Chapter 14

FUNDAMENTALS OF METAL FORMING

Chapter 3: 3.1 self-reading assignment

Chapter 14: All

1. Overview of Metal Forming

2. Material Behavior in Metal Forming
3. Temperature in Metal Forming
4. Strain Rate Sensitivity
5. Friction and Lubrication in Metal Forming
 Introduction
❑ Deformation process ➔ induce shape changes on the workpiece by plastic
deformation under forces applied by various tools and dies.
Classification
T: Manufacturing Temperature
1. Temperature Tm: Melting Temperature
– Cold (T/Tm < 0.3)
– Warm (T/Tm =0.3 – 0.5)
– Hot (T/Tm > 0.5 – 0.75)

2. Size and Shape

Bulk deformation: Small surface-area-to-volume (or surface-area-to-
thickness ratio.
thickness or cross-section change

Sheet forming: Large surface-area-to-thickness ratio

Thickness change undesirable
Mainly, shape change
 Forger (Bulk Deformed) and Sheet Metal Parts

Forged Parts (Bulk Deformation) Sheet Metal Parts

▪ Metal forming is a large group of manufacturing processes in which plastic

deformation is used to change the shape of metal workpieces
▪ The tool, usually called a die, applies stresses that exceed the yield
strength of the metal
▪ The metal takes a shape determined by the geometry of the die
 Stresses in Metal Forming

▪ Stresses to plastically deform the metal are usually compressive

▪ Examples: rolling, forging, extrusion
▪ However, some forming processes
▪ Stretch the metal (tensile stresses)
▪ Others bend the metal (tensile and compressive)
▪ Still others apply shear stresses

(a) Rolling (b) forging (c) Extrusion (d) wire and bar drawing
 Material Properties in Metal Forming

Desirable material properties:

▪ Low yield strength
▪ High ductility
▪ These properties are affected by temperature:
▪ Ductility increases and yield strength decreases when work
temperature is raised
▪ Other factors:
▪ Strain rate and friction
 Basic Types of Metal Forming Processes

1. Bulk deformation
(Chapter 15)
▪ Rolling processes
▪ Forging processes
▪ Extrusion processes
▪ Wire and bar drawing

2. Sheet metalworking
(chapter 16)
▪ Bending operations
▪ Deep or cup drawing
▪ Shearing processes
 Bulk Deformation Processes

▪ Characterized by significant deformations and massive shape changes

▪ "Bulk" refers to workparts with relatively low surface area-to-volume ratios
▪ Starting work shapes are usually simple geometries
▪ Examples:
▪ Cylindrical billets
▪ Rectangular bars
 Sheet Metalworking

▪ Forming and related operations performed on metal sheets, strips, and coils
▪ High surface area-to-volume ratio of starting metal, which distinguishes these
from bulk deformation
▪ Often called press-working because these operations are performed on presses
▪ Parts are called stampings
▪ Usual tooling: punch and die

(c) Shearing: (1) punch first contacting

(a) Bending and (b) deep drawing
sheet and (2) after cutting
Material Behaviour in
metal forming
 True-stress – true-strain curves

Engineering stress and strain are “gross” measures:

 = F/A0 =>  is the average stress ≠ local stress
e = (l -l0)/l0 => e is average strain

→ Then why use these values?

✓ These quantities are easy to estimate because of
initial Area and length values.
✓ Give good results ONLY for linear elastic range

Actual load ( F )
True Stress ( ) =
Actual or Instantane ous area ( A)

l
dl l
True Strain ( ) =  = ln 
l0
l  l0 
 : True strain (or natural or logarithmic strain)
 Relation between Engineering and True Stress and Strain
Relation between Strains

l   l0 + l 
 = ln   = ln   = ln
 l 
1 +    = ln(1 + e)
 l0   l0   l0 
Comparison of engineering
and true strains in tension

❑ For small deformation both strains are nearly equal (e ≈ ε)

❑ For large deformations True Strain (ε) must be used
l
2
A  D  D 
❑ For circular cross-section bar  = ln  = ln 0  = ln 0  = 2 ln 0 
 l0   A  D  D
Relation between Stresses

F F  A0  F  A0 
 = =  =  
A A  A0  A0  A   = S ( A0 A) = S (l l0 )
 Flow Stress
True stress-true-strain curve in tension.
Although stress and strain are proportional UTS
in the elastic range, the complete curve can
be approximated by the power expression
or Flow Rule

 = K n
➢ K : Strength Coefficient
(True Stress corresponding to ε = 1).
➢ n : Strain Hardening Exponent
(Slope of curve in log-log plane) Y is the Yield Strength
Yf is the flow stress.
Defined as “the instantaneous true stress
required to continue plastic deformation
at a particular true strain 1”,

Y f = K ( 1 )
n
 = K n  log  = log K + n log 
 Types of stress-strain curves

The effect of the strain -hardening exponent, n, on the shape of true-stress-true-

strain curves.
❖ When n = 1, the material is elastic, and
❖ When n = 0, it is rigid and perfectly plastic.

Question: How value of n can be helpful in knowing about material behavior?

 Idealized Stress-Strain Curves
Schematic illustration of various types of idealized stress-strain curves.
(The broken lines and arrows indicate unloading and reloading during the test)

(a) Perfectly elastic.

(b) Rigid, perfectly plastic.
(c) Elastic, perfectly plastic..
(d) Rigid, linearly strain hardening (Ep is referred to as the plastic modulus and is
the slope of the stress-strain curve after yielding).
(e) Elastic, linearly strain hardening (Most engineering metals exhibit a behavior
similar to that shown in curve).
 Work of deformation/ Average Flow stress
The energy required for any deformation process can be estimated by knowing
“Work of Deformation”
The “ Specific Work of Deformation” can be estimated from True Stress-Strain
curve

1 1
K n +1
u1 =   d =  K n d = 1 = Y  1 (J/m3)
0 0
n +1

K 1n
Y : Average flow stress of the material Y =
n +1

Work = u1  Volume
Schematic illustration of true stress-true
strain curve showing yield stress Y,
average flow stress, specific energy u1
and flow stress Yf.
 Problem
Annealed alloy steel has a flow curve with strength coefficient =
700 MPa and strain-hardening exponent = 0.15. A tensile test
specimen with gage length = 100 mm is stretched to a length =
150 mm. Determine the flow stress and average flow stress
that the metal experienced.

Solution:
 = ln (150/100) = ln 1.5 = 0.405

Y f = K ( 1 )
n
Flow stress Yf = 700(0.405)0.15 = 611 MPa

Average flow stress Y f = 700(0.405)0.15/1.15 = 532 MPa

 Problem

Determine the value of the strain-hardening exponent for a

metal that will cause the average flow stress to be 80% of the
final flow stress after deformation.

•Solution:

Y f = 0.80 Yf
Kn/(1+n) = 0.80 Kn
1/(1+n) = 0.80
1 = 0.80(1+n) = 0.80 + 0.80n
0.20 = 0.80n n = 0.25
Temperature in Metal Forming
 Temperature in Metal Forming

▪ Any deformation operation can be accomplished with lower forces and

power at elevated temperature

▪ Three temperature ranges in metal forming:

– Cold (T/Tm < 0.3)
– Warm (T/Tm =0.3 – 0.5)
– Hot (T/Tm > 0.5 – 0.75)
 Cold Working
▪ Performed at room temperature or slightly above T/Tm < 0.3
▪ Many cold forming processes are important mass production operations
▪ Minimum or no machining usually required
▪ These operations are near net shape or net shape processes

Advantages of Cold Forming

Better accuracy, closer tolerances, Better surface finish, Strain hardening
increases strength and hardness, Grain flow during deformation can cause
desirable directional properties in product, No heating of work required

Disadvantages of Cold Forming

➢ Higher forces and power required for deformation,
➢ Surfaces of starting work must be free of scale and dirt,
➢ Ductility and strain hardening limit the amount of forming that can be done,
➢ In some cases, metal must be annealed before further deformation can be
accomplished,
➢ In other cases, metal is simply not ductile enough to be cold worked.
 Warm Working
▪ Performed at temperatures above room temperature but below
recrystallization temperature

(T/Tm = 0.3 – 0.5)

Advantages and Disadvantages of Warm Working

▪ Advantages
▪ Lower forces and power than in cold working
▪ More intricate work geometries possible
▪ Need for annealing may be reduced or eliminated
▪ Disadvantage
▪ Workpiece must be heated
 Hot Working
▪ Deformation at temperatures above the recrystallization temperature
▪ Recrystallization temperature = about one-half of melting point on absolute
scale
▪ In practice, hot working usually performed somewhat above 0.5Tm
▪ Metal continues to soften as temperature increases above 0.5Tm,
enhancing advantage of hot working above this level

Why Hot Working?

Capability for substantial plastic deformation -

far more than is possible with cold working

Y f = K ( 1 )
or warm working n
▪ Why?
▪ Strength coefficient (K) is substantially
less than at room temperature
▪ Ductility is significantly increased
 Hot Working
Advantages of Hot Working
▪ Workpart shape can be significantly altered
▪ Lower forces and power required
▪ Metals that usually fracture in cold working can be hot formed
▪ Strength properties of product are generally isotropic
▪ No strengthening of part occurs from work hardening
▪ Advantageous in cases when part is to be subsequently processed
by cold forming
Disadvantages of Hot Working
▪ Lower dimensional accuracy
▪ Higher total energy required, which is the sum of
▪ The thermal energy needed to heat the workpiece
▪ Energy to deform the metal
▪ Work surface oxidation (scale) Thus, poorer surface finish
▪ Shorter tool life: Dies and rolls in bulk deformation
 Isothermal Forming

▪ Certain metals, such as highly alloyed

steels, many titanium alloys, and high-
temperature nickel alloys, possess good hot
hardness, this makes them difficult to form
with conventional methods.

▪ The problem is that when these metals are heated to their hot
working temperatures and then come in contact with the relatively
cold forming tools, heat is quickly transferred away from the part
surfaces, thus raising the strength in these regions.

▪ The variations in temperature and strength in different regions of

the workpiece cause irregular flow patterns in the metal during
deformation, leading to high residual stresses and possible surface
cracking.
 Isothermal Forming

▪ Isothermal forming refers to forming operations that are carried out

in such a way as to eliminate surface cooling and the resulting
thermal gradients in the workpart.

▪ It is accomplished by preheating the tools that come in contact with

the part to the same temperature as the work metal.

▪ This weakens the tools and reduces tool life, but it avoids the
problems described before when these difficult metals are formed
by conventional methods.

▪ In some cases, isothermal forming represents the only way in

which these work materials can be formed.
Strain Rate Sensitivity
 Temperature Effect

Increase in Temperature
Decreases the
➢ Modulus of elasticity, E
➢ Yield stress, Y
➢ Ultimate tensile strength,
➢ Strain hardening
Exponent, n
And Increases the
➢ Ductility
➢ Toughness

Question: What is the effect of temperature on metalworking process?

 Strain Rate

Strain rate: The change in strain (deformation) of a

material with respect to time
❑ Deformation rate:
✓ Speed of deformation ( m/s of ft/min)
✓ Speed at which deformation is being carried out (ram speed in extrusion)

Engineering strain rate True strain rate

 l − l0    l 
d   d ln 
e =
de
=  l0  1 dl v
= = d   l0  1 dl v
 = = = =
dt dt l0 dt l0 dt dt l dt l

v : speed of deformation

Strain rate depends only on v For constant v the strain rate

decreases with increasing
specimen length
 Problem

A work part with starting height h = 100 mm and diameter = 55 mm is compressed

to a final height of 50 mm. During the deformation, the relative speed of the
plattens compressing the part = 200 mm/s. Determine the true strain rate at (a) h =
100 mm, (b) h = 75 mm, and (c) h = 51 mm.

𝑣
Solution: =
𝑙
(a) strain rate = 200/100 = 2.0 s-1

(b) strain rate = 200/75 = 2.667 s-1

(c) strain rate = 200/51 = 3.922.0 s-1

 Effect of Strain Rate on Flow Stress (strain-rate sensitivity)
▪ Flow stress is a function of temperature
▪ At hot working temperatures, flow stress also depends on strain rate
▪ As strain rate increases, resistance to deformation increases
▪ This is the effect known as strain-rate sensitivity

(a) Effect of strain rate on flow stress at an elevated work temperature (b) Same relationship plotted on log-log coordinates

➢ The effect of strain rate on the tensile strength of material can be expressed as:

C = Strength Constant (analogous to K)

Yf = C ( ε )m
m = Strain rate sensitivity exponent
 Strain Rate Sensitivity
➢ The effect of strain rate on the tensile strength of material can be expressed as:

Yf = C ( )m

Approximate range of values for C and m for various annealed metals is

given in TABLE.
 Effect of Temperature on Flow Stress

▪ The constant C, indicated by the intersection of each plot with the vertical
dashed line at strain rate = 1.0, decreases
▪ And m (slope of each plot) increases with increasing temperature

Observations about
Strain Rate Sensitivity
• Increasing temperature decreases C and
increases m
• At room temperature, effect of
strain rate is almost negligible
• Flow curve alone is a good
representation of material
behavior
• As temperature increases
• Strain rate becomes
increasingly important in
determining flow stress
 Problem

A warm working operation is carried out at various speeds. The strength constant
of the work metal = 200 MPa and the strain rate sensitivity exponent = 0.20 in the
strain rate sensitivity equation. Determine the flow stress if the strain rate is (a)
0.01/s, (b) 1.0/s, and (c) 100/s.

Solution:

(a) Yf = C( )m = 200(0.01)0.2 = 79. MPa

(b) Yf = 200(1.0)0.2 = 200 MPa

(c) Yf = 200(100)0.2 = 502.4 MPa

Friction and Lubrication in Metal Forming
 Friction in Metal Forming

▪ In most metal forming processes, friction is undesirable:

▪ Metal flow is reduced
▪ Forces and power are increased
▪ Tools wear faster
▪ Friction and tool wear are more severe in hot working
 Lubrication in Metal Forming

▪ Metalworking lubricants are applied to tool-work interface in

many forming operations to reduce harmful effects of friction
▪ Benefits:
▪ Reduced sticking, forces, power, tool wear
▪ Better surface finish
▪ Removes heat from the tooling
 Considerations in Choosing a Lubricant

▪ Type of forming process (rolling, forging, sheet metal

drawing, etc.)
▪ Hot working or cold working
▪ Work material
▪ Chemical reactivity with tool and work metals
▪ Ease of application
▪ Cost