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Chapter 4

POWER OUTPUT OF RECIPROCATING

ENGINES
Objective: To learn the importance of correct analysis of power out put of
reciprocating engines.

Desired Learning Outcomes:

1. Understand the various factors affecting power output.

2. Comprehend the effects of variation of fuel/air ratios?

Introduction

1. Power output of an aero-engine is a matter of great consideration and

concern to both the designers and the operators. Different types of power ratings
and various factors that affect power out put are discussed below.

Power Ratings

2. Take off Power Rating. The takeoff power rating of an engine is determined
by the maximum rpm and manifold pressure at which the airplane engine may be
operated during the process of taking off. The takeoff power may be given a time
limitation, such as a period of 1 to 5 min. The takeoff power of an engine may be
about 10 percent above the maximum continuous power-output allowance. It is
sometimes referred to as the over speed condition.

3. Standard Engine Rating. The Standard Engine Rating, also called as the
Rated Power, is the maximum horsepower output which can be obtained from an
engine when it is operated at specified rpm and manifold pressure conditions
established as safe for continuous operation. The maximum continuous power or
rated power is also called the "maximum except takeoff power” and is indicated by
the abbreviation METO. This is the power guaranteed by the manufacturer of the
engine under specified conditions.

4. Maximum power. It is the greatest power output that the engine can
develop at any time under any conditions.

Definitions

5. Following are the pertinent definitions of common usage:

6. Force. As per Newton’s Second Law

F=ma

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When one pound of mass is accelerated to 1 Ft/Sec the force applied is one
poundal.
7. Work. W=F x D

When a force of one poundal moves a body of one pound to a distance of 1 Ft, work
done is 1 Ft-lb.

8. Power. Power is the rate of doing work. A certain amount of work is

accomplished when a particular weight is moved through a given distance. It can
also be said work done in unit time.

Power = Work done/Unit Time

Power = F x D/t

9. Horse Power. James Watt, the inventor of steam engine, found that an
English Work Horse could work at the rate of 550 Ft-lb per second or 33000 Ft-lb per
minute. From this observation came the horse power which is unit of power in
English system of measurements.

10. When a 1000 pound weight is lifted 33 feet in one minute, 1 hp has been
expended. If it takes two minutes to lift the weight through the same distance, ½ hp
has been used. If is required four minute ¼ hp has been used.

1 hp=746 Watts

1k watt =1.34hp

11. Mean Effective Pressure. It is defined as the average pressure inside

the cylinder of an internal combustion engine based on some calculated or
measured horse power. It increases as manifold pressure increases. It can also be
said to be average pressure acting on the piston through out the power stroke. This
average pressure is obtained from the indicator diagram. The indicator diagram is
drawn on the indicator card by a mechanical device attached to the engine cylinder.
Modern engine manufacturers utilise much more sophisticated instrumentations with
computers to determine various engine measurements or parameters.

Fig 4-1 Cylinder Pressure

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12. For any particular engine operating at a given rpm and power out put there
will be a specific indicated mean effective pressure and a corresponding brake mean
effective pressure. To calculate mean effective pressure we must know the horse
power (indicated or brake).

I H P = PL A N K / 33,000

P= Pressure in Psi

A= Area of cross section of the cylinder in sq. inches

N= No. of power strokes in one minute

K= No. of cylinders

13. Now to calculate Mean effective pressure the formula is

M E P = 33,000 x Ihp / L A N

14. Another formula is

M E P = 792,000 x Bhp / rpm x Displacement

15. The formulae hold good for both Ihp and Bhp

16. Indicated Horse power. It is the total Horse power converted by the engine
from heat energy to mechanical energy.

17. Brake Horse power. It is the actual horse power delivered by an engine
to a propeller. It is that part of the total Horse power developed by the engine which
can be used to perform work.

18. Friction Horse power. It is that part of the total Horse power necessary to
overcome friction of moving parts of the engine and its accessories

FHP = IHP – BHP

19. Specific fuel consumption. Specific fuel consumption (SFC) is the term
used to indicate the economical operation of an engine. SFC is a ratio which shows
the amount of fuel consumed by an engine in Ib per hr for each horsepower
developed. For example, if an engine is producing 147 hp (109.62 kW) and burns
10.78 gal / h (40.807
L/h) of fuel, fuel weight being 6 lb / gal (10.719 kg/L), the specific fuel consumption
would be 0.44 Ib per h per hp (0.15 kg per h per kW). The SFC of an engine will be
best when operating at the best economy mixture.

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20. The specific fuel consumption for a pure jet engine is found by dividing the
weight of the fuel burned per hour by the thrust of the engine. In this case, the term
thrust specific fuel consumption (tsfc) may be used. For a turboprop engine, the
divisor in the formula is the equivalent shaft horsepower (eshp). This is the actual
shaft horsepower developed by the engine plus a value determined to be equivalent
to the thrust produced by the jet exhaust of the engine, In this case the term used
could be equivalent specific fuel consumption, or esfc, to indicate the fuel economy
of the engine.

21. Brake Specific Fuel Consumption. Bsfc is the number of pounds of fuel
burned per hour for each bhp produced. The bsfc for modern reciprocating engines
is usually between 0.40 and 0.50 Ib (0.18 and 0,226 kg) per hp per h. The bsfc
depends upon many elements of engine design and operation, volumetric efficiency,
rpm, BMEP, friction losses, etc. In general, we may say that bsfc is a direct indicator
of overall engine efficiency. The best values of bsfc for an engine are obtained at a
particular cruising setting, usually at a little over 70 percent of maximum power.
During takeoff the bsfc may increase to a value almost double what it is at the best
economy setting, because a richer mixture must be used for takeoff and because
engine efficiency decreases with the higher rpm needed for maximum power.

Factor Effecting Power Output

22. Piston Displacement. Greater the piston displacement greater will be the
maximum horse power that an engine can develop.

23. Compression Ratio. The compression ratio of any internal-combustion

engine is a factor which controls the maximum horsepower which can be developed
by the engine, other factors remaining the same. Within reasonable limits, the
maximum horsepower increases as the compression ratio increases. However, it has
been found by experience that, if the compression ratio of the internal-combustion
engine is much greater than 10:1, pre ignition (premature ignition of the fuel-air
charge) or detonation may occur and cause overheating, loss of power, and damage
to the engine. If the engine has a compression ratio as high as 10:1, it is necessary
that the fuel used for it have a high antiknock characteristic (high octane rating or
high performance number).

24. In addition to the detonation characteristics of the fuel used, the maximum
compression ratio of an aircraft engine is also limited by the design limitations of the
engine, the availability of high-octane fuel, and the degree of supercharging. An
increase in the compression ratio of an engine may be accomplished by installing
"higher" pistons, by using longer connecting rods, or by installing a crankshaft with a
greater throw.
25. Increasing the compression ratio of an engine causes lower specific fuel
consumption and a greater thermal efficiency.

26. Volumetric efficiency. It is the ratio of weight of the gas in the cylinder at
end of induction stroke to that which would be there if there were no resistance or
inertia.

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27. Factors which tend to decrease volumetric efficiency are improper timing of
the valves, fuel-air manifolds having too small a diameter and many bends, the use
of air which has been raised to too high a temperature due to any reason, too high a
temperature in the combustion chamber, incomplete scavenging of the burned gases
during the exhaust stroke, and excessive speed. One or more of these factors may
exist at various times.

28. Basically, any condition which tends to slow or reduce the flow of air into the
engine will reduce volumetric efficiency. Improper timing of the valves affects
volumetric efficiency because the intake valve must be as wide open as possible
when the piston starts the intake stroke. The exhaust valve must be closed precisely
at the instant when exhaust gases stop flowing out of the combustion chamber.

29. At high engine rpm, the volumetric efficiency of the engine decreases
because of the friction produced in the air intake, carburettor, intake manifold, and
valve ports. The effect of the friction increases as the air velocity increases. When
the throttle is partially closed, volumetric efficiency decreases in accordance with the
degree of closing. A leak in the intake manifold would tend to increase volumetric
efficiency because more air would be entering the engine; however, it would also
cause a lean mixture which would be detrimental to engine operation. Maximum
volumetric efficiency is obtained when the throttle is wide open and the engine is
operating under a full load.

30. A naturally aspirated (un supercharged) engine always has a volumetric

efficiency of less than 100 percent. On the other hand, the supercharged engine
often is operated at a volumetric efficiency of more than 100 percent because the
supercharger compresses the air before it enters the cylinder. The volumetric
efficiency of a naturally aspirated engine is less than 100 percent for two principal
reasons:

(a) The bends, obstructions, and surface roughness inside the intake
system cause substantial resistance to the airflow, thus reducing air pressure
below atmospheric in the intake manifold.

(b) The throttle and the carburettor venturi provide restrictions across
which a pressure drop occurs.

31. It is of interest to note from the graph that volumetric efficiency decreases as
rpm increases above 1800. At 1800 rpm the manifold pressure can be as high as
29.2 in Hg (98.9 kPa) but as rpm increases, the maximum manifold pressure
decreases to 27.9. Volumetric efficiency (VE) decreases as rpm increases because
the velocity of the air or fuel-air mixture increases with a resultant increase in air
friction and gas-inertia effects through the manifold passages.

32. Maximum VE is always less than 100 percent for a naturally aspirated engine,
and at full power is likely to be about 75 percent. VE is greatly increased by valve
overlap, up to the point where valve overlap would allow exhaust pressure to act
against intake pressure or where there would be a reversal of exhaust flow back into
the cylinder.

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Fig 4-2 Bhp vs Intake MAP vs RPM

33. Mechanical Efficiency. The mechanical efficiency of an engine is

measured by the ratio of the shaft output or brake horsepower to the indicated
horsepower or power developed in the cylinders. For example, if the ratio of the bhp
to the ihp is 9:10, then the mechanical efficiency of the engine is 90 percent. In
determination of mechanical efficiency only the losses suffered by the energy that
has been delivered to the pistons is considered. The word efficiency may be defined
as the ratio of output to input.

34. Thermal Efficiency.

Thermal efficiency is a measure of the
heat losses suffered in converting the heat
energy of the fuel into mechanical work. In the
figure the heat dissipated by the cooling system
represents 25 percent, the heat carried away by
the exhaust gases represents 40 percent, the
mechanical work on the piston to overcome
friction and pumping losses represents 5
percent, and useful work at the propeller shaft
represents 30 percent of the heat energy of
fuel.

Fig 4-3 T E chart

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35. The thermal efficiency of an engine is the ratio of the heat developed into
useful work to the heat energy of the fuel. It may be based on either bhp or jhp and is
represented by a formula in this manner

Indicated thermal efficiency = _______ ihp x 33,000 __________________

wt of fuel burned per min x heat value (Btu) x 778

36. The formula for brake thermal efficiency is the same as that given above with
the word "brake" inserted in place of "indicated" in both sides of the equation.

37. If we wish to find the brake thermal efficiency of a particular engine, we must
first know the Bhp, fuel consumption in pound per minute, and the heat value of the
fuel in Btu (British thermal units). In this case, let us suppose that the engine
develops 104 bhp at 2600 rpm and burns 6.5 gallon per hour (gal/hr) (24.61 liters per
hour (L/h) of gasoline. The heat value of the fuel is 19,000 to 20,000 Btu (20,045,000
to 21,110,000 joules (J).

38. First we must convert gallons (liters) per hour to pounds (kilograms) per
minute. Since there are 60 min/h, we divide 6.5 by 60 to obtain 0.108 gal/min (0.41
L/min). Since each gallon of fuel weighs approximately 6 Ib (2.72 kg), we multiply
0.108 by 6 to obtain 0.648 Ib/min (0.29 kg/min). The formula then becomes:

bte=______104 x 33.000_____ =0.34

0.648 x 20,000 x 778

Hence the brake thermal efficiency is 34 percent.

39. To explain the formula, we must know only that the energy of 1 Btu is 778 ft-lb
(107,6 kg-m). 104 x 33,000 provides us with the total foot-pound output. The figures
in the denominator give us the total input energy of the fuel. The fraction then
represents the ratio of input to output.

40. In the foregoing problem, if the engine burns 100 gal (378.54 L) of gasoline,
only 34 gal (128.7 L) is converted to useful work. The remaining 66 percent of the
heat produced by the burning fuel in the engine cylinders is lost by being exhausted
through the exhaust manifold or through the cooling of the engine. This is an
excellent value for many modern aircraft engines running at full power. The use of
high compression with high-octane fuels, an engine may be made to produce as high
as 40 percent brake thermal efficiency. This is not normal, however, and is not
necessarily desirable for mechanical reasons.

41. Although a thermal efficiency of 34 percent may not appear high, it is

excellent when compared with other types of engines. For example, the old steam
locomotive had a thermal efficiency of not more than 5 percent. The thermal
efficiency of many diesel engines is 35 percent if run at an output of one-half to
three-fourth full power, but when the output is increased to full power, the thermal
efficiency of the diesel drops to less than one-half that of the usual carburettor type
engine. This is because of incomplete combustion of fuel when large amounts of
excess air is no longer present. Thermal efficiencies as high as 45 percent have
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been obtained under favourable conditions in low-speed stationary or marine en-

gines. The diesel engine has been used successfully in airplanes, but in its present
state of development it lacks many of the advantages of the carburettor-type aircraft
engine.

Other Variable Effecting Power Output

42. Carburettor Air Temperature. It is of considerable importance because it

affects the density. Excessively high carburettor air temperatures are not wanted. Air
expands when heated, and its density is reduced. Lowering the density of the air
reduces the mass, that is, it cuts down the weight of the fuel air charge in the engine
cylinder. This results in a loss of power because power depends upon the weight of
fuel-air mixture burned in the engine. Note, also, that since the weight of the air is
decreased while-the fuel weight remains essentially unchanged, the mixture is
enriched and power is decreased when carburettor gets excessively heated.

43. Another danger inherent in a high fuel-air temperature is detonation. If the air
temperature is, such that further compression in the cylinder raises the temperature
to the combustion level of the fuel, detonation will occur. As explained previously,
detonation causes excessive cylinder-head temperatures and may lead to piston
damage and engine failure.

44. Exhaust Gas Pressure. It has a decided effect on the performance of an

engine because any pressure above atmospheric at the exhaust port of a cylinder
will reduce volumetric efficiency. The design of the exhaust system is therefore one
of the principal items to be considered by both the engine manufacturer and the
manufacturer of the exhaust system. Exhaust-back-pressure effect begins at the
cylinder with the exhaust port. Both the size and shape of the opening and passages
will affect the pressure. From the exhaust port onward the exhaust stacks and
sound-reduction devices will produce varying amounts of back pressure depending
upon design.

45. Engineers have developed exhaust-augmenting systems to assist in reducing

exhaust back pressure and to utilize the ejected exhaust gases for the production of
additional thrust. These devices have proved effective for increasing engine
performance on the airplane. Such systems usually consist of one or more tubes into
which the exhaust stacks from the engine are directed. The engine exhaust passing
through the tubes through which ram air is also flowing results in a reduced pressure
against the exhaust and an increased thrust because the “jet" of exhaust gases is
directed toward the rear of the aircraft.

46. Effects of Fuel Air Ratio. There are two fuel-air ratio values which are of
particular interest to the operator of an engine. These are the best power mixture
and the best economy mixture. The actual fuel-air ratio in each case will also depend
upon engine rpm and manifold pressure.

47. Best Economy mixture. The best economy mixture is the fuel-air ratio
which gives the lowest value for bsfc. This is the setting which would normally be
used by a pilot in attempting to obtain maximum range for a certain amount of fuel.
The graph (fig 4-4) is based upon constant throttle position with the constant rpm.
The only variable is the fuel air ratio. With a very lean fuel-air ratio of about 0.055,
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the engine delivers 292 bhp (217.7 kW) with a fuel flow of 140 Ib/h (63.50 kg/h) and
the bsfc is about 0.48 Ib (.218 kg) per bhp per h. The best economy mixture occurs
when the fuel-air ratio is approximately 0.062. At this point the bhp is 324 and the
fuel flow is 152 lb/h (68.95 kg/h). The bsfc is then 0.469 Ib (0.213 kg per bhp per h.

Fig 4-4 Best Economy Miuxture and Best Power at Constant Throttle and Rpm

Fig 4-5 Best Power Mixture for Different Power Settings

48. Best Power
Mixture. As the strength of the fuel-air mixture is increased, a point is reached
where the engine power has reached a peak and will begin to fall off. This is the best

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power mixture, and it is shown on graph (fig 4-4) to be approximately 0.075. At this
point the bhp is 364 and the bsfc is 0.514 with a fuel flow of 187 Ib/h (84.82 kg/h).

49. The graph (fig 4-5) for best power mixture will vary for different power
settings. It will be observed that there is a very narrow range of fuel-air ratios for the
best power mixture. For example, the setting for 2900 rpm is 0.077, for 3000 rpm it is
0.082, and for 3150 rpm it is 0.091. Any other fuel-air ratios than those given will
result in a rapid falling off of power.

50. If an engine is operated at full power and at the best power mixture, as shown
in the upper curve of the graph, It is likely that the cylinder-head temperature will
become excessive and detonation will result. For this reason, at full power settings,
the mixture will be enriched beyond the best power mixture. The extra fuel will not
burn but will vaporize and absorb some of the heat developed, in the combustion
chamber.

Questions for Study and Discussion

DLO 1

1. Why is it important to calculate specific fuel consumption?

2. How does compression ratio affect power out put?

DLO 2

1. How does best economy mixture vary with fuel flow?

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