Received: 4 November 2019 Accepted: 3 February 2020

DOI: 10.1002/suco.201900444

TECHNICAL PAPER

Sensing and monitoring in tunnels testing and monitoring

methods for the assessment of tunnels

Alfred Strauss 1 | Jan Bien2 | Hans Neuner3 | Corinna Harmening4 |

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5 6 7
Christian Seywald | Michael Österreicher | Klaus Voit |
Elisabetta Pistone 8 | Panagiotis Spyridis9 | Konrad Bergmeister1
1
Institute of Structural Engineering, Department of Civil Engineering and Natural Hazards, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences,
Vienna, Austria
2
Wrocław University of Science and Technology, Wroclaw, Poland
3
Research Division Engineering Geodesy, Department of Geodesy and Geoinformation, TU Wien, Vienna, Austria
4
Research Division Engineering Geodesy, Department of Geodesy and Geoinformation, TU Wien, Vienna, Austria
5
Streckenmanagement und Anlagenentwicklung, Fachbereich Bautechnik, Tunnelbau Austrian Federal Railways, Salzburg, Austria
6
iC Consulenten ZT GmbH Wien, Vienna, Austria
7
Institute of Applied Geology, Department of Civil Engineering and Natural Hazards, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna,
Austria
8
Vienna Consulting Engineers ZT GmbH, Vienna, Austria
9
Faculty of Architecture and Civil Engineering, TU Dortmund University, Dortmund, Germany

Correspondence
Alfred Strauss, Institute of Structural Abstract
Engineering, Department of Civil The paper presents a review of testing methods and a classification of strategies
Engineering and Natural Hazards,
and tools in terms of technologies and techniques applied to the monitoring of
University of Natural Resources and Life
Sciences, 1190 Vienna, Austria. tunnels. In particular, the topic is contextualized through a brief introduction
Email: [email protected] in Chapter 1, followed by defect taxonomy and degradation mechanisms in
Chapters 2 and 3, respectively. Chapters 4 and 5 are related to monitoring strat-
egies and technologies. The former consists of purpose-based categorization of
monitoring policies, while the latter consists of classification of monitoring
methods including nondestructive and semidestructive techniques as well as of
classification of various types of sensors also based on the physical or chemical
quantity measured. General rules of implementation and operation of tunnel
monitoring systems are presented taking into account international expert
knowledge as well as contemporary practical experience in Austria. Considered
issues are related to the fib Model Code 2020 (MC2020) focused on evaluation
of structural performance assisted by monitoring and testing. Chapter 6 pre-
sents challenges related to the monitoring implementation and operation.
Chapter 7 discusses about monitoring characteristics in new tunnel, including

Discussion on this paper must be submitted within two months of the print publication. The discussion will then be published in print, along with the
authors’ closure, if any, approximately nine months after the print publication.

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the original work is properly cited.
© 2020 The Authors. Structural Concrete published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of International Federation for Structural Concrete

1356 wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/suco Structural Concrete. 2020;21:1356 –1376.

STRAUSS ET AL. 1357

data acquisition-transmission and specific monitoring techniques. Chapter 8

instead treats a particular topic related to considerations related to monitoring
characteristics of existing tunnel under investigation. Concluding remarks and
references finally close the paper.

KEYWORDS
monitoring strategies, monitoring technologies, taxonomy of tunnel monitoring

1 | INTRODUCTION • Collaborative Research Center SFB 837, Interaction

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Modeling in Mechanized Tunneling.
1.1 | General considerations
One main target is, in the long run, to enhance the
Monitoring of tunnel infrastructure is a very complex task, asset management of aging structures through improved
involving vital asset of the community, thus being of great monitoring strategies. This can be achieved by studying
responsibility, as also discussed in Bien (2019) 1 regarding new approaches that help better quantifying and
bridges. In fact, tunnel and bridges share being both com- assessing the performance of tunnel systems, as well as
plex physical systems consisting of many heterogeneous assuring expected performance level via new quality
components, that might undergo various degradation pro- specifications. Many of the topics introduced in this
cesses. In order to properly manage operation and mainte- paper are directly related to the part “Evaluation of struc-
nance of tunnels, the whole monitoring must be efficient. tural performance. Evaluations assisted by monitoring
Here it is intended for monitoring system the planning of and testing” of the fib Model Code 2020 (MC2020).14 As
all activities finalized to collect data on the structure defined already by Bien (2019), in this current document
defects to assess the tunnel condition as a background tool a few definitions are repeatedly used. In particular, “tun-
for the competent management. nel defect” is defined as a phenomenon that could impair
Furthermore, it is an interdisciplinary activity that the technical and/or functional condition of the structure
requires experts in integrated and various disciplines, as a result of a degradation process. The term “tunnel
including, but not limited to: structure inspection, non- technical condition” refers to a measure of differences
destructive testing, structural and electronic engineering, between the real and the designed value for specific tech-
numerical modeling and simulation techniques, data nical parameters, for example, geometry, material charac-
processing, communication and archiving techniques, teristics, and so forth. Finally, “tunnel functional
software design and implementation methods, and opera- condition” refers instead to a measure of conformity
tions coordination. A team of experts, which cooperates between actual operational conditions and user required
and efficiently communicates on the topic, is often times conditions, for example, load capacity, clearance, maxi-
necessary in order to develop a unified analysis and plan- mum speed, and so forth.
ning of monitoring activities. The topic is in great Another aspect in the long-term impact and behavior
demand and subject of research in many countries 2–13 of the rock/gravel mass is that, currently, there is not any
and in many international research projects, such as: comprehensive or unified design standard related to tun-
nel structures. The design standards or guidelines
• Eurostars E!12,267 OpOrTunIty (Operation Oriented implemented for each project are therefore selected and
Tunnel Inspection System), Fraunhofer-Institute For applied by the tunnel owner or by the related authority.
Physical Measurement Techniques, Press ReleasE, However, the project-specific rock or soil conditions, the
January 8, 2019, several possible types of tunnel by use, and the excava-
• TRITon—Trentino Research and Innovation for Tun- tion and support methods not necessarily do, thus
nel mONitoring, increasing the variation in the life cycle management of
• Value-based tunnel repair strategy for London Underground the structural lining.
(CSIC with Industry Partner London Underground), Another important aspect worth of being mentioned
• Assessing ground interaction effects and potential is failure mechanisms and associated risks. In fact, fail-
damage on existing tunnels before and after new exca- ures of tunnel support systems during construction may
vation works, EPSRC (Grant No. EP/G063486/1) and mobilize a large part of the underground space, thus
Crossrail with collaboration from Morgan Sindall causing a series of chain events, such as influx of large
and LUL, ground volumes or flooding of the excavated tunnel,
1358 STRAUSS ET AL.

excessive settlements or collapses of assets in vicinity and tunnels may include: vertical access and escalator shafts,
on the surface, and significant delays in delivery. During ventilation tunnels, or cross passages. Tunnel structures
operation, it is often considered that the tunnel and gro- are also used for access and withdrawal of material in
und interaction is a relatively stable and thus reliable mines and in the oil and gas industry, thus playing an
load bearing system. However, consequences of failure important role, depending on the duration of life cycle
are still of great significance as noted above. Moreover, management project. Additionally, in some cases, com-
any difficulties of maintenance activities in the tunnel plex combined systems are devised, as for example, com-
need to be carried out in a live condition or with minimal bined railway and highway tunnels, or transportation
interruption of the tunnel with particularly tight sched- and flood relief tunnels.
ule, and typically with high-risk activities and with work It can be stated that in most types of tunnel struc-
in confined spaces. As a consequence, advanced life cycle tures, the load development in the long term is essentially

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performance assessment techniques become of great stable. Pressurized tunnels are typically parts of hydro-
importance. In particular, associated areas with typical power plants during construction (diversion tunnels) or
monitoring tasks in tunneling are shown in Figure 1. operation (headrace/penstock tunnels), and they are fun-
damentally distinct from other types of tunnels, since the
inner applied load may exceed the ground loads, and it
1.2 | Taxonomy of tunnels can become a significant cyclic action. Rock swelling over
time may also exceed tunnel's stability.
Tunnel management is highly related to tunnel Depending on the load bearing system, tunnels are
classifications. differently classified. Typically, tunnels are constructed with
Depending on the use, it is possible to classify tun- a primary support in order to create a safe and suitable
nels in: underground space, which accommodates the installation of
a final lining of the tunnel and the required infrastructure.
• transportation tunnels, In some cases, the primary support also partly or even
• energy supply and cable tunnels, entirely acts as the final and long-term support of the tunnel.
• sewage and water treatment tunnels, Regarding the support system, one can distinguish
• pressurized flow tunnels, between unlined tunnels in very healthy rock environ-
• auxiliary structures. ments, such as rock or soil anchoring pattern, tunnels with
a lining constructed with bricks (often perennial struc-
Transportation tunnels comprise probably the largest tures), cast-in place or sprayed concrete, as well as con-
tunnel number and they can be additionally classified in crete, cast-iron, or steel prefabricated segments. Regarding
railway, road and pedestrian tunnels. Railway tunnels tunnels with a concrete final lining, it should be noted that
can also be divided into heavy, rural, and freight rail tun- in many cases unreinforced or fiber reinforced material is
nels, or in urban, light rail or metros. Road tunnels can used, instead of reinforced rebar. These aspects can
be divided into highway and motorway tunnels. Auxiliary strongly influence the failure or degradation modes, in

FIGURE 1 Monitoring in
new and existing tunnels
STRAUSS ET AL. 1359

correlation with the environmental and loading condi- A further type of failure often observed in tunnels is
tions. The various types of linings are correlated to various groundwater ingress in form of leakage. This is associ-
possible tunnel shapes. For example, segmentally lined ated, from a structural viewpoint, with durability of the
tunnels are of circular shapes, while brick and sprayed lining and of the reinforcement. This can also be further
lined tunnels mostly implement arch shapes. The shape in associated with the diffusion of aggressive substances
relation to the stress field around the tunnel may addition- from the surrounding substrate as it is discussed in typi-
ally influence the susceptibility of the tunnel to degrada- cal exposure classes of concrete structures.
tion processes (e.g., concrete lining under mild
compression can prove to remain unaffected of material
degradation phenomena such as cracking or creep). 2 | DEFECT CLASSIFICATION
The load bearing system type is also strongly associ-

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ated to the selected construction method. In relation to A consistent and comprehensive taxonomy of the most
this matter, one can distinguish between tunnels exca- recurrent structural defects can lead to a more effective
vated with: drill and blast method (hard rock), road- monitoring of the structural conditions, as also explained
header (soft and hard rock) method, and conventional or in Bien (2019), in full analogy with bridges. The classifi-
mechanized like Tunnel Boring Machine (TBM) excava- cation of tunnel defects presented in Table 1 stems from
tion methods (rocks and soft soil). Cut and cover tunnels a proposals described in Cigna et al.16 and was developed
are usually constructed at shallow depths, which are then in the form of a three-level hierarchical system:
related to soft rock or soil. Manual excavation has been
implemented to a great extent only for historical and • level 1: basic classes of defects,
older tunnels, as well as for minor excavations in very • level 2: types of defects defined for each basic class,
confined underground areas. Based on the investigations • level 3: categories of defects proposed for each type of
of,15 it is evident that more than 83% of tunnels are lined defects.
with un- or reinforced concrete. Brick, iron or steel seg-
ments have generally been used in the lining of manually The basic classes of defects (level 1) can be defined as
constructed tunnels. Drill and blast, road-header, and follows:
conventional excavation are associated with anchoring
systems and sprayed concrete support systems. TBM • deformation caused by rock deformation
excavation is associated with concrete segments (rarely • deformation: incorrect geometry of constructed ele-
with unlined or sprayed concrete linings in rock). There- ment as well as changes of structure geometry during
fore, a maintenance strategy may be indirectly influenced operation, with changes of mutual distances between
by the tunnel construction method classification. structure points—incompatible with the design,
Depending on the typical failure type, the failure • destruction of material: deterioration of physical
types in a tunnel can be principally differentiated between and/or chemical as well as structural features of mate-
failures in the construction and in the operational phase. rial in relation to the designed values,
During operation, structural failures can be related to fail- • loss of material: decrease of designed amount of struc-
ure of the lining / support system itself, or failure of the tural material,
installed secondary structures. In both cases, failures can • discontinuity: break of continuity of a structural
result from loss of load-bearing capacity due to excessive material—inconsistent with the design (crack or fracture),
loading situations (internal or external pressures), degrada- • contamination—appearance of any type of dirtiness or
tion of materials, and accidents or defects. Fire accidents not designed vegetation on the structure,
have been under particular focus, as a consequence of his- • displacement: change of the position of the structure
torical catastrophic events in high-importance tunnel struc- or its part—incompatible with the design, but without
tures. Nonetheless, vital parts for the tunnel operation are changes of mutual distances between structure points
typically the tunnel infrastructure (e.g., equipment and sec- (without deformation); or restrictions in the designed
ondary structures), since (a) they are directly affecting the displacement capabilities of the structure.
tunnel user and (b) in most cases the tunnel load bearing
structure is—if at all—slowly affected throughout the oper- Proposed classification of defects of tunnels with con-
ational phase, beyond handover of construction. Structures crete final lining with bar or fiber reinforcement is pres-
that can be emphasized in a life cycle management strat- ented in Table 1.
egy, can also be accordingly grouped and prioritized in This classification can be of great support in identify-
suspended structures, wall elements, invert structures and ing and in describing the most recurrent defects specific
tunnel permanent support/lining. for tunnel structures. The classification can be further
1360 STRAUSS ET AL.

TABLE 1 Classification of defects of tunnels with concrete lining—in analogy with Bien (2019)

Class of defect Type of defect Category of defect

Deformation Incorrect geometry of constructed Incorrect shape of concrete segments
element Uneven lining midline
Invalid arrangement of reinforcement
Inconsistent tolerances
Change of the geometry of cross section Excessive elastic deformation
Distortion
Permanent deformation

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Destruction of material Change of the chemical characteristics Change of concrete characteristics
Change of reinforcing steel characteristics

Change of rock bolts/anchors characteristics

Change of protective layers characteristics
Change of the physical characteristics Change of concrete characteristics
Change of reinforcing steel characteristics
Change of rock bolts/anchors characteristics
Change of protective layers characteristics
Loss of material Loss of structural material Loss of concrete
Loss of reinforcing steel
Loss of bolts/anchors material
Loss of material of protective layer Loss of material of concrete protection
Loss of protection of reinforcing steel
Loss of waterproofing (incl. joints, gaskets)
Discontinuity Crack Crack of concrete
Crack of reinforcing steel
Crack of waterproofing
Crack of protective layer
Crack of rock bolts/anchors
Fracture Fracture of concrete
Fracture of reinforcing steel
Fracture of protective layer
Fracture of rock bolts/anchors
Contamination Inorganic Aggressive
Neutral
Groundwater ingress
Organic Aggressive
Neutral
Displacement Incorrect linear displacement Excessive movement
Restricted movement
Incorrect rotation Excessive movement
Restricted movement

developed and level-diversified, in accordance with independent inspectors performing similar tasks. It also
multi-level taxonomy. The main scope in classifying invests great importance in the formulation of tunnel
defects would be to reach comparable results among quality specifications and in the examination of the
STRAUSS ET AL. 1361

structure performance indicators during the complete The load-dependent category, also called technical
process of condition monitoring. monitoring, is based on the observation of a structure
response to operation loads and environment by means
of installed technical measuring equipment. 29–39 It is
3 | DEGRADATION MECHANISMS characterized by the installation of a technical monitor-
ing system finalized to the data acquisition and
Tunnel structures are affected by multiple degradation processing, that continuously and autonomously provides
mechanisms that can possibly lead to first defect genera- real-time information about a structure or its component.
tion, then failures and finally even collapses (Bien 2019). The result of this analysis is conveying information
When two or more mechanisms act simultaneously, deg- regarding the exact estimation of tunnel conditions
radation processes at a final stage either on the tunnel inherent to aspects that can generally not be fully

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structures as a whole or on selected elements take place. described by means of inspections only.
Degradation mechanisms can be generally divided In this category static and dynamic controlled proof
into three groups: load tests can be listed, including short- and long-term
technical monitoring under normal loading as well as
• chemical mechanisms—causing structure deteriora- under natural environmental conditions. Predefined
tion as a result of chemical processes: carbonation, cor- proof load tests are usually applied before opening a new
rosion, reactions between aggressive material structure to traffic or after completing major rehabilita-
components, and so forth, tion works. For short-term monitoring it is intended a
• physical mechanisms—when deterioration is a conse- process which usually last from 24 hr to a few days by
quence of physical phenomena: erosion, overloading, means of temporarily installed sensors, while for the
fatigue, crystallization, extreme temperatures, freeze– long-term monitoring a process which involves a perma-
thaw action, rheological effects, and so forth, nently mounted system is intended. In both cases, trans-
• biological mechanisms—in the case of deterioration ducers for sensing physical or chemical quantities with
aroused by biological organisms: microbes, plants, ani- the use of programmable electronic equipment that
mals, and so forth. acquire, process and communicate data are employed.
Tailored algorithms are developed for the data acquisi-
Relationships between the degradation mechanisms tion, processing and communication.
typical for tunnels with concrete lining and basic classes The overall objective of technical monitoring is to
of defects are presented in Table 2. support inspections at improving the knowledge on struc-
tures and their behavior, including recognition and eval-
uation of areas that are out of reach. The information
4 | MONITORING STRATEGIES obtained by monitoring can be used for the following dif-
ferent purposes of structural performance evaluation:
As defined in17 and in accordance with Bien (2019) moni-
toring can be generally defined as a coordinated act of • identification/verification of tunnel actual technical
acquiring, processing, communicating and archiving parameters,
information about the actions on a structure and/or the • identification of tunnel loads and environmental
action effects on a structure over a given period of time. actions,
As shown in Figure 2 policies for transportation struc- • monitoring of tunnel reaction to loads and other
tures monitoring, including tunnels and bridges, can be influences,
divided into two main categories, namely load- • recognition of tunnel degradation processes,
independent and load-dependent. • detection of structure defects,
In analogy with Bien (2019) for bridges, load indepen- • documentation of tunnel history and prediction of its
dent monitoring of tunnels consists of both regular and remaining life-time.
special inspections. In both cases visual examination,
nondestructive testing (NDT) and/or semidestructive test- Table 3 lists the types of technical monitoring systems
ing (SDT) can be performed, regardless of the structure in analogy with Bien (2019) for bridges. In particular,
loads. 5,18–28 Regular inspections are typically performed depending on analysis goals, the following basic types of
on a basic level (every year) and on an advanced level technical monitoring systems can be distinguished:
(every 4–5 years) and this can be usually applied to all
existing structures. Detailed procedures and requirements • Action monitoring—allowing measurement of the mag-
are generally defined in national regulations. nitude as well as the spatial and time-based distribution
1362 STRAUSS ET AL.

TABLE 2 Degradation mechanisms of tunnels with concrete lining and associated classes of defects based on the work of Bien (2019)

Class of defects

Loss of
Degradation mechanisms Deformation Destruction material Discontinuity Contamination Displacement
Physical Accumulation of inorganic □ □ ■ ■
dirtiness
Cyclic freeze-throw action ■ ■ □ □
Erosion □ ■
Crystallization ■ □ □
Extreme temperatures

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□ □ □ □ □ □
Creep □
Relaxation □ □
Shrinkage □ □ □ ■
Overloading ■ □ ■ ■ ■
Fatigue ■ □
Geotechnical condition ■ □ ■ ■
changes
Chemical Carbonation ■
Corrosion □ ■ ■ □ □
Aggressive compounds ■ □ □
action
Chemical dissolving/ ■ □ ■
leaching
Reactions between material □ ■ ■ □
components
Biological Accumulation of organic □ □ ■ □
dirtiness
Activity of microbes □ □ ■
Activity of plants □ □ □ □ ■ □
Activity of animals □ □

Note: ■, basic degradation mechanism; □, additional degradation mechanism.

of specific external influences acting on a structure or As valid for bridges in Bien (2019), it is important to
its component, including loads and environmental individually design each monitoring system, taking into
actions. account the specific problematics of the case. In most of
• Reaction monitoring—allowing measurement of the the practical applications, it can be said that each specific
state of displacement, stress/strain level and their distri- implementation results from a mixture of the categories
bution in a structure as well as identification of vibra- listed in Table 3.
tion parameters: frequency, velocity, amplification, However, advanced monitoring systems are not tech-
damping caused by traffic loads and other influences. nically needed for all analyzed tunnel structures, besides
• Performance monitoring—allowing to evaluate not being also economically feasible. In fact, its applica-
whether a structure or its component meets the perfor- tion is typically limited to the following situations
mance requirements under specific or any actions, (Bien, 2019):
defined by the performance indicators.
• Health monitoring—allowing the real-time assessment • tunnels with innovative structural and/or material
and prediction of health condition of a structure or its solutions,
component by means of their safety and functional • very important tunnel structures that are strategic
characteristics. components of transportation system,
STRAUSS ET AL. 1363

TABLE 3 Types of technical monitoring systems and expected

effects based on the work of Bien (2019)

Type of
monitoring
system Monitoring effects
Action Characteristics of all loads acting on a
monitoring tunnel structure
Geometry and speed of vehicles
Environmental influences (temperature,
wind, humidity, earthquakes, etc.)
Monitoring of accidents on the structure

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and in the neighborhood
Reaction Technical parameters of structural
monitoring elements
Displacements, strains, stresses, vibration
frequency, velocity and amplifications,
etc. of structural elements
FIGURE 2 Strategies of transportation structures monitoring Verification of theoretical analyses
according to Bien (2019) Modal parameters of the structure
Dynamic amplification factors
Material effort level
• damaged structures awaiting rehabilitation or Performance Identification of critical values of measured
replacement, monitoring quantities
• selected reference tunnel structures, representative for Detection and identification of tunnel
the national tunnel asset, monitored for creation and defects based on measured quantities
Monitoring of parameters of defects
verification of degradation models.
(location, extent, intensity)
Assessment of tunnel technical and/or
Only components which are critical for the safety, functional condition
durability and resistance of the whole structure are object Health Changes of technical and/or functional
of the technical monitoring process. Selection of the most monitoring condition
efficient strategy and technology of the tunnel monitoring History of loads and environmental
should be based on analysis of fundamental aspects like influences (temperature, wind, humidity,
(Bien, 2019): measurement frequency, type of controlled earthquakes, etc.)
quantities, nature of monitored processes, technologies of Observation of degradation processes
data transmission, and so forth—as presented Figure 3. progress (e.g., depth of concrete
carbonation, corrosion advancement,
etc.)
Determination of input values for
5 | MONITORING TECHNOLOGIES degradation models
Remaining life-time prediction based on
Depending upon the purposes of the monitoring proce- degradation model
dures, specific technologies, which can substantially dif-
fer from each other, 5,18–28 are applicable. Classification of
the technologies can be based on the:
• chemical processes,
• frequency of inspections/measurements, thus • biological phenomena.
including:
• continuous observation with defined frequency of In the case of inspections for the load-independent
measurements, monitoring a wide range of nondestructive testing
• periodical observations with predefined schedule and methods (NDT) and semidestructive testing methods
program, (SDT) can be used, as also discussed for bridges by (Bien,
• irregular observations/measurements dependent on 2019). In the former case, the techniques fully preserve
specified conditions; the integrity of the tested structures.
• type of monitored occurrences, namely: In the case of the semidestructive testing methods,
• physical parameters, the techniques involve material samples to be taken apart
1364 STRAUSS ET AL.

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FIGURE 3 Basic parameters of monitoring systems for tunnels40

as well as minor breach of the structural integrity. 6 | MONITORING

Table 4 presents a classification of the most popular SDT IMPLEMENTATION AND
methods and techniques, where physical, chemical, and OPERATION
biological methods applied during field and laboratory
tests are distinguished. In analogy with Bien (2019), the general scheme for the
In monitoring of tunnel structures by means of implementation procedure of long-term monitoring sys-
installed equipment, a wide range of measuring tech- tems based on sensors is presented in Figure 4. Initially,
niques and sensors can be engaged, for example, Refer- type and goals of the monitoring system are chosen, thus
ences 28, 30, 36, 37, 39. Typical tools applied for defining the system architecture design. A detailed design
monitoring of forces/effects acting on a structure are here of aforementioned system follows, which is then installed
presented in Table 5. on the structure. This poses the basis for the testing itself.
As far as reactions to loads, other actions or perfor- Experimental values should be compared to the theoreti-
mance and health monitoring are concerned, the follow- cal model of the structure.31 Testing process should also
ing physical and chemical quantities can be considered, confirm that tunnel performance indicators can be
for example, 28–39 : observed using the applied monitoring system.
In case of positive results of testing procedures, accep-
• linear and angular displacements, tance for operation follows. During long-term working of
• strain and stress level, the system some maintenance activities are often neces-
• vibration characteristics, sary, also including modifications of the system elements
• crack opening changes, and improvements of the structural theoretical model
• surface movements and influence to adjacent engaged in analysis of measurement results.
structures, Contemporary tunnel monitoring systems are more
• quantities specifically related to degradation processes. and more equipped with knowledge-based expert tools
that support not only the processing and the analysis of
The most widely applied measuring techniques and experimental data, but also decisions to be taken during
types of sensors for tunnel monitoring are presented in the management of the tunnel operation and mainte-
Table 6. Additional techniques allowing the monitoring nance, for example, References 17, 41–44. Another key
and processing of deformations as well as surface alter- point to be mentioned is that Information Technology
ations relay on optical sensing and photogrammetric (IT) rapidly develops, thus preluding to the fact that tun-
methods, which are discussed in detail further below. nel health-monitoring systems will be soon part of the
STRAUSS ET AL. 1365

TABLE 4 Classification of SDT methods and techniques based TABLE 5 Monitoring of loads and environmental impacts
on the work of Bien (2019) based on the work of Bien (2019)

Testing Physical quantity Measuring techniques and sensors

methods Measuring techniques
Temperature Thermocouples
Field tests Thermistors
Physical Pull-out/pull-off tests Electrical resistance thermometers
methods
MEMS sensors
Penetration tests
Humidity Hygrometers
Water resistance test
MEMS sensors
Probe drilling and ground sampling (inside/
Lighting TV/video cameras

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outside of tunnel)
Photosensitive sensors
Pressure techniques (flat-jack test, water
penetration test, etc.) Wind/ventilation Anemometers
Chemical Rainbow/pH tests Aneroids
methods Air composition tester
Chloride test Water ingress/flow Water level sensors
Alkali test Water velocity sensors
Electroanalytical tests
Laboratory
tests
7 | PRACTICE SPECIFIC BASICS
Physical Physical parameters of materials based on
methods testing of specimens
IN TUNNEL MONITORING
Computer tomography techniques
7.1 | Data acquisition-transmission
Chemical Quantitative analytical techniques
methods
7.1.1 | Sampling frequency, data storage,
Electroanalytical techniques data transmission
Spectral analyses
Chromatography analyses Generally, the sampling frequency depends on the kind
Biological Advanced microscopic analyses of measured variable which has to be recorded. For vibra-
methods tion measurements (accelerations or vibration velocity)
“In vitro” culture techniques and generally dynamic measurements, higher sampling
frequencies (>100 Hz) are required than for geodetic or
quasi-static inclination measurements. However, sam-
pling frequency has to be defined in advance, during
unified Building Information Management (BIM) planning the monitoring task. Beside the individual mea-
process. 45 sured variables, the possibilities of different sampling fre-
Operation scheme of an advanced monitoring system quencies on a logging system have to be considered. In
is presented in Figure 5. The basic components of the sys- most cases, the application of different sampling rates on
tems are: a measuring system is limited.

• measuring system with an equipment transmitting

data to acquisition module, 7.1.2 | Data storing local and remote
• data processing module using theoretical model of the
structure for analysis and interpretation of measure- Although prices of storage media have decreased signifi-
ment results, cantly, data storage of long-term monitoring tasks can
• module responsible for presentation of output data, still be a challenge. Especially in case of live measure-
often equipped with visualization tools, ments, high sampling rates are required. Figure 6 shows
• ex pert system supporting decisions i n management a storage-requirement estimate for different sample rates
of tunnel operation and maintenance by means of and channel amounts, based on a memory depth of
information collected in data and knowledge 16 bits.
base. 17,42,44 A few comments are worth of being mentioned:
1366 STRAUSS ET AL.

TABLE 6 Measuring techniques and types of sensors used in

monitoring of tunnel structure performance based on the work of
Bien (2019)

Physical or chemical Measuring techniques

quantity and sensors
Linear displacement Geodetic techniques
Mechanical sensors
Inductive sensors
Vibrating wire sensors
Capacitive sensors

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Eddy current sensors
Fiber optics sensors
Laser techniques
Radar techniques
Extensometers
Hydraulic sensors
Angular displacement Inclinometers FIGURE 4 General scheme of monitoring system
Fiber optics sensors implementation
MEMS sensors
Strain/stress Electrical resistance gauges
• a full raw data transfer is hardly possible, if no wired
Load cells data connection is available, specific solution can be
Fiber optics sensors the users basis for triggering.
Vibrating wire sensors
Hydraulic piezometers These define criteria have to be fulfilled in order to
MEMS sensors save the data. Data that does not meet these criteria are
otherwise permanently deleted.
Vibration velocity and Piezoelectric sensors
acceleration The criteria that determine whether data is stored or
permanently deleted can range from simple threshold
Capacitive sensors
value criteria to complex links of multiple sensors.
Inertia sensors
For storage itself, hard disk systems without mov-
Inductive sensors ing parts are recommended (SSD hard disks).
Radar techniques These are le ss sensitive to external influences. For stor-
Laser techniques age on “flash” cards, it should be noted that these
Geophysical seismic testing often have a limited number of read/write cycles. This
MEMS sensors
can lead to increasing error susceptibility with
increasing age.
Crack opening Mechanical sensors
Inductive sensors
Fiber optics sensors 7.1.3 | Data transmission
Vibrating wire sensors
Degradation processes Acoustic emission sensors In the field of data transmission enormous developments
Chloride level sensors have taken place in the last decade. These relate to both
network coverage and availability, especially in tunnels,
Sensors of pH level
as well as the bandwidth itself. 46 The development has
Corrosion sensors
its origin in the GSM standard with only a few kbit/s and
reached today a good coverage of 4G (LTE) and band-
width of up to 100mbit/s.
• a continuous storage of a large number of channels However, these high bandwidths represent “optimal
with higher sampling frequencies (>100 Hz) can be a values”. With greater distance to the next base station or
challenge for long-term monitoring data storage, heavily loaded base stations, the “real” values can be
STRAUSS ET AL. 1367

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FIGURE 6 Storage requirement estimation

The transmission of the full raw data is usually only

possible with wired or proprietary data connections (uni-
directional radio antennas with base station). In recent
years, fiberoptic cables are often used in tunnel structures
where transmission over 10–20 km is possible without
significant bandwidth lost. The corresponding interfaces
at the beginning and end of the fiber optic cables
FIGURE 5 Operation scheme of monitoring system supported
(routers) provide the translation between fiberoptic trans-
by knowledge-based expert system, according to Bien (2019)
mission and conventional LAN transmission.

considerably lower. This is also influenced by the geome-

try of the tunnel (e.g., blind spots due to vertical and hor- 7.2 | Engineering monitoring techniques
izontal tunnel alignment curvature).
Permanent transmission of the raw data can therefore 7.2.1 | Vibration-/acceleration
not be guaranteed with conventional mobile radio tech-
nology. As a result, it must be decided during the moni- Vibration and acceleration measurements can be classi-
toring planning process which data should be available fied as indirect measurement methods. This means that
online. The following fundamentals for data transmission can both provide only indirect and relative statements
have to be considered: about the stiffness behavior of a structure. The basic
equation is:
• transmission of minimal data to check the functional-
ity of the whole system or single sensors. To do this,
rffiffiffiffi
1 k
only single values may be transmitted at relatively F0 = ð1Þ
π m
large intervals (e.g., 3 times a day). This can be
guaranteed even in the worst transmission conditions With F0, natural frequency; m, mass; and k, stiffness
(GSM standard with few kbit/s). of the system.
• Periodic transmission of single values to check a limit Since mostly the mass ratios or in particular modal
or alarm criterion. Data is therefore transmitted peri- masses are unknown, the (modal) stiffnesses can only be
odically, usually every few minutes. indirectly and relatively inferred. The damping properties
• Partial transfer of raw data for further evaluations/ of the surrounding soil also add incomplexity since the
interpretations. In this case, depending on a selected soil properties and the soil structure interface are
trigger threshold, raw data is transmitted. This can governed by variability and randomness. However, the
usually only be achieved with 3G or 4G cellular advantage of this kind of measurements is the rather easy
standard. application. Figure 7 offers a few typical applications.
1368 STRAUSS ET AL.

The advantage of these measuring sensors is the

handy application. The sensors must be simply attached
to the tunnel wall or floor.
The output of acceleration or vibration velocity sen-
sors are usually volts (±10 V), and charge amplifiers for
the capacitive acceleration sensors are necessary.
The disadvantage of this kind of sensors is that high
sampling rates (>100 Hz) are necessary and, secondly,
that the results need to be further interpreted. Direct
statements about damage of a structure cannot be derived
from the results.

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7.2.2 | Inclinometers

Inclination sensors can be used for quasi-static measure-

ments as well as for dynamic measurements. On the one
hand, the results of inclination measurements can
directly indicate movements, but on the other hand, they
can also be interpreted by further calculations for defor-
mations (bending line of a structure).48–50
Inclination sensors determine the position angle of an
object with respect to the gravitational field of the earth.
The application possibilities for these sensors are mani-
fold: on cranes and excavators, for example, the inclina-
tion angle of the boom is detected to prevent the machine
FIGURE 7 Applications for vibration and acceleration
from tipping over. Tilt sensors can be used for both quasi
measurements. Typical applications for vibration and acceleration
measurements47
static and dynamic measurements.
Nowadays available sensors typically use either
liquid-based mechanisms or mechanical spring mass sys-
Accelerometers are usually easier to mount on tems. Microelectromechanical systems typically use
exposed locations such as tunnel walls or structural parts spring-mass systems that determine the deflection of
due to their smaller size. With regard to the measure- small test masses as a function of the position.
ment principle of accelerometers, both capacitive and Liquid-based systems use either the reflection or
piezoelectric sensors are widely used. For capacitive sen- refraction of a light through the liquid level or a resis-
sors, the principle is based on the movement of capacitor tance measurement or capacitance measurements as a
plates by external acting acceleration. This causes a function of the position of the liquid. Especially in the
capacitance change of the capacitor from which the case of liquid-based systems, the dynamic resolution is
applied force and acceleration (see Equation (1)) can be limited to lower (<50 Hz) frequencies.
derived. For piezoelectric acceleration sensors, the mea- The number of inclination sensors necessary to
suring principle is based on the same-named effect. The approximate a bending line sufficiently depends on the
acting force causes the crystals of the ceramic core degree of a function (usually the polynomial) with which
shifting against each other. This displacement causes an the bending line can be sufficiently approximated. If a
electrical voltage, from which the acting force or acceler- third order function is necessary to describe the bending
ation can be calculated. line sufficiently, at least N + 1, (4) inclination sensors are
For vibration velocity sensors (geophones), whose necessary to estimate the bending line.50 This means that
origin comes from the earthquake field, the measuring a mathematical model (analytical or FEM) of the struc-
principle is based on a coil with a moving magnet in the ture exists in advance.
core. This movement induces a voltage in the coil, The output from analog inclination sensors is pre-
which is proportional to the externally induced vibra- dominantly a voltage signal (e.g., ±5 V) or a current out-
tion velocity. Due to this measuring principle, the size put, for example, 4–20 mA.
of the construction is usually larger than with accelera- The advantage of inclination sensors is, similar to
tion sensors. acceleration sensors, the comparatively easy applicability
STRAUSS ET AL. 1369

of the sensors. The disadvantage of these sensors is that

further calculations are necessary to determine actual
deformation of a certain structure.

7.2.3 | Strain gauges

Metallic based strain gauges, which represent most of the

strain gages available, are based on the change in resis-
tance due to length and cross-sectional change of metal. If
a DMS is stretched, its resistance increases. If it is com-

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pressed (negative strain), its resistance decreases. The out-
put of strain gauges is the resistance, which is proportional
to strain. The resistance is a value that cannot be measured
directly. The measurement is usually done as a bridge cir-
cuit (analogous to a Wheatstone bridge) with either quar- FIGURE 8 Application of a strain gage on a rail 46
ter, half or full bridge circuit used. An important point
along with strain gauges is the application to the structure.
The aim is to attach the strain gauges in such a way that 7.3 | Optical monitoring techniques—3D
they are fully connected in a frictionally manner and reflect laser scanning
every movement of the structure. This generally adapts
very well to a structure such as steel, with appropriate pre- 7.3.1 | Concept
treatment (see Figure 8). For this purpose, usually high-
strength adhesives (often 2 components) are used. 3D laser scanning has become a standard test method in
When applying strain gauges to a structure like con- tunnel monitoring in addition to traditional surveying
crete the following points are important to note: methods, thus creating new possible survey applications.
Unlike using a total station, at which single points are
• the surface must be sufficiently smooth so that the measured with high precision, 3D laser scanning acquires
strain gauge is well connected the entire surface of the the position (x, y, and z-coordinates) of millions of points
structure. reproducing the scanned surface in detail. Because of its
• The surface must be free of dust so that the adhesive holistic approach for acquiring the geometrical parame-
finds sufficient primer to produce a frictional connec- ters of the surrounding area actively (by the emission of
tion to the structure. laser light), distance-based, quickly (a few minutes per
scan), in 3D and in high resolution, laser scanning has
An important issue with strain gauges is temperature become an essential measuring method during tunnel
sensitivity. This is due to the cables and the strain gauge drive as well as long-term monitoring of existing tunnel
itself. Since the measurement is based on a resistance mea- structures. Thanks to its high resolution, 3D displace-
surement, changes in the resistance value of the cables are ment measurement can be performed by comparison of
mistakenly interpreted as strains/compressions. This can be the scanned cavity geometry at various times. Nowadays,
counteracted by the measurement as a full bridge. In this online observation of critical areas using automatic mea-
case, the cable resistance is compensated by corresponding suring is state of the art. Altogether, 3D laser scanning
additional lines. Another source of problems may be direct helps ensuring the design lifetime of the structure by rec-
temperature acting on the strain gauge itself, such as sun- ognizing changes in the geometry full-faced at an early
light, which will lead to resistance changes in the strain stage, thus allowing a near-term damage repair.
gauge, which are not due to real strain/compression of the
structure. This can be controlled in the practice by housing
the strain gauge by means of adhesive and metal foil. 7.3.2 | Functioning, accuracy and
The advantage of strain gauges is related to price. The limitations
individual strain gauges usually cost only a few euros, so
that many sensors can be used to minimize errors Laser scanning is an active, distance based imaging tech-
by. averaging. The disadvantage lies in the application on nique measuring the travel times of laser rays from the
the structure. This can certainly be associated with con- laser device that are reflected from the surface and
siderable work to prepare the structure surface. detected again by the scanner unit.51 For scanning from
1370 STRAUSS ET AL.

shorter distances (up to ca. 150 m), continuous wave control and invoicing function, this information can be of
(CW) lasers with modulated amplitude are used. great assistance for maintenance, repair works and cost
Thereby, distance is measured through the phase dis- estimation that is, Reference 57.
placement of the emitted and received laser beam. Using By delivering 3D full-surface information, detection,
CW-lasers, the position of up to 1,000,000 points/s can be visualization and analysis of cracks and other defects in
detected with a precision of up to 1 mm. 52,53 concrete and masonry tunnels as indications of structure
The design of modern scanner equipment shows degradation at an early stage is possible (see also 55).
small dimensions and low weight, thus the system is Crack development can be recorded via multiple scans.
highly portable and applicable in narrow spaces. Most of The orientation information and crack opening widths as
the devices allow the operation in wet environment at a well as possible water ingress can easily be derived, that
wide temperature-range commonly between −20 and is, Wang et al.58 Depending on the perspective and crack

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55 C. Since it is an active system, surveying with a laser characteristic, also crack depth can be monitored. In a
scanner can be performed in poor light conditions, which final stage, the extent of the measures and behavior of
is of great advantage in tunnel surveying, whereas heavy restructuring actions—that is, thickness of shotcrete sup-
dust can cause interfering reflections and influence the port layers—can be monitored by 3D laser scanning pro-
measurement in a negative way. Nevertheless, free view viding a good basis for modeling and postcalculations
to the investigated surface is necessary. Installations, (Sánchez59).
vehicles, irregular geometry. Produce shadows, covered
or shaded areas are not recorded. Multiple scans at differ-
ent viewing angles generally reduce these data gaps. 54 7.3.4 | Displacement measurements
In addition to position location, imaging laser scan-
ners also record an intensity value for each point and Next to geotechnical and operational applications 60 like
therefore provide information about the type of surface generating block models for rock mass analysis or data
depending on its reflective properties. However, the 3D basis for maintenance, 58 laser scanning is increasingly
point clouds do not provide image data that also may be used for 3D displacement analysis during tunnel driving
useful in terms of interpretation and damage detection. or inspection of existing tunnel structures. The displace-
For that purpose, imaging methods, like photogrammet- ment is determined via multiple scans at variable time
ric techniques, are suitable.55 Nevertheless, a laser scan- intervals depending on the existing strain rate. Usually,
ner can be upgraded by integrated cameras recording the reference points are measured in addition to the laser
color information of the surveyed points, thus assigning scan through an optical-trigonometric survey according
color information to the laser data. 53 to the principal of free stationing. In this way, every scan
In general, by performing laser scanning, large point can be localized in the project or global coordinate sys-
cloud datasets are generated in a short time. This is why tem and be compared with one another. Thus, verifica-
point cloud management—including automated tion of displacement with an accuracy of 1 to a few mm
processing and analyzing procedures—is of great impor- is possible. 52
tance. Modern device and analysis software technology
generally are supporting these requirement that is, Refer-
ence 56. 7.3.5 | Additional comments

3D laser scanning enables rapid, cost-effective, high reso-

7.3.3 | Geometry inspection and lution and full-coverage documentation of the tunnel
comprehensive documentation possibilities geometry of the tunnel lining and therein located instal-
lations. By performing multiple scans at different times,
One of the standard scopes doing regular inspection by changes in tunnel structure can be detected in real time.
laser range measurement recording the 3D geometry of Defects and risk potentials can be identified at an early
the tunnel is to monitor the clearance zone of an opera- stage and necessary measures can be taken at an early
tive railway tunnel. This is nowadays done regularly by stage that has a positive effect on the life-cycle increasing
the operating companies using laser-equipped rail-cars the service lifetime of the tunnel structure and reduces
that can be driven at speeds of 10 to 30 km/hr. This pro- maintenance costs. This is why laser-scanning technology
vides a complete documentation of rock face, tunnel lin- has gained increasing significance in recent years. This
ing and different installations (installed components development is supported by further automation of abso-
concerning ventilation, light, signs as well as exposed lute position and image overlays, steadily increasing posi-
support measures like anchor heads etc.). Referring to tion accuracy, the advancement of software algorithms
STRAUSS ET AL. 1371

for data analysis and interpretation as well as the possi- between consecutive instrument stations is at the order
bility for online monitoring and control. 61 of ~100 m, an interlinked observation scheme of the cross
sections is adopted (see Figure 10). Thus, reference points
are commonly used for the coordinate's determination of
7.4 | Geodetic measuring methods successive instrument stations.
Two reference points are sufficient for solving unam-
7.4.1 | Absolute measurement systems biguously the coordinates of the total station x^TS within a
single free-stationing. However, it is mandatory to choose
Over the recent past, it has become good practice to per- a higher number of such points in order to check for the
form 3D displacement monitoring using total stations. stability of the reference points and to meet the imposed
For this conventional monitoring approach individual accuracy (see Equation (3)) as well as reliability condi-

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tunnel cross sections are equipped with 5–7 prisms, tions. This implies solving an over-determined free-sta-
which are distributed over the cross section and whose tioning, which constitutes an adjustment problem. As a
spatial position in terms of 3D-coordinates is repeatedly result one obtains 3D-station coordinates for the j-th epoch
determined by total station measurements (see Figure 9). x^TS, j.and the corresponding covariance matrix S ^x^x , TS,j.
Starting from x^TS,j, measurements to the cross-section
σx = 1mm ð1Þ ð2Þ points allow to determine their coordinates x^ by solving
the first basic geodetic problem. The covariance matrix
For the determination of the displacements, measure- S ^xx^ , TS,j is considered in the law of covariance propaga-
ments are performed in each epoch from stations along tion for deriving the covariance matrices of the moni-
the tunnel's longitudinal axis to reference points and to tored points S ^x ^x j. The square root of the main diagonal
the cross-section points. The first category of measure- elements of this matrix gives the standard deviation of
ments is used to transfer the 3D-coordinates from the ref- the corresponding coordinates, thus allowing a direct
erence points to the instrument's station. Subsequently, assessment if the accuracy criteria given in Equation (1) is
these coordinates are further transferred to the cross- fulfilled.
section points using the measurements of the second The coordinate differences between consecutive
category. The measuring configuration and the used epochs, j and j − 1, or between the actual epoch and a
instruments must be selected in a proper way that allows reference epoch, provide the absolute 3D-displacement
to achieve a standard deviation for the coordinates of the vectors d:
latter points. Repeating this general procedure at consec-
utive epochs allows to derive the displacements as coordi- d^ = x^j – x^ j − 1 ð3Þ
nate differences of the cross-section points.
To estimate the coordinates of the monitored cross-
section points x^, first the 3D-coordinates of the total sta-
tion x^ TS need to be estimated. Between consecutive
epochs, similar locations of the total station should be
chosen. This enables the canceling or the diminishing of
influences on the measurement results that are related to
the instrument's position by difference building between
the epochs (see Equation (2)). In general, the stationing
should be in the longitudinal tunnel axis, as this allows a
balanced azimuthal distribution of the measurements
and avoids sightings along the tunnel walls which are
prone to refraction effects.
Common principle is to determine the coordinates
x^ TS by free-stationing using reference points with esti-
mated 3D-coordinates x^ref in the project's coordinate sys-
tem (see Figure 10). These reference points are selected
in the neighborhood of the total station (10–90 m, [62 ])
and are in general determined starting from or part of
the tunnel's underground geodetic network. They have
to meet particular stability conditions with monthly
movement rates below 1 mm. 62 As the upper limit FIGURE 9 Monitored cross section equipped with five prisms
1372 STRAUSS ET AL.

S d^d^ = S ^x^xj + S ^x ^xj − 1 ð4Þ that the geometry of the cross section represented by the
measured points significantly changed between the
epochs. In a subsequent localization phase, the displaced
Additionally, the covariance matrix of the displace- points are identified by assessing the contribution of each
ment vectors, Sd^d^ , is estimated from the covariance matri- point to the mean gap between the geometries deter-
ces of the coordinate vectors in the single epochs: mined in the two epochs (Niemeier,64 ) (p. 592 for further
details on the method of mean gap components).
S d^d^ = S ^x^xj + S ^x ^xj − 1 ð5Þ Some typical results of this monitoring activity are:

This enables to perform a statistical test in order to • sum vectors of the deformations (see Figure 11),
check the global statistical congruency between the • influence area diagrams,

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geometries of the cross section determined in the two • settlement velocity diagrams,
epochs.63 The used test value is given by: • time-deformation diagrams.

T
T = d^ Sd−^d^1 d^ ð6Þ

8 | CONCLUSION
and is central F-distributed under the null hypothesis H0
that no deformations occurred between the two epochs: The paper presents a review of testing methods and a clas-
sification of strategies and tools in terms of technologies
H 0 : Efdg = 0 ð7Þ and techniques applied to the monitoring of tunnels. In
particular, the topic is contextualized through a brief intro-
If the test value exceeds the (1-α)-quantile of the duction in Chapter 1, followed by defect taxonomy and
corresponding F-distribution the null hypothesis can be degradation mechanisms in Chapters 2 and 3, respectively.
rejected at the significance level of (1-α), thus indicating Chapters 4 and 5 are related to monitoring strategies and

FIGURE 10 Interlinked observation scheme 62

FIGURE 11 Sum vectors

of the displacements of the
cross-section points (Geodata
ZT GmbH)
STRAUSS ET AL. 1373

technologies. Nondestructive and semi-destructive tech- combination with displacement transducers), for an exten-
niques are also used as the basis for classification of moni- sive monitoring, in case of an evaluation length of >100.
toring methods. Chapter 6 presents a few concepts related
to the implementation and operation of tunnel monitoring
ORCID
according to both international expert knowledge and
Alfred Strauss https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1674-7083
practical experience in Austria. Chapter 7 discusses basic
concepts related to data-acquisition transmission, engi-
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AUTHOR BIOGRAPHIES
Klaus Voit, Institute of Applied
Alfred Strauss, Geology, Department of Civil Engi-
Institute of Structural Engineering, neering and Natural Hazards,
Department of Civil Engineering University of Natural Resources
and Natural Hazards, and Life Sciences,
University of Natural Resources Vienna, Austria.
and Life Sciences, Email: [email protected]
Vienna, Austria.
Email: [email protected]
1376 STRAUSS ET AL.

Elisabetta Pistone, Konrad Bergmeister,

Vienna Consulting Engineers ZT Institute of Structural Engineering,
GmbH, Department of Civil Engineering
Vienna, Austria. and Natural Hazards,
Email: [email protected] University of Natural Resources
and Life Sciences,
Vienna, Austria.
Email: konrad.bergmeister@boku.
ac.at
Panagiotis Spyridis,
Faculty of Architecture and Civil

Printed by [Wiley Online Library - 103.203.145.049 - /doi/epdf/10.1002/suco.201900444] at [07/04/2021].

Engineering,
TU Dortmund University,
How to cite this article: Strauss A, Bien J,
Dortmund, Germany.
Neuner H, et al. Sensing and monitoring in tunnels
Email: panagiotis.spyridis@tu-dort-
testing and monitoring methods for the assessment
mund.de of tunnels. Structural Concrete. 2020;21:1356–1376.
https://doi.org/10.1002/suco.201900444