Mathematics in the

Modern World

Course Material in Mathematics

Kristoffer Karan Hugo

Course Instructor
2 MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD • NU LAGUNA

Mathematics 1
LEARNING OUTCOMES

Here’s what I will teach you in this course material:

LESSON OUTLINE
 Identify the Fibonacci sequence.
 Fibonacci
 Understand the relationship between Fibonacci numbers and the
Sequence
golden ratio.
Unit Outline
 Fibonacci
 Understand numerical patterns in nature.
Numbers and the
Golden Ratio  Understand the sexiest rectangle.

 Numerical  Understand what is mathematics about?

Patterns in Nature  Understand the language and grammar of mathematics.

 The Sexiest
rectangle

 What is
REQUIRED MATERIAL AND RESOURCES
Mathematics
about? For this lesson, you would need the following resources:

 The Language and  Textbook:

Grammar of  Video:
Mathematics
 Website:

PRE-TEST
MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD • NU 3
LAGUNA

Directions: Answer the following:

1. Is Mathematics the study of numbers only? Why do we study shapes in

Mathematics?
Ans. __________________________________________

2. Is Mathematics the study of shapes only? Why do we study infinities in

Mathematics?
Ans. __________________________________________

3. Is Mathematics the study of numbers, shapes and infinites only? Why do we use
Mathematics in Logic?
Ans. __________________________________________

4. Is Mathematics the study of abstract objects only? Why do we apply Mathematics to

physical objects?
Ans. __________________________________________
4 MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD • NU LAGUNA

PRE-
ACTIVITY
Directions: Answer the following:

1. Can we understand the physical world and communicate what we understand using
Mathematics? Is Mathematics a language then?
Ans. __________________________________________

2. Does Mathematics have vocabulary and grammar? How do we know then whether a
statement in mathematics is meaningful?
Ans. __________________________________________

3. Can we make meaningful statements about nature using Mathematics? Can we then
explain nature in terms of Mathematics?
Ans. __________________________________________

4. Can we make meaningful statements about the beauty of nature using Mathematics?
Can we then explain the beauty of nature in terms of Mathematics?
Ans. __________________________________________
 MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD • NU 5
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The Nature of Mathematics

Fibonacci Sequence
Our discussion of mathematics starts with the sequence
known as the Fibonacci sequence. The Fibonacci sequence is
CONTENT named after Leonardo of Pisa, who is also known as Fibonacci.
Fibonacci was one of the most distinguished mathematicians of
AND the Middle Ages. The Fibonacci sequence was first mentioned
DISCUSSION in his book Liber Abacci (Book of the Abacus), that contained
many interesting problems, such as: “A certain man put a pair
of rabbits in a place surrounded on all sides by a wall. How
many pairs of rabbits can be produced from that pair in a year if
it is assumed that every month each pair begets a new pair
which from the second month becomes productive?”
The solution to this problem, shown in the Figure, led to the
development of the sequence that bears the name of its author:
Key Point the Fibonacci sequence. The sequence is shown in the Table.
In the Fibonacci sequence, the The numbers in the columns titled Pairs of Adults form the
first and second terms are 1. Fibonacci sequence.
The sum of these two terms is
the third term. The sum of the Following is the Fibonacci sequence,
second and third terms is the
fourth term, and so on. The FIBONACCI SEQUENCE
ratio of the (n + 1)th term to 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, …
the nth term of the Fibonacci
sequence as n gets larger and In the Fibonacci sequence, the first and second terms are 1.
larger is the irrational number The sum of these two terms is the third term. The sum of the
(√5 + 1)/2, which begins as second and third terms is the fourth term, and so on.
1.61803... . This irrational
number was already well
known to mathematicians at
that time as the golden
number.

FIBONACCI SEQUENCE
6 MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD • NU LAGUNA

Fibonacci Sequence. 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, …

In the Fibonacci sequence, the first and second terms are 1. The
sum of these two terms is the third term. The sum of the second
and third terms is the fourth term, and so on.

In the middle of the nineteenth century, mathematicians made a study of this

sequence and found similarities between the sequence and many natural
phenomena. Fibonacci numbers appear in the arrangement of the seeds of many
species of plants and in the number of petals of various flowers. For example,
when the flowering head of a sunflower matures to become seeds, the spiral
arrangement of the seeds becomes clearly visible. A typical count of these spirals
usually give 89 steeply curving to the right, 55 curving more shallowly to the left,
and 34 again shallowly to the right. The largest known specimen that has been
examined had spiral counts of 144 right, 89 left, and 55 right. These numbers,
like the others mentioned, are consecutive terms of the Fibonacci sequence.
MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD • NU 7
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On the heads of many flowers, the petals surrounding the central disk usually
yield a Fibonacci number. For example, some daisies have 21 petals, and others
have 34, 55, or 89 petals.
Also, Fibonacci numbers are observed in the structure of pinecones and
pineapples. The tablike or scalelike structures called bracts that make up the main
body of the pinecone form spirals from the cone’s attachment to the branch. Two
sets of oppositely directed spirals can be seen, one steep and the other more
gradual. Counting the steep spiral will reveal a Fibonacci number, and counting
the gradual spiral will be the adjacent smaller Fibonacci number, or if not, the
next smaller Fibonacci number. An investigation of 4290 pinecones from 10
species of pine trees found in California showed that only 74 cones, or 1.7%,
deviated from this Fibonacci pattern.
Like pinecone bracts, pineapple scales are patterned into spirals, and since
these are roughly hexagonal in shape, there are three distinct sets of spirals that
can be counted. In general, the number of pineapple scales in each spiral are
Fibonacci numbers.

Fibonacci Numbers and the Golden Ratio

8 MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD • NU LAGUNA

While studying the Fibonacci sequence in 1753, Robert Simson, a

mathematician at the University of Glasgow, noticed that when he took the ratio
of any term to the term immediately preceding it, the value he obtained remained
in the vicinity of a specific number. To illustrate this, we indicate in the Table the
ratio of various pairs of sequential Fibonacci numbers.

The ratio of the 50th term to the 49th term of the Fibonacci sequence is
1.6180. Simson proved that the ratio of the (n + 1)th term to the nth term of the
Fibonacci sequence as n gets larger and larger is the irrational number (√5 + 1)/2,
which begins as 1.61803... . This irrational number was already well known to
mathematicians at that time as the golden number.
Many years earlier, the Bavarian astronomer and mathematician Johannes
Kepler wrote that the golden number symbolized the Creator’s intention “to
MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD • NU 9
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create like from like.” The golden number (√5 + 1)/2 is often referred to as “phi,”
symbolized by the Greek letter Φ.
The ancient Greeks, in about the sixth century B.C., sought for the unifying
principles of beauty and perfection, that they believed could be described by
using mathematics. In their study of beauty, the ancient Greeks used the term
golden ratio. To understand the golden ratio, consider the line segment AB in the
Figure.

When the line segment is divided at a point C such that the ratio of the whole,
AB, to the larger part, AC, is equal to the ratio of the larger part, AC, to the
smaller part, CB, each of the ratios AB/AC and AC/CB are referred to as a
golden ratio. The proportion that these ratios form, AB/AC = AC/CB, is called
the golden proportion. Furthermore, each of the ratios in the proportion has a
value equal to the golden number, (√5 + 1)/2.

AB AC √5+ 1
= = ≈ 1.618
AC CB 2
The Great Pyramid of Giza in Egypt, built around 2600 B.C., is the earliest
known example of the use of the golden ratio in architecture. The ratio of any of
its sides of the square base (775.75 ft) to its altitude (481.4 ft) is about 1.611. In
medieval times, people called the golden proportion as the divine proportion,
reflecting their belief in its relationship to the will of God.
The twentieth-century architect Le Corbusier developed a scale of proportions
for the human body that he called the Modulor shown in the Figure. Observe that
the navel separates the entire body into golden proportions, as the neck and knee
also does.
10 MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD • NU LAGUNA

The golden rectangle formed can be formed from the golden proportion as
shown in the Figure.

Length a+b a √ 5+1

= = =
Width a b 2
Observe that when a square is cut off from one end of a golden rectangle, as
shown the Figure, the remaining rectangle has the same properties as the original
golden rectangle (creating “like from like”) and is then itself a golden rectangle.
Amazingly, the curve drawn from a succession of diminishing golden rectangles,
as shown in the Figure, is the same as the spiral curve of a chambered nautilus.
The same curve appears on ram horns and the horns of some other animals. It is
also the same curve seen in the plant structures mentioned earlier: sunflowers,
other flower heads, pinecones, and pineapples. The curve shown in the Figure
closely approximates what mathematicians call a logarithmic spiral.

The ancient Greek civilization used the golden rectangle in their art and
architecture. The main measurements of many buildings of antiquity, including
the Parthenon in Athens, follow golden ratios and golden rectangles. It is for
Phidas, considered as the greatest of the Greek sculptors, that the golden ratio
was named “phi.” The golden proportions can be found abundantly in his work.
The proportions of the golden rectangle can be found in the work of many artists,
from the ancient to the modern. For example,
MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD • NU 11
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the golden rectangle can be seen in the painting Circus Sideshow (La Parade de
Cirque), 1887, by Georges Seurat, a French neoimpressionist artist.
Several artists have also used Fibonacci numbers in art. A contemporary
example is the work by Caryl Bryer Fallert in 1995 called Fibonacci’s Garden,
shown in the Figure. This artwork is a quilt made from two separate fabrics that
are put together in a pattern based on the Fibonacci sequence.

Fibonacci numbers are also found in music. Perhaps the most obvious link
between Fibonacci numbers and music can be found on the piano keyboard. An
octave, shown in the Figure, on a keyboard has 13 keys: 8 white keys and 5 black
keys (the 5 black keys are in one group of 2 and one group of 3).
12 MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD • NU LAGUNA

In Western music, the chromatic scale, consists of 13 notes (from C to the

next higher C). Its predecessor, the diatonic scale, consists of 8 notes (an octave).
It was preceded by a 5-note pentatonic scale (penta is Greek for “five”). Each of
these numbers is a Fibonacci number. In popular music, the song “Lateralas” by
the band Tool uses the Fibonacci sequence in the time signature and the lyric
arrangement. This song also contains several references to the golden ratio and to
the logarithmic spiral.
The visual arts deal with art that is pleasing to the eye, and musical
composition deals with art that is pleasing to the ear. Whereas visual art achieves
some of its goals by using division of planes and area, music achieves some of its
goals by using a similar division of time, using notes with various duration and
spacing. The musical intervals considered by many as the most pleasing to the ear
are the major sixth and minor sixth. A major sixth, for example, consists of the
note C, which vibrates at about 264* vibrations per second, and note A, vibrating
at about 440 vibrations per second. The ratio of 440 to 264 reduces to the ratio 5
to 3, or 5/3, which is a ratio of two consecutive Fibonacci numbers. An example
of a minor sixth is the note E (about 330 vibrations per second) and the note C
(about 528 vibrations per second). The ratio 528 to 330 reduces to the ratio 8 to 5,
or 8/5, which is also a ratio of two consecutive Fibonacci numbers. The
vibrations of any sixth interval reduce to a similar ratio of Fibonacci numbers.
Patterns that can be expressed in terms of relationships between Fibonacci
numbers have been found in Gregorian chants and the works of many composers,
including Bach, Beethoven, and Bartók. A number of twentieth-century musical
compositions, including Ernst Krenek’s Fibonacci Mobile, were deliberately
structured by using proportions of Fibonacci numbers.
A number of studies have tried to explain why the Fibonacci sequence and the
golden ratio are found in many real-life situations. It seems that the Fibonacci
numbers are a part of a natural harmony that is pleasing to both the eye and the
ear. During the nineteenth century, German physicist and psychologist Gustav
Fechner tried to determine which dimensions were most pleasing to the eye.
MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD • NU 13
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Fechner, with psychologist Wilhelm Wundt, found that most people

unconsciously favor golden dimensions when purchasing greeting cards, mirrors,
and other rectangular objects. This discovery has been widely used by
commercial manufacturers in packaging and labeling designs, by retailers in store
displays, and in other areas of business and advertising.

Numerical Patterns in Nature

Discovering the Beauty of the Fibonacci Numbers
Often when we see beauty in nature, we are subconsciously sensing hidden
order — order that itself has an independent richness. Thus, we stop and smell
the roses — or, more accurately, count the daisies. In the previous section, we
contented ourselves with estimation, whereas here we move to exact counting.
The example of counting daisies is an illustration of discovering numerical
patterns in nature through direct observation. The pattern we fi nd in the daisy
appears elsewhere in nature and also gives rise to issues of aesthetics that touch
such diverse fields as architecture and painting. We begin our investigation,
however, firmly rooted in nature.
Have you ever examined a daisy? Sure, you’ve picked off the white petals
one at a time while thinking: “Loves me . . . loves me not,” but have you ever
taken a good hard look at what’s left once you’ve finished plucking? A close
inspection of the yellow in the middle of the daisy reveals unexpected structure
and intrigue. Specifically, the yellow area contains clusters of spirals coiling out
from the center. If we examine the flower closely, we see that there are, in fact,
two sets of spirals — a clockwise set and a counterclockwise set. These two sets
of spirals interlock to produce a hypnotic interplay of helical form.
Interlocking spirals abound in nature. The cone flower and the sunflower both
display nature’s signature of dual, locking spirals. Flowers are not the only place
in nature where spirals occur. A pinecone’s exterior is composed of two sets of
interlocking spirals. The rough and prickly facade of a pineapple also contains
two collections of spirals.

READING 1 Numerical Patterns in Nature

Read the Section on Numerical Patterns in Nature.

The Sexiest Rectangle

14 MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD • NU LAGUNA

Finding Aesthetics in Life, Art, and Math Through the Golden

Rectangle
On our journeys through various mathematical landscapes, we have become
conscious of the issue of aesthetics—in particular, the intrinsic beauty of
mathematical truths. We’re discovering that mathematics is not just a collection
of formulas tied together by algebra but is instead a wealth of creative ideas that
allows us to investigate, explore, and discover new realms. Now, however, we
wonder if mathematics can be used to discover structure behind the aesthetics of
art and nature.

READING 2 The Sexiest Rectangle

Read the Section on The Sexiest Rectangle.

What Is Mathematics About?

It is notoriously hard to give a satisfactory answer to the question, “What is
mathematics?” The approach of this book is not to try. Rather than giving a
definition of mathematics, the intention is to give a good idea of what
mathematics is by describing many of its most important concepts, theorems, and
applications. Nevertheless, to make sense of all this information it is useful to be
able to classify it somehow.
The most obvious way of classifying mathematics is by its subject matter, and
that will be the approach of this brief introductory section. However, it is not the
only way, and not even obviously the best way. Another approach is to try to
classify the kinds of questions that mathematicians like to think about. This gives
a usefully different view of the subject: it often happens that two areas of
mathematics that appear very different if you pay attention to their subject matter
are much more similar if you look at the kinds of questions that are being asked.
A third classification, not so much of mathematics itself but of the content of a
typical article in a mathematics journal. As well as theorems and proofs, such an
article will contain definitions, examples, lemmas, formulas, conjectures, and so
on. The point will be to say what these words mean and why the different kinds
of mathematical output are important.

READING 3 What is Mathematics About?

Read the Section on What is Mathematics About?
MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD • NU 15
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CRITICAL THINKING
We define the Fibonacci numbers
successively by starting with 1, 1, and then
adding the previous two terms to get the next
term. These numbers are rich with structure and
appear in nature. The numbers of clockwise and
counterclockwise spirals in flowers and other
plants are consecutive Fibonacci numbers. The
ratio of consecutive
Fibonacci numbers approaches the Golden
Ratio, a number with especially pleasing
proportions. While not all numbers are
Fibonacci, every natural number can be
expressed as the sum of distinct, nonconsecutive
Fibonacci numbers.
The story of Fibonacci numbers is a
story of pattern. As we look at the world, we can
often see order, structure, and pattern. The order
we see provides a mental concept that we can
then explore on its own. As we discover
relationships in the pattern, we frequently find
that those same relationships refer back to the
world
in some intriguing way.graph can be drawn in
many equivalent ways.
16 MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD • NU LAGUNA

Mathematical Language and Symbols

The Language and Grammar of Mathematics
It is a remarkable phenomenon that children can learn to speak without
ever being consciously aware of the sophisticated grammar they are using.
Indeed, adults too can live a perfectly satisfactory life without ever thinking
about ideas such as parts of speech, subjects, predicates, or subordinate
clauses. Both children and adults can easily recognize ungrammatical
sentences, at least if the mistake is not too subtle, and to do this it is not
necessary to be able to explain the rules that have been violated.
Nevertheless, there is no doubt that one’s understanding of language is
hugely enhanced by a knowledge of basic grammar, and this understanding is
essential for anybody who wants to do more with language than use it
unreflectingly as a means to a nonlinguistic end.
The same is true of mathematical language. Up to a point, one can do and
speak mathematics without knowing how to classify the different sorts of
words one is using, but many of the sentences of advanced mathematics have
a complicated structure that is much easier to understand if one knows a few
basic terms of mathematical grammar. The object of this section is to explain
the most important mathematical “parts of speech,” some of which are
similar to those of natural languages and others quite different. These are
normally taught right at the beginning of a university course in mathematics.
Much of this section can be understood without a precise knowledge of
mathematical grammar, but a careful reading of this article will help the
reader who wishes to follow some of the later, more advanced parts of
mathematics.
MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD • NU 17
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READING 4 The Language and Grammar of Mathematics

Read the Section on The Language and Grammar of Mathematics.

IDEAS FOR DISCUSSION

DISCUSS

A rectangle is a Golden Rectangle if the

ratio of its base to its height equals the
Golden Ratio. If we remove the largest
square from a Golden Rectangle, the small
remaining rectangle is itself another Golden
Rectangle. Thus, we can create a sequence
of smaller and smaller Golden Rectangles.
This sequence of Golden Rectangles leads
to spirals that occur in nature.
We can build a Golden Rectangle by
starting with a square and elongating it by
using a simple geometric procedure. We
can verify that the ratio of base to height is
the Golden Ratio by applying the
Pythagorean Theorem.
Art, aesthetics, geometry, and numbers all
meet in the Golden Rectangle. Its appealing
proportions have appeared in art throughout
history and we can also find them in nature.
Do the mathematical properties of the
Golden Ratio somehow create the beauty of
the Golden Rectangle? Some ideas span the
artificial boundaries of subjects—in this
case from the algebra of numbers (the
Golden Ratio) to the geometry of rectangles
(the Golden Rectangle). Seeking
connections across disciplines often leads to
new insights and creative ways of
understanding.
 18 MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD • NU LAGUNA

ASSESSMENT ACTIVITY
Directions: Answer the following:

1. The sequence of numbers 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, … is known what sequence?

Ans. __________________________________________

2. The irrational number (√5 + 1)/2 is known as what number?

Ans. __________________________________________

3. A ratio of the whole to a larger part that is equal to the ratio of the larger part to the
smaller part is referred to as what ratio?

Ans. __________________________________________

4. A proportion of the ratio of the whole to a larger part equal to the ratio of the larger
part to the smaller part is referred to as what proportion?

Ans. __________________________________________

5. A rectangle whose ratio of its length to its width is equal to (√5 + 1)/2 is known as
what rectangle?

Ans. __________________________________________
MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD • NU 19
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POSTTEST

Directions: Answer the following:

Assume that the ratio AB/AC is equal to the ratio AC/CB for the diagram.

1. Each of the ratios AB/AC and AC/CB is referred to as a what ratio?

Ans. __________________________________________

2. The proportion AB/AC = AC/CB is referred to as what proportion?

Ans. __________________________________________

A Fibonacci-type sequence is a sequence where each term is the sum of the two
preceding terms. Determine whether the following is a Fibonacci-type sequence. If it
is, determine the next term of the sequence.

3. 2, 4, 6, 10, 16, 26, …

Ans. __________________________________________

4. 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, …

Ans. __________________________________________

5. 1, 2, 2, 4, 8, 32, …
Ans. __________________________________________

6. One of the most famous number patterns in Mathematics is Pascal’s triangle. The
Fibonacci sequence can be found by using Pascal’s triangle. Can you explain how
this can be done?
Ans. __________________________________________
 20 MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD • NU LAGUNA

ONLINE ACTIVITIES
Is ordinary language not enough to describe the beauty of nature? How do we
use mathematics to describe the beauty of nature? Is it always best to
describe the beauty of nature in terms of Mathematics? In what ways is
mathematical language better than ordinary language in describing the beauty
of nature?

ONLINE RESOURCES

 VIDEO:
 BOOK:
 ARTICLE:
 VIDEO:

REFERENCES

Auffman, R., Lockwood, J., Nation, R., Clegg, D. (2013) Mathematical Excursions (3rd ed).
Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning
Blitzer, R. (2019) Thinking Mathematically (7th ed). Pearson Education, Inc
Angel, A., Abbott, C., Runde, D. (2017) A Survey of Mathematics with Applications (10th ed).
Pearson Education, Inc.