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Emerging Technologies for Interactive Learning in the ICT Age

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DOI: 10.4018/978-1-4666-0137-6.ch005

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Educational Stages and
Interactive Learning:
From Kindergarten to Workplace
Training
Jiyou Jia
Peking University, China
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Educational stages and interactive learning: from kindergarten to workplace training / Jiyou Jia, editor.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Summary: “This book provides a record of current research and practical applications in interactive learning, reviewing all
aspects of interactive learning and investigating the history, status, and future trends of interactive learning”--Provided by
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ISBN 978-1-4666-0137-6 (hardcover) -- ISBN 978-1-4666-0138-3 (ebook) -- ISBN 978-1-4666-0139-0 (print & perpetual
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 73

Chapter 5
Emerging Technologies
for Interactive Learning
in the ICT Age
Heng Luo
Syracuse University, USA

Jing Lei
Syracuse University, USA

ABSTRACT
Based on the review of educational technology research, this chapter describes and discusses how emerg-
ing technologies are integrated into the teaching and learning process to facilitate the learner-content,
learner-learner, learner-instructor, and learner-interface interactions, as well as the new opportunities
and challenges brought by them. Technologies discussed in this chapter are categorized into four types
based on their distinct interactive features. Guidelines for applying them to facilitate interactive learn-
ing are proposed at the end of the chapter, based on the case studies of four interactive learning systems
selected from the literature.

INTRODUCTION ILS (Sabry & Barker, 2009) that affects students’

learning processes. The advancement of ICT,
Interactive Learning Systems (ILSs) can be de- especially the rapid development of emerging
fined as learning systems in which different com- technologies, provides great potential with respect
ponents act upon each other to facilitate learning. to the enhancement of interactivity in its complex
The inherent interactive features of Information level and functionality. As a result, interactivity
and Communication Technologies (ICTs) (Sims, that began with simple “click-to-select” in early
1998) are considered an important component of teaching machines now includes infinite, user-
created virtual environments such as Second
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-4666-0137-6.ch005 Life. At the same time, the focus of ILS design

Copyright © 2012, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
 Emerging Technologies for Interactive Learning in the ICT Age

has shifted from exploiting new technologies to of education, with upgraded functionality and
exploring the integral relationship between ICT availability of new tools. From teaching machines
and learning theories, seeking to design learning to personal computers, from E-mail to Web 2.0,
systems based on robust theoretical foundations from audio-visual aids to interactive multimedia,
(Jonassen, Peck, & Wilson, 1999; Vrasidas, 2000; the emergence of new technologies resulted in
Mandell, Sorge, & Russell, 2002; Kirschner, et significant changes to our educational systems,
Al., 2004; Wang, & Woo, 2007). creating more blended and personalized learning
To understand this shifting paradigm in ILS modes with an emphasis on activity, collaboration
design, the four sections in this chapter focus on the and exploration. However, in contrast to the rapid
various ILS design features that can be supported development and wide use of ICT in all educa-
by the emerging technologies and collaborative tional sectors in the past few decades (Anderson
learning theory. The first section provides a brief & Kanuka, 2003), little progress has been seen
definition of ICT and four types of interactivities, in students’ academic performance during this
and discusses the role and potential of ICT in period. For example, a report published by the
promoting such interactivities in learning sys- U.S. Department of Education (2010) reveals
tems. The second section examines the different that the average reading and mathematics scores
interactive features supported by emerging ICT for American 17-year-olds in 2008 were not sig-
tools. All ICT tools discussed in this section are nificantly different from the scores in the early
new technologies that have emerged in the past 1970s. Such finding can be rather heart-sinking
decade, categorized into four types: (a) educational considering that most schools didn’t even have a
networking; (b) web-based learning; (c) mobile computer in the early 1970s.
learning; and (d) classroom equipment. The third In fact, the criticism and suspicion over the role
section describes four cases of instruction from and impact of ICT in education has long existed,
the literature to show what interactive features symbolized by the famous debate between Clark
are made available in those cases by the ICT (1983, 1994, 2001) and Kozma (1991, 1994) in
tools; and how such features are used to facilitate the early 1980s and throughout the 1990s. After
different types of interaction. The fourth section reviewing the comparative studies on ICT and
then explores the affordances of ICT tools and media in education, Clark (1983) concluded that
their implications for interactive learning under “…media do not influence learning under any
the theoretical framework of collaborative learn- conditions … that media are mere vehicles that
ing. The chapter concludes by proposing general deliver instruction but do not influence student
guidelines for applying emerging technologies in achievement any more than the truck that deliv-
designing effective ILS. ers our groceries causes changes in our nutri-
tion” (p.445). Kozma (1991) on the other hand,
emphasized the “integral relationship” between
THE ROLE OF ICT IN INTERACTIVE media and instructional methods; and argued that
LEARNING SYSTEM DESIGN “many of these methods would have been diffi-
cult or impossible to implement in other media”
Information and Communications Technologies (p.205). He acknowledged the unique affordances,
(ICTs) are defined as “a diverse set of technological capabilities, and benefits of technologies, but also
tools and resources used to communicate, create, cautioned that the ability to exploit the benefits
disseminate, store, and manage information” of technologies depends on an understanding of
(Blurton, 1999, p.1). The advancement of ICT the relationship between technologies’ capabilities
has created many exciting opportunities in field and the nature of effective learning.

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Emerging Technologies for Interactive Learning in the ICT Age

One essential component of effective learn- that ICT can play an important role in promoting
ing is interactivity, which refers to how different different types of interactivity in a learning system.
components in a system act upon each other to
facilitate learning. Interactivity plays an important • Learner-Content Interaction: Learners
role in all three of the major learning theories. intellectually interact with content that
In behaviorist theories, the conditioning and results in changes in the learner’s under-
reinforcement relies on the interactions between standing, perspective, or the cognitive
learners and external stimuli. In cognitive theo- structures. An example of such interaction
ries, learners constantly interact with information can be learners using hyperlinks to select
through the mental process of reception, encoding, and explore different topics in a website.
storage and retrieval. In social learning theories, • Learner-Instructor Interaction: This
learning occurs through social interactions such type of interaction allows instructors to
as conversation, observation, collaboration and stimulate and maintain learners’ interest in
cooperation. As a result, interactivity is recognized the topic, motivate students to learn, assess
as a fundamental mechanism for knowledge ac- progress, and provide support and encour-
quisition (Barker, 1994), and an integral part of agement to each student. Such interaction
any learning system design (Moore & Kearsley, can be achieved through asynchronous
1996). Some researchers even argued that it is technologies such as E-mail and discus-
the quality of interaction, rather than the content, sion boards, and synchronous technolo-
that determines whether real learning takes place gies such as instant messenger and video
(Draves, 2000). conferencing.
Interactivity should be a central concern when • Learner-Learner Interaction: This type
utilizing ICT to design effective learning systems. of interaction enables learners to interact
Ever since their emergence, ICTs have always and work collaboratively with other learn-
had the potential for use as Interactive Learning ers, with or without the real-time presence
Systems (ILSs) that provide learners with the type of an instructor. Apart from the asynchro-
of sustained, reciprocal, adaptive and reflective nous and synchronous communication
learning experience that can occur in classrooms. tools, technologies also promote collabo-
Greenfield and Cocking (1996) argue that in- ration among learners by allowing them
teractivity is an intrinsic characteristic for most to simultaneously work on the same task,
technologies, and such arguments are supported making the thinking process visible, em-
by research on ICT integration in teaching and phasizing the norms of discourse to con-
learning. ICTs are believed to make it easier to struct coherent conversation, and creating
create an interactive environment where learn- a low-stress collaborative environment.
ers engage in hands-on activities, test innovative • Learner-Interface Interaction: This type
ideas, receive timely feedback, manage their own of interaction was first defined by Hillman
learning process, and refine and construct their et al. (1994), referring to the process of
knowledge through constant reflection (John & “manipulating tools to accomplish a task”
Sutherland, 2005; Kafai, 1995; Linn, et al., 1996). (p.34). ICT tools such as interactive mul-
Four types of interactions can be identified from timedia, navigation control, and built-in
the literature on interactive learning (Moore, 1989; guidance are widely used to facilitate such
Hillman, et al., 1994; Moore & Kearsley, 1996), interaction and scaffold learning.
and are summarized below. These examples show

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 Emerging Technologies for Interactive Learning in the ICT Age

ICT supported ILSs can have many positive INTERACTIVE FEATURES

impacts on learning, such as longer information SUPPORTED BY EMERGING
retention time (Street & Goodman, 1998), in- TECHNOLOGIES
creased learning speed and level (Horton, 2000),
enhanced collaboration among peers (Brown, et Due to technical constraints, interactive features
al., 2008; Delwiche, 2006), and higher confidence realized by earlier ICT were usually quite basic,
and motivation from learners (Klassen, et al., limited to simple menu selections, clicking on
2001). However, the use of technology does not objects, or linear sequencing (Sims, 1997). One
necessarily result in improved learning. Without such example is StarChild (Dejoie & Truelove,
rigorous attention to the instructional design, n.d.), an educational website sponsored by NASA,
interactivity might even have adverse effects on which engages children in exploring different
learners in an ICT-supported environment (Chow, astronomy topics by providing a list of hyperlinks
et al., 2007; FitzGibbon, et al., 2008, McKay, et (see Figure 1). Many educational websites in the
al., 2008) including frustration from technical late 1990s and early 2000s were like StarChild,
failure, distraction from too much interaction, with quite crude interactive features.
and a steep learning curve due to the complexity The advancement of ICT in the 21st century
of the interface. Increasingly, research findings has brought new opportunities to ILS design, al-
suggest that it is the good design of instruction, lowing novel and often more complex interactive
rather than the technology itself, that makes a features to be embedded in ICT-supported instruc-
difference in students’ performance. tion. The interactive potentials brought by emerg-
ing ICT include the following:

Figure 1. Screen capture of StarChild’s main page (© NASA/GSFC. Used with permission.)

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Emerging Technologies for Interactive Learning in the ICT Age

• Greater Mobility: Mobile devices, such Based on their most common applications
as smart-phones, clickers or PDAs, allow and most distinguished features, the new ICT
interaction to occur anytime and anywhere. tools discussed in this chapter are categorized
• Broader Channels for Interaction: into four types: (a) educational networking; (b)
Synchronous and asynchronous commu- web-based learning; (c) mobile learning; and (d)
nication tools, such as instant messaging classroom equipment. Definitions and examples
software, video-conferencing tools or so- of some commonly used tools in each type are
cial networks, provide additional channels summarized in Table 1.
for learner-instructor and learner-learner It is important to note that the aforementioned
interaction. classification is by no means rigid and immutable,
• Wider Scope of Interaction: The online because ICT tools are growing increasingly in-
learning community provided by Web 2.0 terconnected and integrated due to the advance-
sites extends learners’ scope of interaction ment of web syndication. For example, blog and
beyond classrooms into every corner of the podcasting can be different applications of an
world. Common services and applications educational networking site, and their content can
include social networks, blogs, podcasting, be accessed or updated using a mobile phone or
video sharing sites, and cloud tagging. an interactive whiteboard; in this scenario, blog
• Better Simulation: Learners can interact and Podcasting might also be considered as ICT
with each other through avatars in a virtual tools that fall into the other three types.
world (e.g. Second Life). Enhanced graph-
ic and 3D technologies further blur the dif-
ference between such interaction and face- CASE STUDIES OF NEW
to-face interaction. INTERACTIVE LEARNING SYSTEMS
• Easier Operation: Interacting with new
technologies, such as touch-screen com- In this section, we will delve into a more detailed
puters or interactive whiteboards, is much analysis of the ways emerging ICT tools can be
easier due to better graphic, usability and used to facilitate interactive learning activities in
interface design. various settings, and how teachers and students
perceive their learning experiences with such ICT
tools. Four cases were selected from the instruc-

Table 1. Types of ICT tools and examples

Type of ICT tools Definition Examples

Educational Networking Online learning platforms that connect learners using social network- Ning, Classroom 2.0, Elgg
ing technologies, exhibiting similar functions to sites like Facebook or
MySpace.
Web-Based Learning A set of online applications or services that expand learners’ abilities Wiki, blog, podcasting, social
to interact and collaborate with each other in the process of searching, bookmarking, virtual worlds
receiving, organizing, and generating educational content
Mobile Learning Mobile devices or technologies used for educational purposes that sup- Smartphone, PDA, GPS (for aug-
port different aspects of instruction or make new educational activities mented reality games), interactive
available. response pads
Classroom Equipment Stand-alone devices that are used in traditional classrooms to facilitate Interactive whiteboard, touch-
the interaction between teachers and students in different class activi- screen computer, Kiosk
ties.

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 Emerging Technologies for Interactive Learning in the ICT Age

tional technology literature as exemplar ILSs, only. Educators can set up and manage online
with descriptions of their design, development learning systems with customized design features
and implementation in both classroom and online and controls. Common widgets and services pro-
settings. This section then describes what interac- vided by Ning include blogs, discussion board,
tive features are made available in those learning individualized profiles, file sharing, synchronous
systems by the ICT tools; and how such features and asynchronous messaging, and grouping and
are used to facilitate the learner-content, learner- sub-grouping of its members. These features can
learner, learner-instructor, and learner-interface be used to facilitate different online learning activi-
interactions. The opportunities and challenges ties and promote interaction between members.
brought by the ICT tools are also discussed in this Hoffman (2009) describes how Ning was used
section, with empirical data from the literature. The in an undergraduate level course as a supplemen-
four instructional cases selected are as follows: tary system to the traditional Course Management
System (CMS) to promote learner-learner interac-
• Using Ning, an educational networking tion online. The course was fully asynchronous
site, to teach an undergraduate level tech- with weekly learning modules posted to the CMS.
nology course for pre-service teachers Students were required to study the modules,
(Hoffman, 2009) complete individual assignments, and partici-
• Using the Nutrition Game, an educational pate in a collaborative course project. However,
game developed inside Second Life, to the tools provided by the CMS were sometimes
teach children knowledge of nutrition and dysfunctional due to technical problems, and were
healthy eating habits (Cooper, 2007) usually insufficient to promote interaction among
• Using Environmental Detective, an aug- students, which was critical to their engagement
mented reality game that utilized GPS or and motivation. As a result, Ning was chosen by
pocket PC, to teach middle school students the instructors as a platform that enabled students
environmental science (Klopfer & Squire, to interact with each other and get personally
2008) connected.
• Using an interactive whiteboard to teach In the first assignment, each student was
science in elementary school (Gillen, et required to create a personal page that included
al., 2008) a profile picture and any personal information
they were willing to share with others. For those
Case One: Ning as an students who were familiar with social network
Educational Networking Site sites, they quickly started to “make friends” with
others by adding comments on others’ personal
Educators have been exploring the educational pages or sharing personal images or videos of
potential of social networking technologies since family members and life events like weddings,
the advent of social networks like Facebook and parties or vacations. While some students who
MySpace. By the end of 2008, at least 60 private were new to the idea of social networking chose
social networking tools for education have been not to share personal information, they indicated
identified (Hart, 2007, 2008). Among them, Ning they really enjoyed reading what others posted.
is no doubt the most well-known educational Such “fun” and “enjoyable” learning experiences
networking platform. In contrast to Facebook or offered by Ning is valuable, since research sug-
MySpace that are publicly viewable and joinable, gests that most students see an online learning
Ning allows educators to create private online environment as less satisfying than a traditional
learning systems that are accessible for members

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Emerging Technologies for Interactive Learning in the ICT Age

environment and are less motivated when studying since they were already using the CMS, and an
online (Young, 2007). additional, external system was confusing. As
As the semester progressed, the focus of the not all students were familiar with the social net-
postings shifted to discussing course topics and working concepts or technologies; differences in
assignments rather than personal events. Students preexisting skills might result in a steep learning
felt a strong sense of personal connection because curve and frustration for certain learners.
Ning helped them to “see” who they were interact-
ing with by showing a thumbnail profile image Case Two: The Nutrition
of that person on each discussion response. As a Game as an Educational
result, students were more willing to participate in Game inside Second Life
discussion and felt more comfortable to express or
receive different opinions. Student-initiated inter- The Nutrition Game was jointly developed by
action was also evident in this case. For example, the VITAL Lab at Ohio University and Ohio
a small number of students would consistently University without Boundaries. The game was
share the digital resources they found online with created on the platform of Second Life, an online
their classmates to help with course assignments virtual world, and is open to the public. The game
or simply to make them laugh. As one student teaches players about the nutritional values of
pointed out, “Ning put faces to names and allowed different foods and encourages for healthy eating
everyone to interact in a less formal, yet still pro- habits by showing the impact of different diet op-
fessional way” (Hoffman, 2009, p. 97). Another tions on short- and long-term health, particularly
student even considered the personal connection focusing on the detrimental impact of fast-food
fostered by Ning was greater than what she might on children’s health.
find in a traditional classroom, stating, The game offers players the simulated experi-
ence of dining out in three virtual restaurants: a
I loved the personal piece of it. I enjoyed learning fast-food restaurant, a soul food restaurant, and
from my peers and seeing what works for them in a Chinese restaurant (see Figure 2). In the game,
their classrooms... It was easy to communicate and a player’s avatar needs to consume three meals
nice to learn about everyone in the class, whom for one day in the restaurants he or she chooses
I may not have interacted with in a face-to-face to dine in, and select from three different menus
class. (Hoffman, 2009, p. 97) offered in those restaurants. When creating their
own avatars, players can enter personal statistics
In general, students welcomed the use of Ning including of height, weight, age, gender, and ac-
in the online course and none suggested eliminat- tivity level to calculate the recommended daily
ing Ning as a course tool for the future classes. calorie consumption (known as the calorie budget)
The overall rating of the course was higher than in for the player. When players order food from the
previous years, and most students ranked student menus, they can click on a food item to receive
interaction on top of the three highlights of the more detailed nutrition information about it, such
course. Both teachers and students acknowledged as the amount of calories, fat, and cholesterol,
the positive impacts of Ning on the affective as- and the potential health benefits of selecting that
pects of learning, such as motivation, retention, food (see Figure 3). Players also receive advice
engagement, and satisfaction. However, there on how to make food healthier by making special
were also some small issues regarding the use requests, such as removing sauce and cheese or
of Ning in this case. Introducing Ning was seen replacing fried meat with grilled meat.
as disruptive by some students in the beginning

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 Emerging Technologies for Interactive Learning in the ICT Age

Figure 2. A female player standing before the Chinese restaurant (© VITAL Lab at Ohio University.
Used with permission.)

Figure 3. Different food choices offered on the menu of the fast food restaurant (© VITAL Lab at Ohio
University. Used with permission.)

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Emerging Technologies for Interactive Learning in the ICT Age

The game ends when a player has consumed calories, sodium intake, etcetera. Some foods were
three meals for that day. A statistical report will more damaging than I expected while others were
be sent to the player at the end of the game show- not as bad as I would have thought. It was an eye
ing how much weight he or she will gain or lose opening experience” (p. 49). The most common
in one week, one month, or one year based on complaints about the game were technical, as
their eating habits for that day. Data regarding the many players experienced “lagging” when play-
number of calories from fat and how much cho- ing the game, which made some learners believe
lesterol was consumed in that day are generated the game was not working and caused confu-
and compared to the recommended values. Pos- sion. The future revisions proposed in the study
sible health problems associated with particular emphasized further enhancement of interactivity
eating habits are described and dietary suggestions for the game, which included allowing the avatar
proposed. to change body shape to reflect food decision,
The nutrition game is an innovative attempt to further shortening the response time for players’
educate people about nutrition facts and healthy actions, and adding more food items and nutrition
eating habits in a way that is highly interactive elements as variables.
and relevant. For example, although not required,
90% of people in Cooper’s study (Cooper, 2007) Case Three: Environmental
decided to use their personal statistics when creat- Detectives as an Augmented
ing avatars for the game. When asked about this Reality Game
decision, almost all respondents answered that
they wanted a more personal experience with Environmental Detectives (ED) is a multi-player,
the game, and believed that doing so gave them Augmented Reality (AR) game that simulates
a more engaging and informative learning experi- an environmental investigation of a toxic spill
ence. Players are given opportunities to interact in students’ community. It was developed by the
with various game content, such as the choice of MIT Teacher Education Program to support high
restaurants, the combination of food, and even school or college students’ learning of toxicology
the food preparation methods. Every choice play- and its path of transport, and develop students’
ers make in the game affects their health in the scientific investigation skills. Students go to real
virtual environment. Players can make choices locations on campus to investigate the toxic spill
based on their own eating habits; or they can test scenario in the game using mobile devices, like
different diet plans (such as “all french-fries” pocket PCs or PDAs equipped with GPS and
or “all vegetables”) and examine the impacts of Bluetooth. Such mobile devices provide students
these choices on health. Learner-learner interac- with the simulated data triggered by the exact
tion is also made possible using the Second Life coordinates on GPS for a specific location, such
platform, as players’ avatars can chat with each as the chemical concentration in that location,
other and discuss each other’s menu selections. or simulated conversation with an avatar. (see
The overall feedback from players in Cooper’s Figure 4).
(2007) study was positive, indicating the Nutrition Students act as environmental engineers in the
Game provided learners with a fun experience. game. They are presented with a campus toxin
About 65% of players responded a significant spill scenario through a 60 second digital video-
knowledge gain, and almost all players said they briefing from the University president. Student
took something away from the game. One player must locate the source of the spill, identify the
described that he “learned how different types responsible party, report the potential health
of food compare to one another in the context of problems, and design a remediation plan. To do

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 Emerging Technologies for Interactive Learning in the ICT Age

Figure 4. Mobile devices are used to collect data in environmental detectives (© MIT Teacher Education
Program. Used with permission.)

so, students go to different campus locations to open-ended, with multiple paths to task comple-
collect and read chemical data using their mobile tion, allowing students to interact with the game
devices and exchange findings with other students system using the strategy that best fits their learn-
in order to identify the right spot to drill for a ing style.
sample. ED also includes an online resource da- When using ED in a field test with college
tabase that provides background information (such students (Klopfer & Squire, 2008), researchers
as the chemical make-up of the toxin, symptoms found that the unique properties of mobile de-
associated with the toxin exposure, geographic vices in this case such as portability, social inter-
parameters of the University, and relevant regula- activity, context sensitivity, connectivity and in-
tions regarding the toxin control) during the game dividuality greatly enhanced the level of
to help students complete the task. Students can interactivity of the game. Students were actively
access the database information by interviewing seeking new information about the problem by
virtual avatars, whose presence is triggered by collecting sampling data and interview responses,
specific locations on the GPS. Figure 5 is a screen- which were provided by the game system at spe-
shot from a student’s pocket PC. The red dot shows cific locations. Due to the time limitation of the
the student’s current location; the purple markers game, students could not take all of the samples
indicate the locations for interviews; and the blue or study all relevant information, thus they made
markers show the spots where students have al- choices between collecting interviews, gathering
ready collected samples. Background information background information, and sampling under-
about the toxin can be accessed from the online ground water. In order to find the best plan of
database and is shown on the right. The game is action, students also engaged in iterative discus-

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Emerging Technologies for Interactive Learning in the ICT Age

Figure 5. A screenshot from a student’s pocket PC when playing environmental detectives (© MIT Teacher
Education Program. Used with permission.)

sion with peers where they defined and redefined screen in the form of a whiteboard. Teachers or
the priorities, analyzed data from different students can then use an IWB pen, or even their
sources, and weighed the strengths and limitations hands, to interact with the projected image by click-
of different plans of action. ing, scrolling, highlighting, writing, or doodling.
Klopfer and Squire (2008) pointed out that In short, an IWB is a touch-screen computer with
using mobile devices such as pocket PC or PDAs a large whiteboard as its screen. IWBs, together
can supplement real world interaction and create a with related educational resources, allow teachers
compelling new educational media based on con- to “prepare material in advance or construct it in
text sensitivity and social interaction. In contrast to front of a class, quickly retrieve it for display to the
most computer-based software, whose interaction whole class when required, and manipulate items
is largely limited to that between learner and the directly on this display in a way that corresponds
software interface; the hybrid world of fantasy to what can be achieved with an individual PC”
and reality in ED allows social connection and (Kennewell, et al., 2007, pp. 61-62). Due to the
connection with the physical space to enhance interactive features and pedagogical potential, the
students’ learning. use of IWBs for teaching has increased rapidly
in recently years, and become an essential piece
Case Four: Use Interactive of equipment in an increasing number of K-12
Whiteboard to Teach Science classrooms in western countries like United
in Elementary School States, United Kingdom, and Australia (Betcher
& Lee, 2009).
Interactive Whiteboards (IWBs) project content In their case study, Gillen et al. (2008) exam-
from a computer monitor onto a touch-sensitive ined how IWBs were used in an urban elementary

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 Emerging Technologies for Interactive Learning in the ICT Age

school in south England to help fifth grade stu- to highlight key terms involved in evaporation
dents understand the concepts of evaporation and (evaporation, water vapor, changed) (see Figure
particle movement to demonstrate that through 6). Questions for discussion were presented
the use of the IWB, teachers can use multiple under each still image, with prompt emerged as
modes to represent scientific phenomena and instructional scaffold and key phrases highlighted
engage children in activities that consolidate to orient students to formulate answers using the
their understandings. In teaching evaporation, same scientific discourse. At the end of the class,
the teacher first opened a video file on the IWB students were encouraged to come to the IWB to
showing her boiling water in a frying pan. The adjust text labels or rearrange the terms to create
teacher used the presentational technology pro- a diagrammatic representation to reflect their
vided by IWB to pause, rewind the video, and add cognitive understandings of evaporation process.
text commentary to the video, engaging students In another class, the IWB was used as a shared
by presenting evaporation as a “magic trick.” The workplace where the whole class was learning
teacher then recapped the evaporation process by particle movement by categorizing images of
showing three still images from the video in the everyday items as solids, liquids and gases into
sequence of “hot frying pan with no water in it,” a table on the IWB. Using a “block and reveal”
“water in the hot frying pan bubbling,” and “the strategy, the teacher used text, images, and anima-
frying pan after evaporation.” She then used the tions to introduce the attributes of different par-
annotation function of IWB to write down ideas ticles and their movements while analyzing their
from the class discussion, using different colors similarities and differences. The continuous dis-

Figure 6. A teacher making annotations on the IWB (© John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Used with permission.)

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Emerging Technologies for Interactive Learning in the ICT Age

play of simulated movement of particle activity THEORY-BASED DESIGN

and related text explanation, together with the IMPLICATIONS
collaborative class project, helped students see
the connections between the attributes of particles The four cases discussed in the last section ex-
and their movement. emplify how emerging technologies can be inte-
It is true that many of an IWB’s functions grated in different educational settings to promote
can be achieved by using a personal computer, interactivity, with empirical evidence suggesting
but by replacing individual computer screens a positive impact on both teaching and learning.
with a whiteboard viewable for the whole class This section will analyze the rationale behind the
provides additional advantages. The IWB in this positive impacts found in the research through the
case shows that it can enhance learner-learner and theoretical framework of collaborative learning
learner-instructor interaction by allowing students theory; and propose the general guidelines for
to simultaneously work on the same task, making designing ICT-supported interactive learning
the teacher’s facilitating activities more visible systems.
to students, and providing immediate feedback Collaborative learning is a learning theory that
for students to encourage the use of scientific promotes the benefits of learners working in pairs,
discourse. Learner-content, learner-interface in- groups, or with instructors to solve problems,
teraction can also be achieved by having students complete tasks, or create products. According
use the different IWB tools to build conceptual to this theory, learning is a naturally social act
models, run simulations, or test theories. Teach- that occurs through learners talking amongst
ers in Gillen’s study also pointed out that it was themselves (Gerlach, 1994). The active exchange
easier to prepare class presentations using IWB, as of ideas within small groups increases learners’
compared to earlier classroom technologies, and interest and promotes their critical thinking skills
students were more engaged and focused when (Johnson & Johnson, 1986). Learning activities,
the IWB was used to deliver instruction. therefore, should center on students’ exploration
Besides its great potential for classroom use, and application of instructional content via joint
the IWB is not without limitations. First, IWBs intellectual efforts, rather than on teacher-centered
puts certain burdens on hardware, software and presentation or explication. Collaborative learning
technical support, as IWBs will not run properly theory is based on four assumptions regarding the
on outdated computers or those with slow Internet learning process (Smith & MacGregor, 1992):
connections. Resulting technical failures can cause
a disruption in classroom instruction. IWBs also 1. Learning is an active, constructive process.
require substantial efforts from teachers, from 2. Learning depends on rich contexts.
learning to use the IWB, to preparing IWB-based 3. Learners are diverse.
lesson plans and materials beforehand. Such high 4. Learning is inherently social.
demand on teachers will result in some teachers’
being reluctant to use the IWB in class. Lastly, When designing an effective ILS, the affor-
students’ zeal for IWB can be a two-edged sword, dances of ICT tools should be exploited in the
as research show that students often direct more pedagogic context that supports those learning
attention to the IWB than the teacher. Such a shift assumptions.
of attention sometimes can have a negative impact Assumption Number 1: Learning is an active,
on students’ learning (Somekh, et al., 2007). constructive process. To support this assumption,
ICT tools should actively engage learners in
meaningful learning activities which offer them an

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 Emerging Technologies for Interactive Learning in the ICT Age

opportunity to apply newly acquired information engagement of learners. ICT tools can aid in this
and ideas in their constructive inquiries, such as process by facilitating interpersonal communica-
theory testing, model development, and problem tions with peers and instructors and by supporting
solving. The Nutrition Game is such an example, as learners’ contribution to the learning resources,
the game did not provide direct lectures about the strategies, and body of knowledge. The use of
healthy eating habit, but rather offered learners a Ning demonstrated social interactions between
chance to explore different food choices and learn learners that were enhanced through personaliza-
their impact on health. ICT should also provide tion, such as adding profile pictures or sharing
various cognitive tools to guide such constructive personal information. Learners are more likely to
processes, offering instructional scaffolds along contribute when they feel personally connected.
the way. As we see from the case of ED, although Through the lens of collaborative learning
learners were required to solve a simulated toxin theory, this paper proposes that the following
spill problem by themselves, they received guid- features should be considered when designing
ance by interacting with virtual avatars, searching effective interactive learning systems:
online, and accessing the resource database.
Assumption Number 2: Learning depends on • Actively engage learners in meaningful
rich contexts. In contrast to most lecture-based learning activities
teaching, ICT tools should establish a learning • Allow learners to customize their own
context that is learner-centered, allowing for learning pace, sequence and preference
constant exchange of ideas, frequent reflection, • Provide prompt feedback and opportuni-
and multimodal presentation. The IWB case ties for reflection
describes a learning context where teachers used • Facilitate interpersonal communication
the affordances of the IWB to present the concept with peers and instructors/experts
of evaporation in different forms (lecture, video, • Encourage learners to contribute to the
image, text, and diagrams) and facilitate learners’ learning resources, strategies, and body of
discussion and reflection using highlights, an- knowledge
notation, and prompts. The other three cases also • Integrate various cognitive tools to support
indicate that rich contexts are not confined to the learning process
classroom setting, and can also occur in virtual
and outdoor learning environments.
Assumption Number 3: Learners are diverse. CONCLUSION
ICT tools should be used to accommodate learner
differences in background knowledge and skills, This chapter gives a brief overview of four cat-
learning styles, or aspirations, by offering interac- egories of technologies that emerged in the past
tive features that give learners’ control over the decade and their potential for interactive learning.
learning process and allow them to customize their Four instructional cases are examined in detail
own learning pace, sequence, and preference. The as exemplar ICT-supported learning systems,
Ning’s asynchronous messaging system and the with the purpose of explicating the interactive
open-ended game design in ED are interactive features available through the use of ICT tools
features that support such adaptations. and describing how these features can be used
Assumption Number 4: Learning is inherently to promote the learner-content, learner-learner,
social. To enhance the social aspect of learning learner-instructor, and learner-interface interac-
requires a learning system that can maximize tions in different educational settings. We echo
the intellectual synergy through simultaneous Kozma’s (1991) stance on the role of technology

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Emerging Technologies for Interactive Learning in the ICT Age

in education in this chapter and emphasize the Clark, R. E. (1983). Reconsidering research on
integrated relationship between ICT and learning learning from media. Review of Educational
theories. As a result, affordances of the emerging Research, 53(4), 445–459.
technologies are explored in a pedagogic context
Clark, R. E. (1994). Media will never influence
and guidelines for designing effective ILSs are
learning. Educational Technology Research
proposed based on the assumptions of collabora-
and Development, 42(2), 21–29. doi:10.1007/
tive learning theory. The purpose of this chapter
BF02299088
is not to claim the effectiveness of emerging
technologies, but rather describe the new tools, Clark, R. E. (2001). Learning from media: Argu-
strategies, and theories that are available for the ments, analysis and evidence. Greenwich, CT:
ILS design in the ICT age. Information Age Publishing.
Cooper, T. (2007). Nutrition game. In D. Living-
stone & J. Kemp (Eds.), Proceedings of the Second
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Information and Communication Technolo- Learning Theories: A set of assumptions

gies (ICT): Technological tools and resources that attempt to explain and describe how learn-
that communicate, create, disseminate, store, and ing occurs.
manage information. Mobile Learning Tools: Mobile devices or
Interactive Learning Systems (ILS): Learn- technologies used for educational purposes that
ing systems in which different components act support different aspects of instruction or make
upon each other to facilitate learning. new educational activities available.
Interactive White Board (IWB): A device Web-Based Learning Tools: A set of online
that projects content from a computer monitor applications or services that expand learners’ abili-
onto a touch-sensitive screen in the form of a ties to interact and collaborate with each other in
whiteboard. the process of searching, receiving, organizing,
and generating educational content.

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