Lesson

DEFINING SOCIAL SCIENCE

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AS THE STUDY OF SOCIETY

This lesson focuses on the research design and methods used in undertaking
research. Also you will learn how the social sciences and the social science research
method can explain the nature of social problems and help address the different issues
that affect society.

WHAT I NEED TO KNOW

At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

 Define Social Sciences as the study of society

 Appreciate the importance of Social Science as instrument to deeply understand
society
 Distinguish Social Sciences and Natural Sciences from Humanities
 Describe the different types of research designs
 Apply the use of scientific method in social research

Topics to be covered:

• Definition of Social Science

• Natural Sciences and Humanities
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 • The Scientific Methods and its Applications
• Types of Research Designs: Qualitative and Quantitative

WHAT IS IT

WHAT IS

Social science is the study of society and the manner in which people behave and
influence the world around us.
Social science tells us about the world beyond our immediate experience, and can help
explain how our own society works - from the causes of unemployment or what helps
economic growth, to how and why people vote, or what makes people happy. It
provides vital information for governments and policymakers, local authorities, non-
governmental organisations and others.
Social science aware you about our surroundings and the incidents happened in the
past. It has significance to develop an international viewpoint. It is also important for the
moral progress of society. It helps to form the man social character. Study of Social
Science makes us an efficient citizen of a democracy, and it also helps us to solve the
practical problems in our daily life. It is essential for communities and organizations. It
also helps you to know how different societies are managed, structured and governed.
Social science helps you to know about the duties towards human society and make us
understand how a man can fulfil their needs. Because of Social science you will

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understand the fundamental rights in our constitution, freedom fighters who fought for
the nation. It also provides knowledge of the social environment and nature. It also
develops the human qualities, desirable attitudes in you, and it also expands your
critical thinking and imagination. You will learn many different things from social science
like cultural and social beliefs, religions, caste, nationalities, languages, festivals,
clothing, food etc.

Natural Science and Humanities

Social Science is different from natural science and humanities because it‘s primarily
interest lies in predicting and explaining human behaviour. Natural Science, on the
other hand, aims to predict all natural phenomena and its studies are based on
experimentally controlled condition of material entities. Humanism seeks to understand
―human reactions to events the meanings humans impose on experience as function
of culture, historical era, and life history.‖ (kagan, 2009, p. 4)
In brief terms, The Natural Sciences are empirical, they are addressed by using our five
senses of sight, sound, touch, taste and smell. Their facts can be verified
―empirically,‖ that is, with the five senses.
The Social Sciences are statistical, they are addressed by surveys of large populations,
as well as by empirical evidence. For example, anthropology compares social groups in
so-called primitive economic conditions with social groups in more advanced economic
conditions. It also includes Archaeology, Psychology, Politics, Economics and History.
Though most observations of Social Science can be verified, some observations are
matters of opinion — subject to a cultural bias of the scientist.
The Humanities are neither empirical nor statistical. This includes Ethics — the study of
Right and Wrong (Good and Evil). It includes Aesthetics — the study of the Beauty. It
includes Poetry, Rhetoric, Drama, the Fine Arts and the Performing Arts. There is no
empirical way to verify the data. The only methods of judgment that we enjoy in the
Humanities are intuition, feeling, opinion, debate and criticism. There is almost never a
consensus about them.

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 History of Social Science

The history of the social sciences begins in the roots of ancient philosophy. In Ancient
history, there was no difference between mathematics and the study of history, poetry
or politics.
The term "social science" may refer either to the specific sciences of society
established by thinkers such as Comte, Durkheim, Marx, and Weber or more generally
to all disciplines outside of noble science and arts.

Various Social Science Disciplines

Anthropology, Business studies, Economics, Education, Geography, History, Industrial

relations, Law, Philosophy, Political science, Psychology, Public Administration,
Sociology, International Studies, Library Science.

Anthropology is the holistic "science of man," - a science of the totality of human

existence. Physical Anthropology Cultural Anthropology.

Economics is the social science that analyzes the production, distribution, and
consumption of goods and services.

Geography is the science that studies the lands, features, inhabitants, and phenomena
of Earth. As "the bridge between the human and physical sciences.

Physical Geography environment and how space is created, viewed and managed by
humans as well as the influence humans have on the space they occupy.

Human Geography examines the natural environment and how the climate, vegetation
& life, soil, water, and landforms are produced and interact.

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History is the study of the past of human in the world.

Political Science is the study of social arrangement to maintain peace and order within
a society. State, Politics, power, Law, and ideology are components of Political science.

Psychology is the study of the human soul/ mind/ behavior/ personality and how these
are affected by individuals‘ environment.

Sociology is the study of human social relationships or social systems or human group
behavior. Sociology is the systematic study of society and human social action.

Theories

Society has TWO FACES: CONSENSUS and CONFLICT.

Karl Marx - The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles
Emile Durkheim - modern society is held together by a division of labor that makes
individuals dependent upon one another because they specialize in different types of
work
Max Weber - an action that a person does not think about cannot be a social action.

CONFLICT THEORY

• The role of COERCION and POWER in producing social order. This perspective
is derived from the works of Karl Marx, who saw society as fragmented into
groups that compete for social and economic resources.
• Inequality exists because those in control of a disproportionate share of society's
resources actively defend their advantages.

CONSENSUS THEORY

• states that social change should occur in institutions that are provided by a
political or economic system

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 • states that the absence of conflict within society is the state of equilibrium (a
state of rest or balance due to the equal action of opposing forces, an equal
balance between any powers, influences, etc.; equality of effect.)
• social order in society should be maintained, based upon the accepted norms,
values, roles or regulations that are accepted by the society in general.

STRUCTURAL FUNCTIONALISM

STATES THAT SOCIETY IS MADE UP OF VARIOUS INSTITUTIONS THAT WORK

TOGETHER IN COOPERATION.

Major steps in Scientific Inquiry

Observation: All scientific knowledge relates to the natural environment and all
knowledge begins with facts gathered through careful observation.
 Formulation of the problem:
 Collection and classification of more facts:
 Generalization:
 Formulation of the hypothesis:
 Testing the hypothesis:
 Retesting and reformulating the theory:

Approaches in Social Sciences

 Define the problem
 Review the literature review
 Develop a theoretical framework and formulate a hypothesis
 Choose the research design
 Collect the necessary data
 Analyze the results  Draw a conclusion.

Scientific Method and Its Application

The scientific method refers to a standardized set of techniques for building scientific
knowledge, such as how to make valid observations, how to interpret results and to
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generalize results. It allows researchers to independently and impartially test preexisting
theories and prior findings"(Bhattacherjee, 2012, p 5).
The scientific method attempts to minimize the influence of bias or prejudice in the
experiment. Even the best-intentioned scientists can't escape bias. It results from
personal beliefs, as well as cultural beliefs, which means any human filters information
based on his or her own experience. Unfortunately, this filtering process can cause a
scientist to prefer one outcome over another.
Scientific method provides an objective, standardized approach to conducting
experiments and improves their results. By using a standardized approach in their
investigations, scientists can feel confident that they will stick to the facts and limit the
influence of personal, preconceived notions.

The use of scientific method is required. The steps in the scientific method
(Rajasekharan, 2013) are as follows:

1. Defining the problem

2. Reviewing the literature
3. Forming hypothesis
4. Collecting and analyzing data
5. Drawing conclusions

The application of the scientific method to social science research simply involves the
use of its steps or procedures to specific research interests. The stages of the research
process (Garg, 2012) on the next page can serve as a guide in pursuing research.

Stages of the Research Process Key Questions

Define the research problem - What are the variables or units of analysis
being studied?
- What is the time frame or period of the
study?
Review the related literature - What has already been written about the
topic?
- What are the research gaps?

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Formulate hypothesis - What are the specific parameters of the
research problem?
- What are the means of manipulating the
variable and/or measuring the result of
the study?
Prepare the research design - Is the research going to be descriptive,
exploratory, or experimental?
- How should the sample be selected from
the population?
Collect data - Will the interviews be done personally or
over the phone?
- Who are the target participants of the
survey?
Analyse data - What do the data reveal about the
relationships of the variables being
studied?
- How do the data answer the research
problem?
Interpret the result and write the - What are the social implications and
report significance of the findings?
- Are the sources, both primary and
secondary, properly cited in the study?

Types of Research Design

The research design refers to the overall strategy that you choose to integrate the
different components of the study in a coherent and logical way, thereby, ensuring you
will effectively address the research problem; it constitutes the blueprint for the
collection, measurement, and analysis of data.
The function of a research design is to ensure that the evidence obtained enables you
to effectively address the research problem as unambiguously as possible. In social
sciences research, obtaining evidence relevant to the research problem generally
entails specifying the type of evidence needed to test a theory, to evaluate a program,
or to accurately describe a phenomenon. However, researchers can often begin their
investigations far too early, before they have thought critically about what information is
required to answer the study's research questions. Without attending to these design
issues beforehand, the conclusions drawn risk being weak and unconvincing and,
consequently, will fail to adequate address the overall research problem.
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 The University of South California Libraries offers some examples of research designs
and their characteristics.

Type Characteristics
1. Descriptive Descriptive research designs help provide answers to the questions of who, what,
research when, where, and how associated with a particular research problem; a
descriptive study cannot conclusively ascertain answers to why. Descriptive
research is used to obtain information concerning the current status of the
phenomena and to describe "what exists" with respect to variables or conditions
in a situation.

Example: A descriptive study of the factors that lead to domestic violence.

2. Historical The purpose of a historical research design is to collect, verify, and synthesize
research evidence from the past to establish facts that defend or refute a hypothesis. It
uses secondary sources and a variety of primary documentary evidence, such as,
diaries, official records, reports, archives, and non-textual information [maps,
pictures, audio and visual recordings]. The limitation is that the sources must be
both authentic and valid.

Example: Martial law in the Philippines: the golden or the cursed years in the
country‘s history?
3. Experimental Experimental research is often used where there is time priority in a causal
research relationship (cause precedes effect), there is consistency in a causal relationship
(a cause will always lead to the same effect), and the magnitude of the correlation
is great. The classic experimental design specifies an experimental group and a
control group. The independent variable is administered to the experimental
group and not to the control group, and both groups are measured on the same
dependent variable. Subsequent experimental designs have used more groups
and more measurements over longer periods. True experiments must have
control, randomization, and manipulation.

Example: A study on the effect of sleep deprivation on health and productivity

4. Exploratory An exploratory design is conducted about a research problem when there are few
research or no earlier studies to refer to or rely upon to predict an outcome. The focus is on
gaining insights and familiarity for later investigation or undertaken when research
problems are in a preliminary stage of investigation. Exploratory designs are often
used to establish an understanding of how best to proceed in studying an issue or
what methodology would effectively apply to gathering information about the issue.

Example: A comparative study on the effectiveness of same sex parenting vis-à-vis

conventional parenting.

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5. Cross- Cross-sectional research designs have three distinctive features: no time
sectional dimension; a reliance on existing differences rather than change following
research intervention; and, groups are selected based on existing differences rather than
random allocation. The cross-sectional design can only measure differences
between or from among a variety of people, subjects, or phenomena rather than a
process of change. As such, researchers using this design can only employ a
relatively passive approach to making causal inferences based on findings.

Example: A study on the incidence of the breast cancer across different age groups
of women.

6. Longitudinal A longitudinal study follows the same sample over time and makes repeated
research observations. For example, with longitudinal surveys, the same group of people is
interviewed at regular intervals, enabling researchers to track changes over time
and to relate them to variables that might explain why the changes occur.
Longitudinal research designs describe patterns of change and help establish the
direction and magnitude of causal relationships. Measurements are taken on each
variable over two or more distinct time periods. This allows the researcher to
measure change in variables over time. It is a type of observational study
sometimes referred to as a panel study.

Example: a study on the effect of TV programming to violent behaviour among

children

7. Sequential This type of research design carried out in a series over a time interval. It has no
research predetermined sample size as the researcher can accept the null hypothesis,
accept an alternative hypothesis, or choose a new set of samples and repeat the
study once again.

Example: A study on the effects of diet, exercise, and common medication on the
heart disease conducted across different age groups
8. Case study This type of design is applied to study a very particular research problem. This is
used to test whether a specific theory or model is applicable to real world issues or
scenarios.

Example: Improving school conditions by changing public policy in South Los

Angeles: the Community Coalition Partnership.
9. Meta – This is a type of design that evaluates and summarizes the results of the other
analysis individuals‘ studies. It requires strict adherence to a set criteria in selecting the
studies that will be used. An analysis of the previous studies increases the
explanatory power of the new study.

Example: Fertility and women‘s employment: A meta-analysis

Qualitative and Quantitative Research

Quantitative research is perhaps the simpler to define and identify. The data produced
are always numerical, and they are analysed using mathematical and statistical
methods. If there are no numbers involved, then it‘s not quantitative research.

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Some phenomena obviously lend themselves to quantitative analysis because they are
already available as numbers. Examples include changes in achievement at various
stages of education, or the increase in number of senior managers holding
management degrees. However, even phenomena that are not obviously numerical in
nature can be examined using quantitative methods.
The development of Likert scales and similar techniques mean that most phenomena
can be studied using quantitative techniques. This is particularly useful if you are in an
environment where numbers are highly valued and numerical data is considered the
‗gold standard‘.
However, it is important to note that quantitative methods are not necessarily the most
suitable methods for investigation. They are unlikely to be very helpful when you want to
understand the detailed reasons for particular behaviour in depth. It is also possible that
assigning numbers to fairly abstract constructs such as personal opinions risks making
them spuriously precise.

Sources of Quantitative Data

The most common sources of quantitative data include:

Surveys - Whether conducted online, by phone or in person. These rely on the same
questions being asked in the same way to a large number of people;
Observations - Which may either involve counting the number of times that a
particular phenomenon occurs, such as how often a particular word is used in
interviews, or coding observational data to translate it into numbers; and Secondary
data - such as company accounts.

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Qualitative research is any which does not involve numbers or numerical data. It often
involves words or language, but may also use pictures or photographs and
observations.
Almost any phenomenon can be examined in a qualitative way, and it is often the
preferred method of investigation in the UK and the rest of Europe; US studies tend to
use quantitative methods, although this distinction is by no means absolute.
Qualitative analysis results in rich data that gives an in-depth picture and it is
particularly useful for exploring how and why things have happened.

However, there are some pitfalls to qualitative research, such as:

 If respondents do not see a value for them in the research, they may provide
inaccurate or false information. They may also say what they think the researcher
wishes to hear. Qualitative researchers therefore need to take the time to build
relationships with their research subjects and always be aware of this potential.
 Although ethics are an issue for any type of research, there may be particular
difficulties with qualitative research because the researcher may be party to
confidential information. It is important always to bear in mind that you must do no
harm to your research subjects.
 It is generally harder for qualitative researchers to remain apart from their
work. By the nature of their study, they are involved with people. It is therefore
helpful to develop habits of reflecting on your part in the work and how this may
affect the research. See our page on Reflective Practice for more.

Sources of Qualitative Data

Although qualitative data is much more general than quantitative, there are still a
number of common techniques for gathering it. These include:

Interviews - which may be structured, semi-structured or unstructured;

Focus groups - which involve multiple participants discussing an issue;
‘Postcards’ - or small-scale written questionnaires that ask, for example, three or four
focused questions of participants but allow them space to write in their own words;

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Secondary data - including diaries, written accounts of past events, and company
reports; and
Observations - which may be on site, or under ‗laboratory conditions‘, for example,
where participants are asked to role-play a situation to show what they might do.

Difference between Theories and Concepts

Concepts - a generalized idea about people, objects or processes that are related to
one another, an abstract way of classifying things that are similar.

They are ways of classifying things that are in the same categories;
Concepts - are used to simplify the way people think and communicate.

 Are used by social scientists to generalize about some aspects of human interaction.
 They are guidelines that direct the interpretation and analysis of reality.
 Concepts are the technical vocabulary of the social sciences, and they have precise
meanings that may differ considerably from the generally understood versions.

Theories - a set of principles or concepts and generalizations so arranged that they

explain and predict possible relationships among phenomena.
 In social science, theories are the formulation of principles of behavior through which
scientists try to increase their knowledge of human interaction.
 Theories - founded on observation and analysis using the vocabulary of concepts
intent to explain the connections between and among occurrences in human
interaction.

Without theories, the accumulation of knowledge would be impossible, just as the

formulation of theories would be impossible without concepts- Always open to change
and even to total rejection if new evidence is presented to challenge them.- In scientific
terminology, a theory carries much more weight because it is based on supporting
evidence.

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 Theories of Social sciences

The theory of evolution assumes that the changes in any society are uniformly based
on fixed rules.

 The idea of Evolution is often associated with great personalities like Charles Darwin,
Auguste Comte, Herbert Spencer, and Karl Marx

Darwin’s Theory of Evolution – is based on 5 key observations and inferences. 1.

Species have great fertility. They make more offspring than they can grow to
adulthood.
2. Populations remain roughly the same size with modest fluctuations
3. Food resources are limited but are relatively constant most of the time.
4. In sexually reproducing species, generally, no two individuals are identical. Variations
is rampant.
5. Much of this variation is heritable

Darwin’s Theory of Evolution

1. Variation – There is a variation in every population
2. Competition – Organisms compete for limited resources
3. Offspring – organisms produce more offspring than can survive
4. Genetics - Organisms pass Genetic traits on to their offspring
5. Natural Selection – Those organisms with the most beneficial traits are more likely
to survive and reproduce.

AUGUST COMTE (1798-1857)

Suggested the idea that human thought is divided into 3 categories:
i. Theology - whereby the thoughts are influenced by religion and supernatural beliefs.
ii. Metaphysic - thoughts that are influenced by an abstract idea that is gathered from
incident and physical phenomenon.
iii. Positivism - man think by using scientific methods to explore the incidents and the
physical phenomenon around them.
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Herbert Spencer (1820-1903)
 Assumed of the existence of equal evolutionary process between biological
organisms and people

 His idea about the natural social evolution was influenced by Darwin‘s idea of
―Survival of the Fittest‖
 The fittest will survive in the process while the weak will be eliminated naturally
according to the law of nature

 Hence, his idea refuses the element of force in the human social system

Lewis Henry Morgan (1818- 1881)

 popularized Cultural Evolution Theory
 Made assumptions that any society can be divided according to 3 levels of survival
Savagery - society which lives as nomads and indulges in hunting and food gathering
Barbarism - society which lives in a particular place and plants for survival
Civilization - society which lives in a particular place and starts to use technology

Karl Marx (1818-1883) &Frederick Engels (1820-1895)

 Influenced by Morgan‘s ideas but more focused on material changes aspect

 Evolution happens in the contacts of resource production and mode of production

CONCLUSION
 Mankind needs to understand and observe the importance of social sciences
 Knowledge-based society will be better equipped to socializing process
 A well-balanced knowledge about social sciences will ensure the human's existence.

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 WHAT I HAVE LEARNED

Direction: Answer the following questions. Write your answer on the space provided.

1. What is Social Science and how it can be used to study and understand society?
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2. How is the scientific method used in conducting research?

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3. How Social Science differ from Natural Science and Humanities?

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WHAT I CAN DO
Activity 1. Slogan Making

Directions:
1. Generate your own slogan about the significance of Social Science as instrument
in understanding our society.
2. Make your slogan on a ¼ illustration board.
3. A 3-4 minutes. Time-lapse video of your slogan making.
4. Create your output creatively and imaginatively
Rubrics
Criteria Highest Possible Points
Relevance (relation to the topic) 20 points
Originality ( uniqueness) 20 points
Creativity ( artisty) 10 points
Overall slogan impact 10 points
TOTAL 60points

Activity 2. Picture of Reality

Directions:
1. Analyse the picture below and identify two social issues reflected in it.

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 2. Choose research designs and methods that are suitable in addressing the social
issues.
3. Write you answer on separate sheet of paper.
4. Answer the guide question below

Social Issues Research Design Research Method

Guide Questions:
1. Why did you choose those research designs in addressing the social issues
reflected on the picture?
2. Why did you choose those research methods in addressing the social issues
reflected on the picture?

ASSESMENT

Directions: Read carefully and write the letter of your answer on

your notebook.

1. Seeks to human reactions to events and the meaning created by experience.

a. Hypothesis c. Quantitative research
b. Qualitative research d. Humanities

2. A combination of quantitative and qualitative method

a. Mixed method c. Quantitative research
b. Qualitative research d. Humanities

3. Aims to predict all natural phenomena and its studies are based on
experimentally controlled condition
a. Social Science c. Natural Science

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 b. Scientific method d. Research

4. Analyses data such as interviews, narratives, and literary texts

a. Hypothesis c. Quantitative research
b. Qualitative research d. Humanities

5. Analyses quantifiable or numeric data and subjects them to statistical analyses

a. Hypothesis c. Quantitative research
b. Qualitative research d. Humanities

6. Investigation of different sources in order to pursue the advancement of

knowledge
a. Social Science c. Natural Science
b. Scientific method d. Research

7. Sets the tone for the type of data that will be used in the study, the methodology
that will be used in gathering and analysing data, and the direction of the
narrative, which ultimately addresses the research problem
a. Research design c. Scientific method
b. Research problem d. Review of literature

8. Subject the inquiry of investigation

a. Scientific method c. Research design
b. Research problem d. Review of literature

9. The wealth of materials or sources that have been previously written on the
subject matter
a. Scientific method c. Research design
b. Review of literature d. Research problem

10. A standardized set of techniques for building scientific knowledge.

a. Scientific method c. Research problem
b. Research design d. Review of literature

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REFERENCES:
Discipline and Ideas in the Social Sciences 2016, Pheonix Publishing House, Inc. and
Arleigh Ross D. dela Cruz, Cecile C. Fadrigon, Diana J. Mendoza Discipline
and Ideas in the Social Sciences, Division of City School Manila
https://esrc.ukri.org/about-us/what-is-social-science/
https://hbu.edu/news-and-events/2017/03/14/can-social-sciences-contribute/
https://libguides.usc.edu/writingguide/researchdesigns
https://library.sacredheart.edu/c.php?g=29803&p=185902
https://science.howstuffworks.com/innovation/scientific-
experiments/scientificmethod9.htm#:~:text=It%20provides%20an%20objective%2C
%20standardized,influen ce%20of%20personal%2C%20preconceived%20notions.
https://www.skillsyouneed.com/learn/quantitative-and-qualitative.html

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