Boolean algebra

In mathematics and mathematical logic, Boolean algebra is the branch of algebra in which the
values of the variables are the truth values true and false, usually denoted 1 and 0 respectively.
The three operations in Boolean algebra that we will use most are complementation, the Boolean
sum, and The Boolean product. The complement of an element, denoted with a bar, is defined
by 0 = 1 and 1 = 0. The Boolean sum, denoted by + or by OR, has the following values:
1 + 1 = 1, 1 + 0 = 1, 0 + 1 = 1, 0 + 0 = 0.

The Boolean product, denoted by ・ or by AND, has the following values:

1 ・ 1 = 1, 1 ・ 0 = 0, 0 ・ 1 = 0, 0 ・ 0 = 0

Example:-

Find the value of 1 ・0 +(0 + 1)

Solution: Using the definitions of complementation, the Boolean sum, and the Boolean product. it
follows that
1 ・0 + (0 + 1)= 0 + 1
=0+0
= 0.

The complement, Boolean sum, and Boolean product correspond to the logical operators, ￢, ∨,
and ∧, respectively, where 0 corresponds to F (false) and 1 corresponds to T (true). Equalities in
Boolean algebra can be directly translated into equivalences of compound propositions.

Example:-

Translate the logical equivalence (T ∧T) ∨￢F ≡ T into an identity in Boolean algebra.
Solution:-
We obtain an identity in Boolean algebra when we translate each T into a 1, each F into a
0, each disjunction into a Boolean sum, each conjunction into a Boolean product, and each negation
into a complementation. We obtain

(1 ・1) + 0= 1.

Boolean Function
In Mathematics, Boolean function is function of the form f:B^k implies B ,where B={0,1} is a
Boolean domain and k is non-negative integer .
Example:-
How many different Boolean functions of degree n are there?
Solution:-
From the product rule for counting, it follows that there are 2n different n-tuples of 0s and
1s. Because a Boolean function is an assignment of 0 or 1 to each of these 2n different
N-tuples, the product rule shows that there are 22n different Boolean functions of degree n.

Duality:
The dual of a Boolean expression is obtained by interchanging Boolean sums and Boolean
products and interchanging 0s and 1s.

Application:-
 To explain the relationship between the two identities in each pair
Example:-

Q. Find the duals of x(y + 0) and 𝒙・1 + (𝒚+ z).

Solution:-

Interchanging ・signs and + signs and interchanging 0s and 1s in these expressions produces their
duals. The duals are x + (y ・1) and (𝑥 + 0)(𝑦z), respectively. The dual of a Boolean function F
represented by a Boolean expression is the function represented by the dual of this expression.
This dual function, denoted by F^d, does not depend on the particular Boolean expression used to
represent F.
 Representing Boolean Functions
We will now represent the Boolean function to its respective Boolean expression. This is done as
representing it as Boolean sum of Boolean products of the variables and their complements.
Smaller set of operators can be used to represent all the Boolean functions.
Application:-
 practical importance in circuit design

Quick Tip:-
 Every Boolean function can be represented using the three Boolean operators . + ¬
Example:- Representing the function in Boolean expression.
Q. Find Boolean expressions that represent the functions F(x, y, z) and G(x, y, z), which
are given in the table?

Solution:-

To represent F, an expression that has the value 1 when x = z = 1 and y = 0, and the value
0 otherwise, is needed to represent F. Such an expression can be formed by taking the
Boolean product of x, y, and z. This product, xyz, has the value 1 if and only if x = y = z =
1, which holds if and only if x = z = 1 and y = 0.
To represent G, we need an expression that equals 1 when x = y = 1 and z = 0, or x = z =
0 and y = 1. We can form an expression with these values by taking the Boolean sum of
two different Boolean products. The Boolean product xyz has the value 1 if and only if x
= y = 1 and z = 0. Similarly, the product xyz has the value 1 if and only if x = z = 0 and y
=1. The Boolean sum of these two products, xyz + xyz, represents G, because it has the
value 1 if and only if x = y = 1 and z = 0, or x = z = 0 and y = 1.
 Minterm:-
A minterm has the value 1 for one and only one combination of values of its
variables. More precisely, the minterm y1y2 . . . yn is 1 if and only if each yi is 1, and this
occurs if and only if xi = 1 when yi = xi and xi = 0 when yi = xi.
The sum of minterms that represents the function is called the sum-of-products expansion
or the disjunctive normal form of the Boolean function.

Example:-

Q. Find the sum-of-products expansion for the function F(x, y, z) = (x + y)¬z.

we can construct the sum-of-products expansion by determining the values of F for

all possible values of the variables x, y, and z. These values are found in Table (below).
The sum-of products expansion of F is the Boolean sum of three minterms corresponding
to the three rows of this table that give the value 1 for the function. This gives
F(x, y, z) = xy¬z + x¬y ¬z + ¬xy¬z.

Quick Tip:-
 Every Boolean function can be expressed as a Boolean sum of min-terms.
 Each min-term is the Boolean product of Boolean variables or their complements.
Application:-

 We can find a smaller set of functionally complete operators.

Functional completeness:-

We can eliminate all Boolean sums using the identity which is obtained by
complementing both sides of second De Morgan law and then applying the double
complementation law.

Similarly, we can eliminate all Boolean products using the identity which is
obtained by taking complements of both sides in the first De Morgan law and then applying the
double complementation law.

Quick Tip :-

 the set {+, ・} is not functionally complete

 Both of the sets { | } NAND and { ↓ } NOR are functionally complete.

 Logic Gates
Introduction:
An important use of Boolean algebra is in circuits. Input and output is in the form
of {0, 1}. Basic elements of circuits are called Gates. Each gate implements a Boolean operation.
Circuit whose output just depends upon the given input and not on the current state of the circuit
is called Combinational Circuit or Gating network. Such circuit has no memory capabilities.

Basic Gates:
There exists three basic gates.
OR Gate:-

AND Gate:-
 Inverter:-

Note:- Combinational circuits are constructed using these gates.

Combinations of Gates:
When combinations of circuits are formed, some gates may share inputs.
“Branching” is done to share inputs.
Example:-
Construct circuits that produce the following outputs: (a) (x + y)x, (b) x (y + z), and
(c) (x +y + z)(x y z).
Solution:-
Majority Voting:
Circuits for majority voting can also be designed.

(A circuit for majority voting)

Example:-
A committee of three individuals decides issues for an organization. Each
individual votes either yes or no for each proposal that arises. A proposal is passed if it receives at
least two yes votes. Design a circuit that determines whether a proposal passes.
Solution:-
Let x = 1 if the first individual votes yes, and x = 0 if this individual votes no; let
y = 1 if the second individual votes yes, and y = 0 if this individual votes no; let z = 1if the third
individual votes yes, and z = 0 if this individual votes no. Then a circuit must be designed that
produces the output 1 from the inputs x, y, and z when two or more of x, y, and z are 1. One
representation of the Boolean function that has these output values is xy + xz + yz.

Light Controlled by Switches:

Light fixtures can be controlled by more than one switch. For these purposes
circuits can be designed.
Example:-
Circuits need to be designed so that flipping any one of the switches for the
fixture turns the light on when it is off and turns the light off when it is on. Design circuits that
accomplish this when there are two switches and when there are three switches.
Solution:-
We will begin by designing the circuit that controls the light fixture when two
different switches are used. Let x = 1 when the first switch is closed and x = 0 when it is open, and
let y = 1 when the second switch is closed and y = 0 when it is open. Let F(x, y) = 1 when the light
is on and F(x, y) = 0 when it is off. We can arbitrarily decide that the light will be on when both
switches are closed, so that F(1, 1) = 1. This determines all the other values of F. the other switch
is also opened, the light goes on, so F(0, 0) = 1. Table 1 displays these values.
Circuit for a Light Controlled by Two Switches:-

Circuit for a Light Controlled by Three Switches:-

The function F can be represented by its sum-of-products expansion as F(x, y, z) = xyz + xyz +
xyz + xyz. The circuit is below:

Adders:
In electronics, an adder or summer is a digital logic circuit that performs
addition of numbers. In many computers and other kinds of processors, adders are used not
only in the arithmetic logic units, but also in other parts of the processor, where they are
used to calculate addresses, table indices, increment and decrement operators, and similar
operations.
 Half Adder:
The half adder adds two single binary digits A and B. It has two outputs, sum (S)
and carry (C). C = xy and that S = xy + xy = (x + y)(xy). Truth table and circuit are following:

Full Adder:
A full adder adds binary numbers and accounts for values carried in as well as out.
A one-bit full adder adds three one-bit numbers, often written as A, B, and Cin. The circuit
produces a two-bit output, output carry and sum typically represented by the signals Cout and S.
Truth table and circuit are following:

The two outputs of the full adder, the sum bit s and the carry Ci+1, are given by the sum-of-
products expansions xyCi + xy Ci + xyCi + x yCi and xyCi + xyCi + xyCi + xyCi , respectively.
However, instead of designing the full adder from scratch, we will use half adders to produce the
desired output.
Adding two three bit integers:-
Full and half adders can be used to add the two three-bit integers (x2x1x0)2 and
(y2y1y0)2 to produce the sum (s3s2s1s0)2. S3is the highest-order bit in the sum, is given by the
carry c2.