely used form of renewable
energy in the world. Hydroelectric power from streams provides
almost one fifth of the world’s electricity.

Hydroelectric Power

Remember that potential energy is the energy of an object waiting to

fall. Water held behind a dam has a lot of potential energy. In a
hydroelectric plant, a dam across a riverbed holds a stream to create
a reservoir. Instead of flowing down its normal channel, the water is
allowed to flow into a large turbine. As the water moves, it has kinetic
energy, which makes the turbine spin. The turbine is connected to a
generator, which makes electricity (figure 26).
 Figure 26. A cross-section of a hydroelectric plant.

Most of the streams in the United States and elsewhere in the

developed world that are suitable for hydroelectric power have
already been dammed (figure 27). In California, about 14.5% of the
total electricity comes from hydropower. The state’s nearly 400
hydropower plants are mostly located in the eastern mountain
ranges where large streams descend down a steep grade.
 Figure 27. Hydroelectric dams like this one use the power of moving water to
create electricity.

Consequences of Water Power Use

The major benefit of

hydropower is that it generates
power without releasing any
pollution. Hydropower is also a
renewable resource since the
stream will keep on flowing.
However, there are a limited
number of suitable dam sites. Figure 28. Glen Canyon Dam in Arizona created
Lake Powell. The dam was controversial because
Hydropower also has it flooded Glen Canyon, a beautiful desert canyon.
environmental problems. When
a large dam disrupts a river’s
flow, it changes the ecosystem upstream. As the land is flooded by
rising water, plants and animals are displaced or killed. Many
beautiful landscapes, villages, and archeological sites have been
drowned by the water in a reservoir (figure 28).

The dam and turbines also change the downstream environment

for fish and other living things. Dams slow the release of silt so that
downstream deltas retreat and seaside cities become dangerously
exposed to storms and rising sea levels.

Ocean Water Power

The energy of waves and tides can be used to produce water power.
Tidal power stations may need to close off a narrow bay or estuary.
Wave power applications have to be able to withstand coastal storms
and the corrosion of seawater. Because of the many problems with
them, tide and wave power plants are not very common.

KQED: Harnessing Power from the Sea. Although not yet widely
used, many believe tidal power has more potential than wind or solar
power for meeting alternative energy needs. Quest radio looks at
plans for harnessing power from the sea by San Francisco and along
the northern California coast.

Wind Power

Wind power is the fastest growing renewable energy source in the

world. Windmills are now seen in many locations, either individually
or, more commonly, in large fields. Wind Powering America follows
the development of wind power in the United States over the past
several years.

Wind Energy

Energy from the sun also creates wind, which can be used as wind
power. The sun heats different locations on Earth by different
amounts. Air that becomes warm rises and then sucks cooler air into
that spot. The movement of air from one spot to another along the
ground creates wind. Since wind is moving, it has kinetic energy.

Wind Power Use

Wind is the source of energy

for wind power. Wind has been
used for power for centuries.
For example, windmills were
used to grind grain and pump
water. Sailing ships traveled by
wind power long before ships
were powered by fossil fuels.
Wind can be used to generate Figure 29. Wind turbines like the ones shown here
turn wind into electricity without creating
electricity, as the moving air pollution.

spins a turbine to create

electricity (figure 29). This
animation shows how wind power works.
Consequences of Wind Power

Wind power has many advantages. It does not burn, so it does not
release pollution or carbon dioxide. Also, wind is plentiful in many
places. Wind, however, does not blow all of the time, even though
power is needed all of the time. Just as with solar power, engineers
are working on technologies that can store wind power for later use.

Windmills are expensive and wear out quickly. A lot of windmills

are needed to power a region, so nearby residents may complain
about the loss of a nice view if a wind farm is built. Coastlines
typically receive a lot of wind, but wind farms built near beaches may
cause unhappiness for local residents and tourists.

The Cape Wind Project off of Cape Cod has been approved but is
generating much controversy. Opponents are in favor of green power
but not at that location. Proponents say that clean energy is needed
and the project would supply 75% of the electricity needed for Cape
Cod and nearby islands (figure 30).
 Figure 30. Cape Wind off of Cape Cod in Massachusetts receives a great deal of
wind (red color) but is also popular with tourists for its beauty.

California was an early adopter of wind power. Windmills are found

in mountain passes where the cooler Pacific Ocean air is sucked
through on its way to warmer inland valleys. Large fields of windmills
can be seen at Altamont pass in the eastern San Francisco Bay
Area, San Gorgonio Pass east of Los Angeles, and Tehachapi Pass
at the southern end of the San Joaquin Valley.

Geothermal Power

Geothermal energy comes from heat deep below the surface of the
Earth. Nothing must be done to the geothermal energy. It is a
resource that can be used without processing.

Geothermal Energy

The heat that is used for geothermal power may come to the surface
naturally as hot springs or geysers, like The Geysers in northern
California. Where water does not naturally come to the surface,
engineers may pump cool water into the ground. The water is heated
by the hot rock and then pumped back to the surface for use. The
hot water or steam from a geothermal well spins a turbine to make
electricity.

Geothermal energy is clean and safe. The energy source is

renewable since hot rock is
found everywhere in the Earth,
although in many parts of the
world the hot rock is not close
enough to the surface for
building geothermal power
plants. In some areas, Figure 31. A geothermal energy plant in Iceland.
geothermal power is common Iceland gets about one fourth of its electricity
from geothermal sources.
(figure 31).

In the United States, California is a leader in producing geothermal

energy. The largest geothermal power plant in the state is in the
Geysers Geothermal Resource Area in Napa and Sonoma Counties,
north of San Francisco. The source of heat is thought to be a large
magma chamber lying beneath the area.

KQED: Geothermal Heats Up. Where Earth’s internal heat gets

close to the surface, geothermal power is a clean source of energy.
In California, The Geysers supplies energy for many nearby homes
and businesses.

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Biomass

Biomass is the material that

comes from plants and animals
that were recently living.
Biomass can be burned directly,
such as setting fire to wood. For
as long as humans have had
fire, people have used biomass
for heating and cooking. People
can also process biomass to Figure 32. Biofuels, such as ethanol, are added to
gasoline to cut down the amount of fossil fuels
make fuel, called biofuel. that are used.

Biofuel can be created from

crops, such as corn or algae,
and processed for use in a car (figure 32). The advantage to biofuels
is that they burn more cleanly than fossil fuels. As a result, they
create less pollution and less carbon dioxide. Critics say, however,
that the amount of energy, fertilizer, and land needed to produce the
crops used make biofuels only a slightly better alternative than fossil
fuels.

KQED: How Green is Biomass Energy? Organic material,

like almond shells, can be made into electricity. Biomass
 power is a great use of wastes and is more reliable than
other renewable energy sources, but harvesting biomass
energy uses energy and biomass plants produce pollutants
including greenhouse gases.
KQED: From Waste to Watts: Biofuel Bonanza. Cow
manure can have a second life as a source of methane gas,
which can be converted to electricity. Not only that food
scraps can also be converted into green energy.
KQED: Biofuels: Beyond Ethanol. To generate biomass
energy, break down the cell walls of plants to release the
sugars and then ferment those sugars to create fuel. Corn
is a very inefficient source; scientists are looking for much
better sources of biomass energy.

Algae Power. Many people think that the best source of

biomass energy for the future is algae. Compared to corn,
algae is not a food crop, it can grow in many places, its
much easier to convert to a usable fuel and its carbon
neutral.
Power Up with Leftovers. Food that is tossed out produces
methane, a potent greenhouse gas. But that methane from
leftovers can be harnessed and used as fuel. Sounds like a
win-win situation.

Lesson Summary

According to the law of conservation of energy, energy is

neither created nor destroyed.
Renewable resources can be replaced at the rate they are
being used.
Non-renewable resources are available in limited amounts
or are being used faster than they can be replaced.
Coal, oil, and natural gas are fossil fuels formed from the
remains of living organisms.
Coal is the largest source of energy for producing electricity.
Oil and natural gas are important energy sources for
vehicles and electricity generation.
Nuclear energy is produced by splitting atoms. It also
produces radioactive wastes that are very dangerous for
many years.
Solar energy, water power, wind power, geothermal energy,
and biomass energy are renewable energy sources.

Solar energy can be used either by passively storing and

holding the Sun’s heat, converting it to electricity, or
concentrating it.
There are many ways to use the energy of moving water,
including hydroelectric dams and tidal and wave plants.
Wind power uses the energy of moving air to turn turbines.
Geothermal energy uses heat from deep within the earth to
heat homes or produce steam that turns turbines.
Biomass energy uses renewable materials such as wood or
grains to produce energy.
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Located at: http://www.ck12.org/book/CK-12-Earth-
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Attribution-NonCommercial
 Reading: Energy Consumption on Earth

What resources are in those electronics?

Everyone may realize that we use resources like trees, copper,

water, and gemstones, but how many of us realize the
tremendous variety of elements we need to make a single
electronic device? A tablet computer with a touch screen contains
many common chemical elements and a variety of rare earth
elements.

Common Materials We Use from the Earth

People depend on natural resources for just about everything that
keeps us fed and sheltered, as well as for the things that keep us
entertained. Every person in the United States uses about 20,000
kilograms (40,000 pounds) of minerals every year for a wide range of
products, such as cell phones, TVs, jewelry, and cars. Table 1 shows
some common objects, the materials they are made from, and
whether they are renewable or non-renewable.
Table 1. Common Objects We Use from the Earth
Renewable
Common Object Natural Resources Uses or Non-
Renewable?
15 different metals, such as iron, lead, and Non-
Cars
chromium to make the body. renewable

Precious metals like gold, silver,

and platinum.
Non-
Jewelry
renewable
Gems like diamonds, rubies,
emeralds, turquoise.

Electronic Appliances
Many different metals, like copper, mercury, Non-
(TV’s, computers, DVD
gold. renewable
players, cell phones, etc.)

Soil to grow fibers such as

cotton.

Clothing Sunlight for the plants to grow. Renewable

Animals for fur and leather.

Table 1. Common Objects We Use from the Earth

Soil to grow plants.

Food Renewable
Wildlife and agricultural
animals.

Water from streams or springs.

Non-
renewable
Bottled Water
Petroleum products to make and
Renewable
plastic bottles.

Non-
Gasoline Petroleum drilled from wells.
renewable
Non-
Coal, natural gas, solar power, wind power, renewable
Household Electricity
hydroelectric power. and
Renewable

Trees

Paper Renewable
Sunlight Soil
Table 1. Common Objects We Use from the Earth

Trees for timber.

Non-
Rocks and minerals for renewable
Houses
and
construction materials, for Renewable

example, granite, gravel, sand.

Summary

Many objects, such as a car, contain many types of

resources.
Resources may be renewable or non-renewable, and an
object may contain some of each.

Rare earth elements and other unusual materials are used

in some electronic devices.

PRACTICE

Use this resource to answer the questions that follow.

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 this version of the text. You can view it online here:
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1. What do we use neodymium for?

2. What are rare earth elements used for in general?

3. Where do we get our REEs? Why are there signs that this can’t
continue?

4. Can we develop alternatives?

5. What is the problem with the deposit of REEs that is offshore of

Japan?

6. What is the danger for the future?

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All rights reserved content

Why We Need Rare Earth Elements. Authored by: DNews.

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 Reading: Use and Conservation of Resources

Introduction

Natural resources may be living or non-living. Their value may be

tangible, such as the price of an ounce of gold, or intangible, like the
psychological value of being able to visit pristine natural areas.
Some natural resources must be used and used wisely, but some
must be preserved to maintain their value.

Mystery in the Forest

Like all forests, the Monongahela National Forest of West Virginia is

an important natural resource. A forest is a resource in ways that are
obvious and ways that are not so obvious. This forest is used for
many things including:

Recreation, such as hiking, camping, and picnicking.

Habitat for many organisms, including nine endangered
species and 50 species of rare plants.
Streams [207 kilometers (129 miles)] for fishing, particularly
trout fishing.
 Wildlife management areas for hunting deer, squirrels,
turkeys, rabbits, mink, and foxes.

Mineral and energy resources such as coal, gas, limestone,

and gravel.

Hardwood trees used for timber, which brings in over $7

million a year.

But Monongahela National

Forest has a problem; for
several years, trees in the forest
have not grown well. What are
some reasons that trees might
not grow well (figure 1)?

Scientists have been working Figure 1. The Monongahela National Forest in

West Virginia contains many natural resources.
for several years to solve the Notice the air pollution that obscures the view.

mystery. The scientists

suspected that the soil is
missing nutrients that the trees and other plants need to grow. Can
you design an experiment that scientists could do to test this
hypothesis? (There is a clue in the caption for figure 1.)

The scientists sampled the soil and tested it for important

nutrients. They discovered that the soil has very low levels of plant
nutrients, such as magnesium and calcium. Can you develop a
hypothesis for why these nutrients might be missing from the soil?
The scientists thought that air pollution from nearby factories had
released chemicals into the environment that removed the nutrients
from the soil and carried them away. How would the scientists test
that hypothesis?

Scientists in the Monongahela National Forest are still researching

the missing plant nutrients. They are trying to learn what they can do
to help keep the nutrients in the soil so the trees will grow better.

Like the Monongahela

National Forest, people use
parts of the Earth for many
reasons, such as food, water,
building materials, timber,
recreation, and energy (figure
2). As you’ve already learned,
human activities can degrade
natural resources, just like air Figure 2. We use Earth’s resources for many
purposes, including recreation and natural beauty.
pollution from factories is
speeding up the loss of soil
nutrients in West Virginia.

For natural resources to continue to be available, they need to be

protected. We also need to conserve natural resources so they will
last longer. When we practice conservation, we make sure resources
will be available in the future, both for ourselves and for other
organisms.

Renewable versus Non-Renewable Resources

In the Earth’s Energy chapter, energy resources were classified as

renewable or non-renewable. How do you think other natural
resources, such as minerals and forests, are classified? Like energy
resources, all natural resources are divided into renewable and non-
renewable. Can you define these terms?

Renewable resources can be

regenerated or grown so rapidly
that they reappear at the same
rate or even faster as they are
being used (figure 3). Are
forests a renewable resource?
Why are they a renewable
resource? Why aren’t they a Figure 3. An old growth forest, like this tropical
rainforest in Malaysia, is a complex ecosystem
renewable resource? Although with many types of plants and animals. When a
new trees can grow to replace forest is destroyed by logging, it takes hundreds or
thousands of years for the forest to regenerate.
logged trees, their growth is
often too slow for the trees to
be of use for a long time. Loggers just move to a new area rather
than wait for the forest to regenerate.
 Other examples of resources that are renewable but not entirely
renewable include soil, wildlife, and water. How do these resources
fit in both categories? Soil has a very slow renewal rate, so they are
often non-renewable. Fish and other wildlife can reproduce and so
are a renewable resource, yet it is possible to take so many of these
creatures that the populations are not able to rebound, making them
a non-renewable resource (figure 4). Organisms can be over-hunted,
over-fished or have populations decline because of habitat loss so
that their numbers go so low they are no longer a renewable
resource.

Figure 4. Chimpanzees are eaten and taken as pets so their numbers in the wild
are declining.

Non-renewable resources are resources that cannot be

regenerated on a useful timescale. Fossil fuels and most minerals
are non-renewable resources. We can (and eventually will) run out of
these resources.

Resource Availability

From the table on the previous page you can see that many of the
resources we depend on are non-renewable. Non-renewable
resources vary in their availability; some are very abundant and
others are rare. Materials, such as gravel or sand are technically
non-renewable but are so abundant that running out is no issue.
Some resources are truly limited in quantity: When they are gone,
they are gone and something must be found that will replace them.
There are even resources, such as diamonds and rubies, that are
valuable in part because they are so rare.

Besides abundance, resource

value is determined by how
easy it is to locate and extract.
If a resource is difficult to use, it
will not be used until the price
for that resource becomes so
great that it is worth paying for.
Figure 5. Tampa Bay, Florida, has one of the few
For example, the oceans are desalination plants in the United States.
filled with an abundant supply of
water, but desalination is costly,
so it is used only where water is really limited (figure 5). As the cost
of desalination plants comes down, more will likely be built.

Politics is also part of determining resource availability and cost.

Nations that have a desired resource in abundance will often export
that resource to other countries, while countries that need that
resource must import it from one of the countries that produces it.
This situation is a potential source of economic and political trouble.

Of course the greatest example of this is oil. Only 12 countries

have approximately 80% of all of the world’s oil (Figure 6). However,
the biggest users of oil, the United States, China, and Japan, are all
located outside this oil-rich region. This leads to a situation in which
the availability and price of the oil is determined largely by one set of
countries that have their own interests to look out for. The result has
sometimes been war, which may have been attributed to all sorts of
reasons, but at the bottom, the reason is oil.
 Figure 6. The nations in blue are the 12 biggest producers of oil; they are
Algeria, Angola, Ecuador, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Libya, Nigeria, Qatar, Saudi
Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, and Venezuela.

The topic of overconsumption

was touched on in the
Ecosystems and Human
Populations chapter. Many
people in developed countries,
such as the United States and
most of Europe, use many more
natural resources than people
in many other countries. We Figure 7. Pollution from discarded materials
degrades the environment and reduces the
have many luxury and availability of natural resources.

recreational items, and it is

often cheaper for us to throw
something away than to fix it or just hang on to it for a while longer.
This consumerism leads to greater resource use, but it also leads to
more waste. Pollution from discarded materials degrades the land,
air, and water (figure 7).

Natural resource use is generally lower in developing countries

because people cannot afford many products. Some of these nations
export natural resources to the developed world since their deposits
may be richer and the cost of labor lower. Environmental regulations
are often more lax, further lowering the cost of resource extraction.

Besides obtaining resources, we also dump waste on these

nations. Many of our electronic wastes, which we think are being
recycled, end up in developing countries where they pose a problem
for human health and the environment. Electronic wastes are sent to
developing nations where people pick through them for valuable
materials. These wastes contain many toxic compounds and are
hazardous.

Conserving Natural Resources

So that people in developed nations maintain a good lifestyle and

people in developing nations have the ability to improve their
lifestyles, natural resources must be conserved and protected (figure
8). People are researching ways to find renewable alternatives to
non-renewable resources. Here is a checklist of ways to conserve
resources:
 Buy less stuff (use
items as long as you
can, and ask yourself if
you really need
something new).

Reduce excess
packaging (drink tap
water instead of water
Figure 8. Recycling can help conserve natural
from plastic bottles). resources.

Recycle materials
such as metal cans,
old cell phones, and plastic bottles.

Purchase products made from recycled materials.

Reduce pollution so that resources are maintained.

Prevent soil erosion.

Plant new trees to replace those that are cut down.

Drive cars less, take public transportation, bicycle, or walk.

Conserve energy at home (turn out lights when they are not
needed).

National Geographic videos found on this site in Environment

Videos, Environmental Threats, Deforestation.

“Sustainable Logging”

Or Environment Videos, Habitats, Rainforest.

 “Mamirarua” is a sustainable development reserve that is
protecting the Amazon

“Vancouver Rain Forest” explores an alliance between

conservationists and logging companies

Or find ways to go green from National Geographic videos,

Environment Videos, Going Green.

The problem with plastic bags is discussed in this

Conservation in action, “Edward Norton: Bag the Bag”
Trying to mitigate problems caused by intensive logging in
Ecuador while helping the people who live there improve
their standards of living is in “Ecuador Conservation”

Lesson Summary

We use natural resources for many things. Natural

resources give us food, water, recreation, energy, building
materials, and luxury items.
Many resources vary in their availability throughout the
world. Some are rare, difficult to get, or in short supply.

Natural resources must be preserved and protected from

pollution and overuse.

Buying fewer new products and recycling will help to

conserve resources.

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20.1: Use and Conservation of Resources. Provided by:
CK-12. Located at: http://www.ck12.org/book/CK-12-Earth-
Science-For-High-School/section/20.1/. License: CC BY-
NC: Attribution-NonCommercial
 Self Check: Getting Energy from Resources

Check Your Understanding

Answer the question(s) below to see how well you understand the
topics covered in the previous section. This short quiz
does not count toward your grade in the class, and you can retake it
an unlimited number of times.

Use this quiz to check your understanding and decide whether to

(1) study the previous section further or (2) move on to the next
section.

An interactive or media element has been excluded from this

version of the text. You can view it online here:
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/geo/?p=2780

CC licensed content, Original

Authored by: Kimberly Schulte and Lumen Learning.

Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution
 Putting It Together: Geological Resources

Summary

In this section, we used almost all of the concepts we have learned

so far. While plate tectonics may not have been mentioned directly,
we know the role it plays in the formation of rock, minerals and
mineral resources. In this section, we focused on these items:

1. How mineral resources and fossil fuels are formed

2. How these resources are mined

3. Nonrenewable and renewable resources

4. What type and amount of resources we use in our everyday
life

Synthesis

Hopefully, having a better understanding of the material and

resources we use will give you a better understanding of current
issues including the importance of resource conservation, alternative
resource use, and what it means to live sustainably.

CC licensed content, Original

Authored by: Kimberly Schulte and Lumen Learning.
Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution