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Chapter 16

EXHAUST SYSTEM
Objective: To learn exhaust system fundamentals.

Desired Learning Outcomes:

1. Recognize the various requirements of exhaust system.

2. Understand the various exhaust components.

Introduction
1.      After leaving the turbine, the exhaust gases pass into the exhaust system then
exit through a propelling nozzle, converting the energy in the gas stream into velocity
to produce thrust.  On turboprop and turbo shaft engines, the majority of the energy
in the gas stream has already been extracted by the turbine, so little thrust is
produced at the propelling nozzle.
2.      In the simple turbojet, the exhaust system consists of three main components:
(a) Exhaust unit.
(b)      Jet pipe.
(c)      Propelling nozzle.
3. Fig 16-1 shows the arrangement of these components for a simple turbojet
exhaust system.  For an engine fitted with afterburning, a variable area propelling
nozzle will be required in place of the fixed propelling nozzle.
4. Bypass engines may have the hot and cold streams combined using a mixer
unit, exhausted through separate coaxial nozzles, or through an integrated nozzle.
The first method is adopted on low bypass ratio engines, whilst the last two are
employed on high bypass engines (Figs 16-2, 16-3).

Fig 16-1

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Fig 16-1 Basic Exhaust System

Figs 16-2

Fig 16-2

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Fig 16-3

5. An exhaust system may also include one or more of the following:

(a) Thrust reversal.
(b)      Convergent-divergent nozzle.
(c)       Nozzle vectoring.
(d)      Noise suppression.

The Exhaust Unit

6.      The exhaust gases leave the turbine at very high speed, and then slow down
considerably on entering the larger cross-section of the jet pipe.  The exhaust unit,
owing to its conical shape, creates a divergent duct which decelerates the gas flow
thus reducing pressure losses.  Its other purpose is to protect the rear face of the
turbine disc from over heating.  The cone is held in place by struts attached to the
exhaust unit walls, which also act as straightener vanes to remove any swirl present
in the gas flow.
The Jet Pipe
7.      The jet pipe is used to convey the exhaust gases from the exhaust unit to the
propelling nozzle, its length being dependent to some extent on aircraft design.  Rear
fuselage, or podded, engines have short jet pipes that often form an integral part of
the engine.  Where the engines are mounted in the middle of the fuselage, the jet
pipe may be quite long.

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8.      Jet Pipe Construction. The jet pipe is manufactured from heat
resisting alloys to enable it to withstand high gas temperatures (up to 2200 K (1927º
C)), whilst at the same time being as light as possible.  The complete jet pipe is
usually of double wall construction with an annular space between the inner and
outer wall; the hot gases leaving the propelling nozzle induce a flow of air through
the annular passage which cools and insulates them.  Bypass air is often used for
cooling, but despite these precautions, the jet pipe still needs to be insulated from
the surrounding aircraft structure by means of an insulation “blanket”.
The Propelling Nozzle
9.      The simple propelling nozzle can be a fixed convergent or convergent-
divergent duct, through which the pressure energy in the jet pipe is converted into
kinetic energy.  This increases the velocity of the gases, producing thrust.  The
method of operation of the two types of nozzle is as follows:
(a)      The Fixed Convergent Nozzle. During normal operation, the nozzle
will almost always be choked, i.e. the jet velocity at the nozzle exit will have
reached a maximum flow rate dependent on the local speed of sound. Choking
occurs at a nozzle pressure ratio of 1.85: 1 (inside jet pipe: atmospheric
pressure). Most turbo jets operate at pressure ratios of about 3:1. The jet can
only be accelerated further in a convergent nozzle by increasing the local speed
of sound by raising the gas temperature, i.e. afterburning.  The exhaust gases
are usually well above atmospheric pressure on exit from the nozzle which is
undesirable because gas energy is exhausted from the nozzle without acting on
it - a phenomenon known as under-expansion.  The energy dissipated in this
manner is potential thrust that has been lost.
(b)      The Convergent-divergent Nozzle. By adding a divergent section
to the convergent nozzle, it is possible to accelerate the exhaust gases beyond
the speed of sound, thus expanding the gases down to atmospheric pressure,
avoiding under-expansion losses.  Such an arrangement is known as a
convergent-divergent or con-di nozzle. However, the con-di nozzle will only
operate correctly at its designed pressure ratio, which in turn is dependent upon
the exit area to throat area ratio.  Although offering a thrust advantage over
the simple convergent nozzle, operation outside the design speed will cause
severe over-expansion losses to occur in the divergent section, where the exit
pressure is lower than atmospheric pressure, thus causing shock waves to form
inside the divergent duct.  For any vehicle required to operate over a wide
range of speeds, a variable geometry con-di nozzle arrangement is therefore
desirable, but for a fixed velocity vehicle, e.g. ramjet or rocket powered missile,
a con-di nozzle of fixed area ratio is universally adopted.

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Fig 16-4 Convergent-divergent Nozzle

(c)      Variable Geometry Nozzles. The need for variable geometry (VG)
was briefly mentioned in the previous paragraph in connection with operation
over a range of speeds.  Variable geometry is required with purely convergent
nozzles for the following reasons:
(i)      Afterburner Operation. When afterburning is used the
expansion of  gases in the jet pipe will cause a rise in static pressure,
upsetting the turbine  pressure  ratio, thus causing a slowing down, and
possible surge, of the compressor.  To prevent this happening, a VG
nozzle is fitted which is opened as the afterburner is lit.  Reheat fuel flow
and nozzle position are then linked by a control system which maintains a
constant turbine pressure ratio.
(ii)      Noise Reduction.  If the final nozzle area is reduced, turbine
pressure ratio will be reduced and the LP compressor speed will fall.  On
high by-pass ratio engines, where much of the engine noise is associated
with the LP fan, this technique is used to achieve noise reduction on the
approach.
(iii)      Taxiing. On some aircraft, even with the engines at idle, the
thrust produced requires the pilot continually to apply the brakes to
reduce taxi speed.  To reduce brake wear, the nozzle can be opened to a
maximum value to reduce the thrust produced by the engine for taxiing.
(iv)      Surge Control. Varying the nozzle area allows the
compressor pressure ratio to be controlled to avoid surge, when
afterburning is used.
10. The VG Convergent Nozzle for Afterburning. Convergent nozzles for
engines fitted with afterburners operate as an adjustable diaphragm which allows full
area variation without leakage. The nozzle consists of 20 master flaps with cam roller
tracks and 20 sealing flaps.  The nozzle is positioned by the fore and aft movement
of an actuating sleeve operated by rams; 20 nozzle operating rollers are bracketed to
the inside of the actuating sleeve.  The rams may be actuated by engine oil, aircraft
fuel, or by compressor bleed air (Fig 16-5).

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Fig 16-5
A VG
Exhaust
Nozzle

11.     
The VG

Convergent- divergent Nozzle.

A VG con-di nozzle consists of
two variable nozzles, primary and
secondary. The construction and
operation of which is similar to that
described in above paragraph (Fig 16-
6).

Fig 16-6
VG Convergent-
divergent Nozzle

12. The nozzle can use a single actuating system where only the primary nozzle
is controlled, the secondary nozzle being altered by a fixed linkage system, or fully
independent control of both primary and secondary nozzles.  The latter system
requires a far more complex control system but can deliver good nozzle performance
over a wide range of operating conditions (Fig 16-7).

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13.    Thrust Vectoring Nozzle. With the VG nozzles previously described, the
thrust line has been maintained through the centre-line of the engine.  With thrust
vectoring, a further operation of the nozzle system may be included which will allow
the thrust line to be altered to a pitch angle of up to 20º from the centre-line in any
Figvectoring
direction.  Thrust 16-7 Con-di
will Nozzle Operation
enhance the performance of the aircraft, allowing
STOL operation, high AOA, and improved maneuverability (Fig 16-8).

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Fig 16-8
Thrust Vectoring
Nozzle

Questions for Study and Discussion

DLO 1

1. What type of conversion of energy takes place in the exhaust system?

DLO 2

1. What is the purpose of jet pipe?

2. What are the advantages of variable Con-Di nozzle over fixed Con-Di
nozzle?

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