IDEA: Individuals with Disabilities Educational Act

- Protects the right of SN students to obtain evaluation and free appropriate program
of education (FAPE) from schools

FAPE: Free Appropriate Program of Education

- Protects against discrimination (e.g. primary language difference)
- Rights in assessment, placement, programming and appropriate education

The term “Appropriate”:

- Program designed to provide “educational benefits” and related services (If
necessary)
- E.g. is it appropriate to use color in class for blind students?
- Is it appropriate to use talking watches with blind students?

IEP: Individualized Education Program

- Appropriate program identified
- Developed by multi-d team (psychologist, teachers, parents, special educators,
student)
- Compulsory for SN students
- Above 16, Individualized Transition Program

Importance of IEP:
- School is legally bound to only provide services, accommodations (change in
task/setting), and interventions listed in the IEP
- E.g: Doe Withers – first special ed education jury trial and dollar damages case
- a general ed teacher sued for refusing to do oral testing with a child as specified
within the IEP ($15k)

Interventions - Treatments used to change a child with disabilities (medication/skill

training in weak areas), e.g. remedial phonics training for reading

Assistive Technology – No/low/high tech

 Electronic/electronic item/equipment used to increase, maintain or improve
functional capability for an ind with a disability

No Tech Low Tech High Tech

- Pencil Grip - Buzzers - E-readers
- Post it notes - Talking Calculator - Touch Screen Devices
- Slanted surfaces - MP3 - Computerized Testing
- Tactile letters - Lights - Speech Recognition Software
- Magnifying bars - Switches - Word Processor
- Portable Word Processor - Text-to-Speech (TTS)
- Electronic organizers - Progress Monitoring
Software
Disability Categories:
14 cats according to IDEA:
1. Autism
2. Deaf-blindness
3. Deafness (more severe than hearing impairment)
4. Developmental Delay (3-9 yrs)
5. Emotional disturbance (ED)
6. Hearing impairment
7. Mental Retardation (AAMR prefers intellectual dis.)
8. Multiple Disabilities
9. Orthopedic impairment
10. Other health Impairment (OHI)
11. Specific Learning Dis. (SLD)
12. Speech or language impairment
13. Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI)
14. Visual Impairment including blindness

- Categories have been updated periodically due to:

 Identification of more disabilities
 Acknowledging co-morbidity(>1 dis)
 Emphasizing functional behavior (reasons behind beh.)(acc. to setting, tasks
and interventions)
 Info by IDEA and DSM v

Section 504:
- individual with a disability shall not be excluded from participation, be denied
benefits or be subjected to discrimination under any program receiving Federal
financial assistance
- Individual with disability means:
 Has a mental/physical impairment that limits one or more major life activity
 Walking, seeing, hearing, speaking, sleeping, breathing, caring for
oneself, performing manual tasks, learning
 Records of such an impairment
 Labelled in high school/college
 Regarded as having such an impairment
 Seen as disabled by parents

- Once disability is diagnosed, he/she is eligible for services if cannot progress

educationally without services

Norms
- Most frequently occurring score in a setting or during the performance of a task
- Labels are derived from the extent of deviation from the norm

Traits
- Habitual pattern of behavior
- Relatively enduring over time
 - Usually associated with personality characteristics (extroversion)
- Can be physical (height, eye colour, hair colour)

Disability/Disorder
- When a trait becomes extreme and leads to loss of social/academic functioning
- Inborn traits relevant to school functioning
 Sensory Processing (eg. Seeing, hearing,etc.)
 Learning processes (e.g. intelligence, memory)
 Personality (e.g. introversion, adaptive ability)

Normal distribution
- In a normal curve, children with disabilities would be at least 1 SD off the mean on a
particular trait

States:
- The task and setting variables
- Yerkes-Dodson law: Performance improves with arousal (increased alertness) to a
certain level
- Intellectually demanding task ->higher arousal
 Best performed when relaxed (lower arousal)
- Repetitive, simple task -> Lower arousal
 Best performed when excited (higher arousal) eg high energy music

Relation to LD:
- Type of task must match type of child
 Higher initial trait arousal (e.g. anxiety, autism)
 Simple, boring task
 Lower initial trait arousal (e.g. ADHD)
 Short, interesting task

Points to Ponder
- Children who are not optimally aroused will seek stimulation through beh
 Underaroused -> will increase activity level
 Overaroused -> will avoid task and self-calm through repetitive tasks

Lecture 2 – Intro to LD, Analysis of Characteristic Behavior

Functional Analysis : Antecedents, Behavior, Consequences, Payoffs

- Understand misbehavior and poor performance within specific settings
- Teach substituting behavior to achieve the same purpose
- Normally, everyone behaves “abnormally” when placed in “abnormal” settings (eg
trouble adapting when moving to a new school in a different country)
- Children with disabilities behave “abnormally” even under “normal” settings
 Procedures in FA:
1. Observe Behavior
 Record positive and negative incidents
 Use objective descriptions
 Eg when left to do individual work, Oliver grabbed Sally’s pencil. Sally hit
oliver and oliver hit back.
 Not – oliver disturbed his friends when left to do work

2. Analyze Log
 Categorize recorded observation as Antecedent, Behavior, Consequences,
Payoffs
Antecedents Behaviour Consequences Payoffs

Settings/tasks & Objective Response to Purpose –

activities/persons descriptions of behavior/what get/avoid?
/time (e.g. observable happens as a result
colour, picture, behavior of behavior
windows,
people, etc.)

3. Summarise Data
- Allows a holistic view of the behavior pattern and motivation
- Get payoffs (positive values); Avoid payoffs (negative values)

4. Select Target Payoffs

 Choose 2 or more goals that address high freq payoffs
 Rmb: Target payoffs, not behavior (Beh. only a means to achieve payoffs)
 Eg to decrease work avoidance payoff, increase the fun/challenge or
decrease task difficulty (whichever led to work-avoidance payoff)

Payoffs Coding Criteria

(Zentall, 2014, pp. 35-36)

Avoid payoffs (some of which may be related to

Get payoffs
future possible outcomes)
Children attempt to get competence (mastery or Children attempt to avoid possible social
achievement) by punishment or failure from specific
  Talking about or demonstrating accomplishments   Subject areas (e.g. math).
or interests in reading, projects, after-school clubs,   Response requirements (e.g. handwriting,
and the like. talking).
  Asking for help or making statements such as “I   Worksheets, listening, group contexts.
don’t get this.” Alternatively, any statement of “I
know this...”
  Creating or collecting objects, stories, or records
of accomplishments.
  Reading by subvocalizing (whispering or reading
out loud) to help them perform optimally.
Children attempt to avoid social experiences with
Children attempt to get relatedness from
 Peers.
  Peer attention or interactions.
 Teacher attention or possible reprimands (e.g., by
  Adult attention, proximity, or interactions.
blaming others, making excuses, lying).
Children attempt to get self-determination or
Children attempt to avoid possible lack of control or
control by
predictability by
  Controlling (correcting, choosing, bossing,
  Preferring familiar settings and resisting new
leading)
social situations (e.g., during transitions at the
  Continuing an activity or task that is preferred.
beginning and ending of class).
  Maintaining independent action, opinion, or
  Resisting specific tasks (e.g., difficult,
feelings (arguing, debating).
independent, non-preferred tasks).

Children attempt to get different types of

stimulation: Emotional stimulation (intense or
negative social reactions, e.g., shock, anger,
disgust). Children attempt to avoid boredom by
  Activity or kinesthetic stimulation (physical   Avoiding routine or basic tasks (e.g.,
contact). computations, phonics workbook activities,
  Sensory and tangible stimulation (sights, objects, handwriting)
tastes/food, smells, sounds).   Avoiding repetitive activities such as morning
  Change (fun, excitement, play, risks, unusual calendar time
projects or activities).
  Cognitive stimulation (thinking, problem solving,
daydreaming, creating).

Lecture 3 – Verbal and Nonverbal LD, Disorders of Spoken Language

Specific Learning Disability:

- IDEA: A disorder in one or more of the basic psychological processes involved in
understanding or using language, spoken or written, which may manifest itself in an
imperfect ability to listen, think, speak, read, write, spell or do mathematical
calculations; this includes perceptual handicaps, brain injury, minimal brain
dysfunction, dyslexia and developmental aphasia, but does not include learning
problems resulting from visual, hearing, or motor disabilities of mental retardation
or of environmental, cultural, or economic disadvantage

Language Disorder:
- A communication disorder
- Eg stuttering, impaired articulation, language impairment, voice impairment
- Condition that adversely affects child’s academics
DSM IV TR:
Expressive language symptoms:
- Limited vocab, errors in tense, difficulty recalling words or producing complex
sentences (age appropriate
Receptive language symptoms:
- Difficulty understanding words, sentences, or specific types of words, such as spatial
terms

DSM V:
- Combines DSM IV expressive and mixed receptive-expressive language disorder

Specific Expressive Language Disorder:

- Anomia/dysnomia
 Poor verbal memory - > poor word production
 Coping strategy: Use nonverbal sounds, pantomime, delayed response,
circumlocutions, written response, silent reading (recognize words but x
pronounce)

- Aphasia
 Poor working memory -> syntax and verb tenses confusion

- Cluttering
 Disturbance in fluency
 Abnormally rapid rate (may leave out syllables)
 Erratic rhythm of speech
 Disturbance in language structure

Etiology/Occurrence of language disorders can be categorized into:

- Biogenetic
 Family with histories of communication/learning disorder

- Environmental
 Acquired language disorfder
 Exogenous factors (eg brain injury, environmental disadvantage (Lack of
exposure))

- Functional
 Assessment of behavior function -> way to avoid social contact

Occurrence of spoken language disorder:

- Prevalence
 Common for age 3 and below (10-15%)
- Gender
 More boys than girls (expressive language disorder)
 - Age identified
 Preschool: Mixed receptive-expressive (2~4 years)
 Elementary: Milder verbal language disorders
- Culture
 Non-primary English Speakers (x supposed to diagnose)
 Difficulties in primary language (diff to diagnose – x assessment in primary
language)

Informal Identification of Characteristics:

- Behavioral
 Inattentive, limited comprehension, irrelevant responses, appear withdrawn
 Acting out behavior e.g., disruptive
- Social-emotional
 Displayed through
 Depression and low self-esteem (past failures)
 Frustration and anger (current failures)
 Anxiety disorder (anticipated failures)
 Leads to negative social communications
 Less peer considerations
 More peer rejections
 Avoid appearing ignorant
 Appear unmotivated
- Cognitive
 Failure in understanding abstract verbal language
 Performance in comparison with equivalent IQ peers
 Thinking task (eg hypothesis testing, rule identification, only performs well if
options available. Hence poor memory, thus lack verbal comprehension
- Communication
 Requires language (verbal/non-verbal)
 2 categories
 1. Receptive language (listening and central auditory processing skills)
 2. Expressive language (speaking)

- Receptive language
 Indicators:
 Takes 5-10s to process info
 Requires repetition
 Overly loud
 Difficulties
 Hearing words incorrectly
 Insensitive to rhyming words
 Failure to follow instructions
 Failure in understanding word meanings/complex logic (if-
then)

- Expressive language
  Related to amount and quality of language produced compared to peers
 Quantity
 Fewer words and variety
 Shorter sentences
 Quality
 Less complex syntax
 Less mature grammar
 Later speech
 Omission of sentence parts e.g “I want go toilet”
 Unusual word order – “I water drink”
 Semantics difficulty – “I’m Hot, I want my sweater ON”
 Pragmatics difficulty – “How old are you?” I’m in sec school”
 Confuse similar words – borrow/tomorrow
- Academic
 May affect all subjects
 May evolve
 Age 5: spoken language problem
 Age 8 : Reading problems
 Age 14: composition problem (written language)
 Indicators:
 Slower verbal response
 Longer completion of task
 Less complex storytelling

Summary: Strengths & Needs

- Probable strengths
 Non-verbal area
 Non-verbal math, science, art, computers
 Social/motor skills
- Probable needs
 Alternative demonstration of competence
 Non-language tasks
 Assistance in group task
 Help in decreasing need for understanding verbal directions
 Take turns presenting, take notes of member’s assignment, scripted
assignment,etc.

As an educator, what should we do?

Response to Intervention (RTI):
- Assess effects of research-based intervention on performance and behavior.
- 3 tiers

Tier 1: Total Class intervention

- How does the child perform compared to peers
- What specific content does the child know/doesn’t know
- If performance doesn’t improve -> Tier 2

Tier 2: Small Group Intervention

- At risk students who do not respond to Tier 1 interventions
- If performance doesn’t improve -> Tier 3

Tier 3: Individual Intervention

- Individual instruction
- Formal diagnosis considered
- Special Ed considered

Remember : Response to Intervention (RTI)

- Does not replace comprehensive evaluation
- Only part of evaluation
- Serves as eligibility procedure
- Underlying question: Is it the child’s/ education’s problem
- Intervention increases in intensity
- (Tier 3 more intense than 2)

Implications: Applying RTi in dealing with spoken language problems

Tier 1 : Accomodation in General Education

- Receptive language:
What to do How to do
- Decrease verbal - Rate, quantity
instruction
- Use technology - Digital recorders/ Apps (Instructions
playback)
- Graphic organizers (Simplify info), eg
flowcharts, concept maps
- Cuing/prompting - Pictures/cue cards (esp. multiple
instructions)

- Expressive Language
- What to do: Picture cues, Story Maps, Self-questioning
- When to use: Insufficient production, Poor organization, Poor goal structure

Tier 2 & 3: Intervention in Small Group and Individual

Receptive language:
What to do How to do
Teach: Concrete -> abstract
- Single Words Example:
- Phrases - Sleep (C); Good (A)
- Paragraphs - Want milk (C); love you (A)
- Simple Stories

Expressive language:

What to do How to do
- Increase vocab & abstract - Shred book reading (parent/child or
language use teacher/child)
- Use light-tech device - Gestures, necklace photos,
communication boards, eye-gazing
objects, choice boards, props, voice
output device
- Record messages/use screen - High tech augmentative and alternative
display device communication (AAC) device

Anomia/Dysnomia
- Poor verbal memory -> Poor ability to speak/produce words
What to do How to do
Concrete experience - Name within categories, pairs,
Picture-object pairing associations
Increase vocabulary - Sentence-completion task
- Timed naming drills

Syntactical Aphasia
- Poor working memory -> Confuse word order in sentences

What to do How to do
- Teach natural language within - Sentence-building excercises
meaningful setting (noun-verb to more complex
sentences)
- E.g. “tell me about this picture”

Intervention for Pragmatics (realistic)

What to do How to do
- Teach functional language - Request needed objects in natural
environment
- E.g. “I want cookie"
- Pretend play (improves - Encourage child to stick to a theme
comprehension and narrative skills) and narrate this plot
 - E.g. “pretend you are a crocodile
and show me what you would do”
- Provide interaction opportunities - Dyadic interactions (multiple
partners)

Long-term ourcomes:
- Dropout rate for verbal LD = 40%
- 70% of SLD diagnosed in preschool will continue experiencing difficulties at age 9
- Prevalence of SLD at school age 3% - 7%
- SLD may be replaced by other verbal LD (eg reading disabilities)

Lecture 4 – Written Language Disorder

Reading Disabilities:
- Problems with Decoding (translating visual symbols to words) and Encoding
(Understanding what is read)

- IDEA: a disorder in one or more of the basic psychological processes involved in

understanding or using language, spoken or written, which may manifest itself in an
imperfect ability to listen, think, speak, read, write, spell, or do mathematical
calculations

- DSM V: (categorized under specific learning disorder)

1. Inaccurate or slow and effortful word reading (e.g., reads single words aloud
incorrectly/ slowly/ hestitantly, frequently guesses words and has difficulty sounding
out words)
2. Difficulty understanding the meaning of what is read (e.g., may read text accurately
but not understand the sequence, relationships, inferences or deeper meaning of
what is read)

Common subtypes
Dyslexia Hyperlexia
Type of problem Decoding Encoding
Language component Phonology comprehension
Main problem Cannot read; can und Can und; cannot read
Milder form Can read; cannot spell

Common co-existing problems:

- Inattention and difficulty reading
- More common to have RD + ADHD > RD/ADHD only
- 50% math disabilities have RD too
- Anxiety, depression, withdrawal, low self-esteem - > more RD than non-RD
(girls>booys)

Etiology (cause)
- Biogenetics:
  Father’s occupation: Manual labours
 Dyslexic> non-dyslexic

- Environmental
 Pre-natal risk factors (loss of o2)
 Educational and economic backfground of fam
 Poor family, poor teaching, miss pre-reading experience

- Functional Assessment
 (dyslexia) avoids reading assignment, especially reading alouf
 Do not avoid dother areas (eg math, pe, art)
 Eg students with hyperlexia will volunteer to show off excellent decoding
skills by reading aloud but avoid answering the meaning of whar they read