BASIC ELECTRONICS

ECE 1051

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Course Outcomes:
At the end of this course, student will be able to:
CO1: Describe the characteristics of various electronic devices.
CO2: Describe the working of rectifier, voltage regulator and R-C
coupled amplifier.
CO3: Explain the concept of Op-Amp and its basic applications using
suitable circuits.
CO4: Simplify Boolean expressions and implement simple digital
circuits using logic gates.
CO5: Describe the principles of analog and digital communication.

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CO1: Describe the characteristics of various electronic devices and
analyze simple circuit applications using them.

Diode

Zener Diode

Transistor

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CO2: Describe the working of rectifier, voltage regulator and R-C
coupled amplifier.

Rectifier Voltage regulator R-C coupled amplifier.

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CO3: Explain the concept of Op-Amp and its basic applications using
suitable circuits.

• Inverting and non-inverting amplifier

• Adder
• Subtractor
• Integrator
• Differentiator
• Comparator
• Square wave generator.

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CO4: Simplify Boolean expressions and implement simple digital
circuits using logic gates.

• Number systems
• Boolean algebraic
• Logic gates
• Implementation of Boolean expressions
• Simplification of Boolean expressions
• Flip flop

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CO5: Describe the principles of analog and digital communication.

• Modulation
• Analog Modulation
• Digital Modulation
• Data Communication and
• Communication Networks

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References

• Albert P Malvino, David J Bates – Electronic Principles,7th edition, TMH,2007

• Robert L. Boylestad, Louis Nashelsky- Electronic Devices & Circuit Theory, 11th Edition,
PHI, 2012
• Malvino and Leach- Digital Principles & applications, 7th edition, TMH, 2010.
• Morris Mano- Digital design, Prentice Hall of India, Third Edition.
• George Kennedy, Bernad Davis- Electronic Communication Systems, 4thedition, TMH,
2004.
• Dennis Roddy & John Coolen , "Electronic Communications" ,4th edition, Pearson
Education,2009
• Garcia and Widjaja, “Communication Networks”, McGraw Hill, 2006
• Raj Pandya, “Mobile and Personal Communication Services and Systems”, Wiley-IEEE
Press, 1999
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 Part – I : Analog Electronics

CHAPTER-1: DIODES
AND APPLICATONS
Reference:
Robert L. Boylestad, Louis Nashelsky, Electronic Devices & Circuit
Theory, 11th Edition, PHI, 2012

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 Learning outcomes

At the end of this module, students will be able to:

• Explain the operation of PN junction diode under different biasing condition.

• Draw the I-V characteristic of diode and differentiate between ideal and practical diodes

• Explain the concept of static and dynamic resistance of the diode.

• Explain various breakdown phenomenon observed in diodes.

• Describe the working of Zener diode and its I-V characteristic.

• Explain the operation of diode as capacitor

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 Classification of Materials Based on Energy Band Theory

• Classification of materials based on Electrical property

1. Conductor
2. Insulator
3. Semiconductor

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 Semiconductors

Common semiconducting materials Crystal structure of silicon

http://fourier.eng.hmc.edu/e84/lectu http://www.austincc.edu/HongXiao/overview/b
res/ch4/node1.html asic-semi/sld007.htm

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 Doping in Semiconductors
• Characteristics of semiconductor materials can be altered significantly
• By the addition of certain impurity atoms (doping)
• Into the relatively pure semiconductor material.
• Although only added to 1 part in 10 million,
• Can alter the band structure sufficiently
• To totally change the electrical properties of the material.

Schematic of a silicon crystal lattice doped with impurities to produce n-type

and p-type semiconductor material.
[http://www.pveducation.org/pvcdrom/pn-junction/dopingl].
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 Self test
• 1.Why silicon is preferred over germanium for semiconductor devices?

• 2.List different elemental and compound semiconductors.

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 P-N Junction Diode

Common practical diodes available in market

Anode Cathode
P N

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 P-N Junction Diode

Used in numerous applications

• Switch,
• Rectifier,
• Regulator,
• Voltage multiplier,
• Clipping,
• Clamping, etc.

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 P-N Junction Diode under biasing

(a) P-N junction in contact (b) formation of depletion region

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P-N Junction Diode under biasing condition

Diode under zero bias conditions

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 Forward bias

▪ Positive of battery connected to p-type (anode)

▪ Negative of battery connected to n-type (cathode)

Diode under forward biasing conditions

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 Reverse bias

▪ Positive of battery connected to n-type material (cathode)

▪ Negative of battery connected to p-type material (anode)

Diode under reverse biasing conditions

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 I-V characteristic of practical diode

Vth or Vγ is
0.6 ~ 0.7 Vfor Si
0.2 ~ 0.3 V for Ge

I-V characteristic of Practical diode

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 Self test

1. The arrow direction in the diode symbol indicates

a. Direction of electron flow.
b. Direction of hole flow (Direction of conventional current)
c. Opposite to the direction of hole flow
d. None of the above

2. When the diode is forward biased, it is equivalent to

a. An off switch b. An On switch
c. A high resistance d. None of the above

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 Silicon vs. Germanium

I-V characteristic of silicon and germanium practical diode

http://www.technologyuk.net/physics/electrical_principles/the_diode.shtml
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 Diode current equation

VD VT ▪ ID is diode current

I D = I o (e − 1) ▪ Io is reverse saturation current
= I o eVD VT − I o ▪ VD is voltage across diode
▪ VT is thermal voltage = T / 11600
▪ η is a constant = 1 for Ge and 2 for Si

▪ For positive values of VD (forward bias), I D  I o eVD VT

▪ For large negative values of VD (reverse bias), ID ≈ –Io

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 Effect of Temperature on the Reverse current
Reverse current doubles for every 10 degree rise in temperature.
(T2 −T1 ) / 10
I o 2 = I o1 2
I (mA)
–75oC

125oC 25oC

V (volts)

I (μA)

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 Effect of Temperature on the Reverse current

Q. A Silicon diode has a saturation current of 1pA at 200C. Determine (a) Diode bias voltage when diode
current is 3mA (b) Diode bias current when the temperature changes to 1000C, for the same bias voltage.

A.  VVD  VT =
T
=
293
= 25.25 mV

I D = I 0 e − 1
T

  11600 11600
 

 I 
VD = VT ln 1 + D  = 1.103V (T2 −T1 ) / 10  (10010− 20 ) 
I 02 = I 01 2 = 10  2
−12
 = 256 pA

 I0 
 

 1.103 
 −3 
I D = 256x10−12  e ( 2 x 32.15x10 −1)  = 7.21 mA
 
 

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 Diode resistances
▪ Static or DC resistance: AC resistance:
• ratio of diode voltage and V D VD VT
rd = rd = 
diode current
VD I D I D ID
RD =
ID

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 Diode Equivalent Circuit

▪ Used during circuit analysis

▪ Characteristic curve replaced by straight-line segments

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 Diode Equivalent Circuit

• As further approximation, we can neglect the slope of the characteristic i.e., RF = 0

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 Diode Equivalent Circuit

• As third approximation, even the cut-in voltage can be neglected (Ideal diode)

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 Ideal diode : I-V characteristics

I-V characteristic of Ideal diode and ideal models

[http://conceptselectronics.com/diodes/diode-equivalent-models/].

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 Self test

1. The break-point voltage of Si diode is

a. 0.2V b. 0.7V c. 0.8V d. 1.0V

2. Why would you use silicon diodes instead of germanium diodes?

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 Breakdown phenomenon in diodes

• Two breakdown mechanisms:

• Avalanche breakdown :
• Occurs in Lightly doped diodes,
• Occurs at high reverse Voltage.

• Zener Breakdown:
• Occurs in heavily doped diodes.
• at lower reverse bias voltages.

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 Avalanche Breakdown

Schematic of Avalanche phenomenon

http://shrdocs.com/presentations/12656/index.html
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 Zener Breakdown

Schematic of Zener phenomenon

http://shrdocs.com/presentations/12656/index.html
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 Zener Diode and its characteristics

P N
Anode Cathode

IZK or IZmin

IZM or IZMax

PZM or PZMax

PZM = VZ.IZM

I-V characteristics of Zener diode

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 Equivalent circuit

• Equivalent circuits of Zener diode

N N N N
– +
Vγ VZ
+ –
RR ≈  RZ
RF
P P P P

Forward Reverse Breakdown

• Note: RZ is usually very small, can be neglected

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Diode as capacitor- Varactor diode

A
C=
d
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 Self test

• 1. Explain the principle of PIN diode.

• 2.What is the difference between PN diode and Schottky diode.
• 3.Which type of diode exhibits negative resistance and why?
• 4. Which of the following is not an essential element of a dc power supply
• a. Rectifier
• b. Filter
• c. Voltage regulator
• d. Voltage amplifier

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 Self test

• 5. What is true about the breakdown voltage in a Zener diode?

• a. It decreases when current increases.
• b. It destroys the diode.
• c. It equals the current times the resistance.
• d. It is approximately constant

• 6. Which of these is the best description of a Zener diode?

• a. It is a rectifier diode.
• b. It is a constant voltage device.
• c. It is a constant current device.
• d. It works in the forward region.

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 Exercises

1. A germanium diode has reverse saturation current of 0.19μA. Assuming η=1,

find the current in the diode when it is forward biased with 0.3 V at
27oC. (Ans: 19.5mA)

2. The forward current in a Si diode is 15 mA at 27oC. If reverse saturation

current is 0.24nA, what is the forward bias voltage?
(Ans: 0.93V)

3. A germanium diode carries a current of 10mA when it is forward biased with

0.2V at 27oC. (a) Find reverse sat current. (b) Find the bias voltage required to
get a current of 100mA.
(Ans: 4.42μA, 0.259V)

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