Thermodynamics

Engineering Thermodynamics
 Reading Material
• Recommended Reading List
o Yunus A.Cengel, John M. Cimbala and Robert H. Turner:

“Fundamentals of Thermal-Fluid Science”, 4th Edition (SI units),

McGraw-Hill Higher Education, 2012: ISBN-13: 978-0071325110

o Yunus A.Cengel, M.A. Boles:

“Thermodynamics: An Engineering Approach”, 7th Edition (SI Units)

McGraw-Hill Higher Education, 2010: ISBN-13: 978-0071311113

Engineering Thermodynamics

 Thermodynamics - The study of energy

transformations and the relationships
among the physical properties of
substances which are affected by those
transformations.
What You Will Study? – Just a
Brief Overview
Thermodynamics
– Basic Concepts of Thermodynamics
– Thermal Expansion
– Temperature and Heat
– Boyles’ Law
– The Concept of Energy Transfer – Heat, Work & Mass
– Properties of Pure Substances
– The First and Second Law of Thermodynamics
– Power and Refrigeration Cycles
– Heat Conduction
Thermal Expansion - Definition
 The dimensional changes exhibited by
solids, liquids, and gases for changes in
temperature while pressure is held
constant.
 The bit about constant pressure is
especially important when talking about
gases!
Thermal Expansion
 We know that the average kinetic
energy of atoms increases with high
temperature.
– For gases this means that in general:
The pressure increases as the temperature rises.

 What about solids?

– The solid’s atoms are not free to move like in a gas.
– But they can vibrate.
 Thermal Expansion of Solids
• Consider a rod that has a length l.
• Now heat the rod.
– The atoms begin to vibrate more since their KE
increases.
– Since they are
bound to a fixed
position, they
simply vibrate
with a larger
amplitude.
Thermal Expansion of Solids,
Cont’d
• The result is that the rod gets longer.
• The final length of the rod depends on:
– The length of the rod l;
– The change in temperature, T; and
– The substance.
 Thermal Expansion of Solids,
Cont’d
• We can write this mathematically as

l   lT
– l is the change in the rod’s length,
–  is the coefficient of linear expansion and has
units of /°C, (change per degree centigrade)
– l is the rod’s initial length (before the temperature
change), and
–  is the change in temperature.
 Example
The center span of a steel bridge is 1,600 meters long
on a winter’s day when the temperature is
-10°C. How much longer is the span on a summer’s
day when the temperature is 35°C?

  12106 / C
T1  10C
T2  35C
 Example Solution
  12106 / C
ANSWER: T1  10C
The problem gives us: T2  35C

The change in temperature is:

T  T2  T1  35C   10C  45C
The change in length is
l   lT

 12106 / C  1600 m   45C 
 0.864 m.
Example Solution – Discussion
DISCUSSION:
This is a change of 15.55˚C = = 23.88˚C = 43.33˚C

almost 1 metre or 3 ft.

Engineers compensate
for this by providing
expansion joints ( a joint
that makes allowance
for thermal expansion of
the parts joined without
distortion.)
, as shown.
 Thermal Expansion of Solids –
Cont’d
• A bimetallic strip is commonly used in devices that
need to monitor temperature.
– Two dissimilar metals are
bonded together.
• They have different
coefficients of thermal
expansion.
– One metal expands more
with a given temperature
change than the other.
– The strip bends.
Thermal Expansion of Solids –
Cont’d
• An analog thermostat is a common
example of a bimetallic strip.
• Pop up toasters use this principle.
• Older electric hot pots.

• An important aspect of linear expansion – do holes

get bigger or smaller when heated?
Video: conceptual physics Ball & Ring expansion
 Thermal Expansion of Liquids
• We have seen liquids also undergo thermal
expansion with a temperature increase. i.e. the
thermometer.
– We typically deal with the volume expansion.
• Consider water as a “special” example and consider
what happens when it cools down.
– The density of water increases with a decrease in
temperature from 100°C to about +4°C. This is because
the volume is decreasing. It behaves just like any other
substance.
– Below 4°C down to 0°C and into minus temperatures, the
density of water begins to decrease with decreasing
temperature.
 Thermal Expansion of Liquids,
cont’d
• Water is most dense at 4°C.
• Very few substances exhibit this behaviour.
• Without this change in density the world
would be very a very different place.
• Ice would sink!
• Sea level changes with temperature (and pressure)
• The danger from global warming comes from the
change in sea level that will occur with just a few
degrees of temperature rise.
• The sea absorbs 1000 times more heat than the
atmosphere and holds over 80% of the heat from
global warming
 Thermal Expansion of Liquids,
Example
• It is widely acknowledged that only a 30cm rise in sea
levels will have a huge impact on the world’s population.
At what depth of sea would this rise occur for a 2°C
increase in sea temperature? (α = 60 x 10-6 /°C)
• Assume that the sea rise can be treated as a simple
case of linear thermal expansion.
• Comment on this assumption.
 Thermal Expansion of Liquids,
Example cont’d
ANSWER:
Take the coefficient of thermal expansion for water at 15°C to be
α = 60 x 10-6 /°C
ΔL = 0.3m
ΔT = 2 °C

ΔL = α x L x ΔT
ΔL = 60 x 10-6 x L x 2
L = 0.3 / (60 x 10-6 x 2)
L = 2500m

 This means that at depths of more than 2.5km, there will be a rise of 30cm
for just a couple of degrees rise in temperature.
 In reality, the expansion is not linear. The volume increases, but the
expansion is all in one direction, similar to a thermometer. The rise in sea
levels is likely to be worse than this simple example.
 But how much heat is required to raise the oceans’ temperature by 2°C?
 Thermal Expansion of Gases
• Gases also expand with an increase in temperature.
• For a given (constant) pressure, the volume of a gas
is proportional to its temperature:
– This means that if you heat a sealed balloon, the
volume will increase.

V T
(Charle’s law)

• P = constant
• We assume that the pressure in the balloon is
constant throughout the heating process.
• It is (almost) constant pressure since the balloon is
capable of expanding.
 Thermal Expansion of Gases,
cont’d
• What about the expansion of gases?
• From what you have seen on the previous slides, can you explain
how a hot air balloon works?
155.22 ˚C

 The air trapped in the balloon is heated

using an open flame
 The hot gas expands in the balloon
 Some gas will escape at the bottom due
to the expansion
 The density of the gas in the balloon
decreases
 The balloon lifts in the cooler, denser air
 Because the bottom is open to
atmosphere the pressure inside and
16.83 ˚C
outside is the same but the density is
different
Thermal image of a hot air balloon
 Thermal Expansion of Gases,
cont’d
• Instead of a balloon, consider a gas in a sealed metal
container of fixed volume, e.g., an empty can with a
sealed lid.
• The pressure and temperature are related through:
p T
– V = constant
– Heating the can increases the pressure.
• Get the can hot enough, it will explode due to the
pressure increase.
• This is why it is dangerous to leave aerosol cans in
direct sunlight or disposing of them on a fire.
• DO NOT try this at home.
Video: Microwaving Roll On Deodorant
Thermal Expansion of Gases,
cont’d
• What if we let the pressure, volume and temperature
change?
• These three quantities are related through the ideal
gas law:

pV  T
– This is the general statement from which the
previous cases are special examples.
– We will cover perfect gases in more detail soon.
 Summarizing – Heat and
Temperature
• We have seen that transferring heat to a substance
causes changes to occur
• We have seen that solids increase in temperature and
there are dimensional changes
• We have seen that the temperature of liquids also
increase due to heat transfer and that their volumes
increase
• We have seen that changes in gases are more varied
because the temperature, pressure and volume may all
change
Engineering Thermodynamics

 Applied to diverse areas:

 Stationary and Mobile power producing units
 Refrigeration and air-conditioning process
 Fluid expanders (Turbines) and compressors (Pumps)
 Jet Engines and Rockets
 Chemical processing in oil refineries
 Combustion of hydrocarbon fuels
 Solar Energy units (Solar Thermal systems) For generation of
powers not photovoltaics
 Geothermal Energy utilization
 Wind Energy
 Tidal power
As an Example

 Lets consider a typical problem that an

engineer would need to use
thermodynamics in order to solve
Design a more efficient wood burning fire
𝑇𝐿
place. 𝜂 𝑡ℎ,𝑟𝑒𝑣 = 1 −
𝑇𝐻
= 0.8013

1500K
41.7kJ/s
H.E 𝑊𝑟𝑒𝑣,𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝜂𝑡ℎ,𝑟𝑒𝑣 ∗ 𝑄𝑖𝑛 = 𝐸𝑋𝐸𝑅𝐺𝑌 = 33.4𝑘𝑊 = 𝑊𝑟𝑒𝑣,𝑜𝑢𝑡

299K
 Conventional Fireplace
Most of the Energy is lost
$$$$$ exhausting gases

𝑚ሶ 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡

𝑞𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑞𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑚ሶ 𝑎𝑖𝑟
 A more efficient Fireplace
Steam flow rate we can use it for
useful work

Work
𝑚ሶ 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚 Turbine
Cold
𝑞𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 water
in
𝑞𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
Heat Exchanger
Fluid pump
𝑚ሶ 𝑎𝑖𝑟 Domestic hot
water
And/or Hot water
heating
• Preheat reactant (air)
• Generate work Electricity
• Heat domestic hot water/ hot-water
heating

Fuel Air Heat

Engineering Thermodynamics

 Will the previous idea works?

 As engineers, we are expected to be able to figure this out what “tools” do we
have thus far?
 Fluid mechanics; Pump in the air so design a pre-heat air system.
Determining the pressure drops in lines, size of the air blower.
 Heat transfer; For the design of all Heat Exchangers.
 Thermodynamics; For a preliminary design and efficiency considerations.
 What tool are we missing?
 Thermodynamics II; study of cycles. More detailed analysis of cycles,
specially steam cycle also called as Rankine cycle. Combustion process and
turbo machineries.
 Turbomachinery; to begin considering the design of the steam turbine and
pipe sizing.
 Gas Dynamics; depending upon the nature of flow you have with the super
heated steam; referred as compressible flow.
 Finally a detailed Thermofluid analysis, this will all the subject areas as we
talked about in this slide.
Engineering Thermodynamics
 Thermodynamics is more of the macroscopic approach for
analysis.
 Thermodynamics is not concerned with the detailed heat
transfer and flow process. Like most of text book they regard
Q as heat transfer not in details.
 We model the system as an ideal, so there are no losses, and
assign different efficiencies to account for losses.
 Thermodynamics would model the fireplace as; a) process
schematic and b) process diagram.
 Thermodynamics would model the fireplace as; a) process
schematic and b) process diagram.

b) PROCESS DIAGRAM
a) PROCESS SHEMATICS
QIN
2 3
T
Boiler

3MPa

Wout 3
Turbine
WIN 100KPa
Pump 2

1 4
1

S
4 Condenser
 From the Avionics Point of
View
In avionics applications, the Institute for Interconnecting and Packaging Electronic Circuits (IPC) suggests some limiting
cases for different thermal parameters, which should be maintained in commercial aircraft. Table 1 lists those worst-case
operating environments. However, actual thermal profile experienced by avionics systems
tend to go beyond these limits. As we can see from Figure 2, the temperature extremes are much lower than the range
specified. The temperature difference in cycles and the number of cycles are much higher than the limits set by IPC.

Table 1: IPC recommended worst case thermal

conditions for commercial aircraft
Temperature Cycle IPC 1992 Commercial
Environment Aircraft
Minimum Temperature -55oC
Maximum Temperature 95oC
T of Cycle 20oC + Power Dissipation
Dwell Time at Extremes 12 hours
Cycles per Year 365
Temperature Ramp Rate < 20oC/min
Required Life 20 years
Applications

Different heat pipe applications: electronic cooling (left-side), heat pipe heated bridge in Virginia, USA (right-side).

Heat pipe used in GEOS-B satellite (left-side), heat pipe heat exchanger (middle), a heat pipe solar receiver (right-side).
Some Application Related to
Avionics and Electronics
 Some Application Related to
Avionics and Electronics

Optical microscopy image of SAC305 solder ball after manufacturing (left), and
after 2257 thermal cycles between -55°C and +125°C (right). Differential
interference contrast filtering enhanced by increased contrast level reveals that
there are no visible grain boundaries before thermal cycling, while grains are
clearly visible after thermal cycling.
Some Application Related to
Avionics and Electronics
 Immersion cooling
A PBA can be fully submerged in a container of dielectric fluid. The need
for electrical isolation excludes water as coolant, which otherwise would
have been highly efficient considering heat removal capacity. As an
example, the power supply unit (PSU) for a radar array for the F-18
fighter is liquid-cooled in a flow-through cooling system design. The total
power dissipation of the PSU is 400 W, and the maximum temperature of
the device is 75°C at an inlet temperature of the cooling fluid of 15°C.
Some Application Related to
Avionics and Electronics
 Phase transformation solid-fluid
Due to the increased volumetric heat flow in electronics, continuous
research is carried out to minimize thermal contact resistance between
the heat source and the cooling system. Thermal interface materials
(TIM) are available, which when heated change phase from solid to liquid.
This means that when the heat source starts heating up, the TIM wets the
surface of the heat source, enabling optimal thermal contact. It is
vital to realize that the contact pressure between the cooling system and
the heat source should preferably remain constant at both phases. This
may be enabled by a spring-loaded attachment of the heat source to the
cooling system, which may be possible in avionic systems in case the
heat source has relatively low weight, such as switching transistors in
power converters for electric motor drive.
Some Application Related to
Avionics and Electronics
 Forced convection direct air cooling

In Forced convection Direct air cooling of the electronic components and

the PCBs, is an efficient, light-weight, and cheap cooling solution.
Drawbacks for avionic use are the requirements put on the cooling air
such as content of moisture, particles, and oil, as well as reduced cooling
capacity at high altitudes, and the common operational mode with loss of
cooling air. Furthermore, since the PBAs do not require mounting on a
card carrier for conductive heat removal, which also acts as mechanical
stabilizer, the PBAs may need to be mechanically reinforced to reduce
the impact of vibration.
Some Application Related to
Avionics and Electronics
 Forced convection direct air cooling

In Forced convection Direct air cooling of the electronic components and

the PCBs, is an efficient, light-weight, and cheap cooling solution.
Drawbacks for avionic use are the requirements put on the cooling air
such as content of moisture, particles, and oil, as well as reduced cooling
capacity at high altitudes, and the common operational mode with loss of
cooling air. Furthermore, since the PBAs do not require mounting on a
card carrier for conductive heat removal, which also acts as mechanical
stabilizer, the PBAs may need to be mechanically reinforced to reduce
the impact of vibration.
End of Session

Thank you!

Any Questions?