PERIODIC RELATIONSHIPS

AMONG ELEMENTS
Lecture Notes 04
General Chemistry 1
NASC 2015
OUTLINE
1. Development of the Periodic Table
2. Periodic Classification of Elements
3. Periodic Variation in Physical Properties
4. Ionization Energy
5. Electron Affinity
6. Variation in Chemical Properties of the
Representative Elements
7. Additional Problems
8. References

Chang, Raymond, (c2012) Chemistry 10 Edition

DEVELOPMENT OF THE PERIODIC TABLE
• 19th Century: elements were arranged according to
their atomic masses

• 1864: John Alexander Reina Newlands proposed the

“law of octaves” which states that “when the
elements were arranged in order of atomic mass,
every eighth element had similar properties. But the
law turned out to be inadequate for elements beyond
calcium

• 1869: Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev and Julius Lothar

Meyer independently proposed a much more
extensive tabulation of the elements based on the
regular, periodic recurrence of properties.
Chang, Raymond, (c2012) Chemistry 10 Edition
DEVELOPMENT OF THE PERIODIC TABLE
• Mendeleev’s classification system (1) grouped the
elements together more accurately according to
their properties and (2) it made possible the
prediction of the properties of several elements
that had not yet been discovered.

• 1900: 30 more elements were added to the

Mendeleev’s periodic table which comprised of 66
known elements.

Chang, Raymond, (c2012) Chemistry 10 Edition

DEVELOPMENT OF THE PERIODIC TABLE

Chang, Raymond, (c2012) Chemistry 10 Edition

DEVELOPMENT OF THE PERIODIC TABLE
• Although this periodic table was a celebrated success, the
early versions had some glaring inconsistencies. If elements
were arranged solely according to increasing atomic mass,
argon would appear in the position occupied by potassium
in our modern periodic table.

• This and other discrepancies suggested that some

fundamental property other than atomic mass must be the
basis of periodicity.

• 1913: Henry Gwyn-Jeffreys Moseley discovered a

correlation between the atomic number and the frequency
of X rays generated by bombarding an element with high-
energy electrons. With a few exceptions, he found that
atomic number increases in the same order as atomic mass.
Chang, Raymond, (c2012) Chemistry 10 Edition
DEVELOPMENT OF THE PERIODIC TABLE

“The importance and usefulness of the periodic

table lie in the fact that we can use our
understanding of the general properties and trends
within a group or a period to predict with
considerable accuracy the properties of any
element, even though that element may be
unfamiliar to us.”

Chang, Raymond, (c2012) Chemistry 10 Edition

PERIODIC CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS

Chang, Raymond, (c2012) Chemistry 10 Edition

PERIODIC CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS

Chang, Raymond, (c2012) Chemistry 10 Edition

PERIODIC CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS
• Representative elements (also called main group elements) are
the elements in Groups 1A through 7A, all of which have
incompletely filled s or p subshells of the highest principal
quantum number

• With the exception of helium, the noble gases (the Group 8A

elements) all have a completely filled p subshell

• The transition metals are the elements in Groups 1B and 3B

through 8B, which have incompletely filled d subshells, or readily
produce cations with incompletely filled d subshells which are
sometimes referred to as the d -block transition elements.)

• The lanthanides and actinides are sometimes called f -block

transition elements because they have incompletely filled f
subshells.
Chang, Raymond, (c2012) Chemistry 10 Edition
PERIODIC CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS

• The chemical reactivity of the elements is largely

determined by their valence electrons, which are
the outermost electrons.

• For the representative elements, the valence

electrons are those in the highest occupied n shell.
All nonvalence electrons in an atom are referred to
as core electrons .

Chang, Raymond, (c2012) Chemistry 10 Edition

PERIODIC CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS
REPRESENTING FREE ELEMENTS IN CHEMICALS EQUATIONS

• Metals and metalloids always use their empirical

formulas in chemical equations.

• There is no single rule for nonmetals:

a. Hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, and the
halogens exist as diatomic molecules.
b. All the noble gases are monatomic species.
c. Some nonmetals use their empirical formula.
d. Some use the stable form of the element.
Chang, Raymond, (c2012) Chemistry 10 Edition
PERIODIC CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS
ELECTRON CONFIGURATIONS OF CATIONS AND ANIONS

Isoelectronic elements have the same number of electrons,

and hence the same ground-state electron configuration.
Chang, Raymond, (c2012) Chemistry 10 Edition
PERIODIC VARIATION IN PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
• The effective nuclear charge (Z eff ) is the nuclear
charge felt by an electron when both the actual
nuclear charge (Z) and the repulsive effects (shielding)
of the other electrons are taken into account.

Chang, Raymond, (c2012) Chemistry 10 Edition

PERIODIC VARIATION IN PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
• Because the core electrons are, on average, closer to
the nucleus than valence electrons, core electrons
shield valence electrons much more than valence
electrons shield one another.

Chang, Raymond, (c2012) Chemistry 10 Edition

PERIODIC VARIATION IN PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
Atomic radius is the distance between the two
nuclei in two adjacent metal atoms or in a diatomic
molecule.

The atomic radius decreases from left to right across

a period and increases fro top to bottom in a group
for representative elements.

Chang, Raymond, (c2012) Chemistry 10 Edition

PERIODIC VARIATION IN PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

Chang, Raymond, (c2012) Chemistry 10 Edition

PERIODIC VARIATION IN PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

Chang, Raymond, (c2012) Chemistry 10 Edition

PERIODIC VARIATION IN PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
Ionic radius is the radius of a cation or an anion.

• When a neutral atom is converted to an ion, we

expect a change in size. If the atom forms an anion, its
size (or radius) increases, because the nuclear charge
remains the same but the repulsion resulting from the
additional electron(s) enlarges the domain of the
electron cloud.

• Removing one or more electrons from an atom

reduces electron-electron repulsion but the nuclear
charge remains the same, so the electron cloud
shrinks, and the cation is smaller than the atom.

Chang, Raymond, (c2012) Chemistry 10 Edition

IONIZATION ENERGY
Ionization energy is the minimum energy (in
kJ/mol)required to remove an electron from a
gaseous atom in its ground state.

The higher the ionization energy, the more difficult it

is to remove the electron.

Chang, Raymond, (c2012) Chemistry 10 Edition

IONIZATION ENERGY

Chang, Raymond, (c2012) Chemistry 10 Edition

IONIZATION ENERGY

Chang, Raymond, (c2012) Chemistry 10 Edition

ELECTRON AFFINITY
Electron affinity is the negative of the energy
change that occurs when an electron is accepted by
an atom in the gaseous state to form an anion.

• The more positive is the electron affinity of an

element, the greater is the affinity of an atom of
the element to accept an electron.

Chang, Raymond, (c2012) Chemistry 10 Edition

ELECTRON AFFINITY
Electron affinity is the negative of the energy
change that occurs when an electron is accepted by
an atom in the gaseous state to form an anion.

• The more positive is the electron affinity of an

element, the greater is the affinity of an atom of
the element to accept an electron.

Chang, Raymond, (c2012) Chemistry 10 Edition

ELECTRON AFFINITY

Chang, Raymond, (c2012) Chemistry 10 Edition

VARIATION OF CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF THE
REPRESENTATIVE ELEMENTS
The metallic character of the elements decreases from
left to right across a period and increases from top to
bottom within a group.

Diagonal relationships are similarities between pairs of

elements in different groups and periods of the periodic
table due to the closeness of the charge densities of
their cations.

Chang, Raymond, (c2012) Chemistry 10 Edition

VARIATION OF CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF THE
REPRESENTATIVE ELEMENTS

Chang, Raymond, (c2012) Chemistry 10 Edition

VARIATION OF CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF THE
REPRESENTATIVE ELEMENTS

Chang, Raymond, (c2012) Chemistry 10 Edition

VARIATION OF CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF THE
REPRESENTATIVE ELEMENTS

Chang, Raymond, (c2012) Chemistry 10 Edition

VARIATION OF CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF THE
REPRESENTATIVE ELEMENTS

Chang, Raymond, (c2012) Chemistry 10 Edition

VARIATION OF CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF THE
REPRESENTATIVE ELEMENTS

Chang, Raymond, (c2012) Chemistry 10 Edition

VARIATION OF CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF THE
REPRESENTATIVE ELEMENTS

Chang, Raymond, (c2012) Chemistry 10 Edition

VARIATION OF CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF THE
REPRESENTATIVE ELEMENTS

Chang, Raymond, (c2012) Chemistry 10 Edition

VARIATION OF CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF THE
REPRESENTATIVE ELEMENTS

Chang, Raymond, (c2012) Chemistry 10 Edition

ADDITIONAL PROBLEMS
1. Arrange the following atoms in order of decreasing atomic
radius: Na, Al, P, Cl, Mg.

2. List the following ions in order of increasing ionic radius:

N3- , N+1 , F2 , Mg2+ , O2-.

3. Arrange the following in order of increasing first ionization

energy: Na, Cl, Al, S, and Cs.

4. Arrange the elements in each of the following groups in

increasing order of the most positive electron affi nity:
(a) Li, Na, K;
(b) F, Cl, Br, I;
(c) O, Si, P, Ca, Ba.
Chang, Raymond, (c2012) Chemistry 10 Edition
REFERENCES/SOURCES:

• Chang, Raymond, (c2010) Chemistry, 10th

Edition.Mc Graw-Hill Companies, Inc, New
York, USA