AC Fundamentals

GENERATION OF SINGLE PHASE SINUSOIDAL SIGNALS

Instructor: Ninan John

Assistant Professor
Department of Electrical Engineering
Rajiv Gandhi Institute of Technology Kottayam
 Index
1. Alternating Current fundamentals: Generation of alternating voltages,
Representation of sinusoidal waveforms: frequency, period, Average, RMS
values and form factor of waveforms
2. Assignment :Numerical Problems (Submission Deadline:1:00pm College
Opening Day):Page 21
References:
[1]. Basic Electrical Engineering by VK Mehta, Rohit Mehta
[2]. Electrical technology Vol 1 by BL Theraja, AK Theraja

Note: All the numerical problems are solved in the ref texts. Read carefully and
do it yourself. DM me for any doubts.
AC Fundamentals Module 3 2
 Alternating Voltage and Current

• A voltage which changes its polarity at regular intervals of time is called an

alternating voltage.

• Voltages of AC sources (generator) alternate in polarity and vary in magnitude

• Voltages produce currents that vary in magnitude and alternate in direction

AC Fundamentals Module 3 3
 Alternating Current/Voltage
• A sinusoidal AC waveform starts at zero
1. Increases to a positive maximum
2. Decreases to zero
3. Changes polarity
4. Increases to a negative maximum
5. Returns to zero

• Variation is called a cycle

AC Fundamentals Module 3 4
 Generating AC Voltages
Here, the coil has maximum
flux linkages But no change
in flux linkage as the coil
moves parallel to the flux.
Therefore induced EMF
is Zero

Here, the coil has zero flux

linkages But there is change
in flux linkage as the coil
Moves perpendicular to the
Flux. Therefore induced
EMF is Max

Generating AC Voltages using simple generator (one coil, N=1)

AC Fundamentals Module 3 5
Generating AC Voltages

AC Fundamentals Module 3 6
 Equations of the Alternating Voltages and Currents

• Consider a coil, having N turns and rotating in a uniform magnetic field B, with
an angular velocity of ω rad/s, as shown in Fig. Maximum flux Φm is linked with
the coil, when its plane coincides with the X-axis. In time t seconds, this coil
rotates through an angle θ = ωt. In this deflected position, the component of the
flux which is perpendicular to the plane of the coil, is Φ = Φm cos ωt. Hence, flux
linkages of the coil at any time are N.Φ = N.Φm cos ωt.
AC Fundamentals Module 3 7
AC Fundamentals Module 3 8
 Different forms of voltage and current eqns

T = time-period of the alternating voltage or current = 1/f

It is seen that the induced EMF varies as sine function of the time angle ωt and when EMF
is plotted against time, a curve similar to the one shown in Fig is obtained. This curve is
known as sine curve and the EMF which varies in this manner is known as sinusoidal EMF.

AC Fundamentals Module 3 9
 Why Sine Waveform?
▪ The sine waveform produces the least disturbance in the electrical circuit and
is the smoothest and efficient waveform

▪ The mathematical computations, connected with alternating current work, are

much simpler with this waveform

▪ By means of Fourier series analysis, it is possible to represent any periodic

function of whatever waveform in terms of sinusoids

AC Fundamentals Module 3 10
 Average Value of a Waveform

Total (net) area under curve for time Time T

Average value =
Time T

• In case of symmetrical waves (e.g. sinusoidal voltage or current), the average

value over one cycle is zero. It is because positive half is exactly equal to the
negative half so that net area is zero. Therefore,

Area of one alternation

Average value of a symmetrical wave =
Base length of one alternation

AC Fundamentals Module 3 11
 Average Value of Sinusoidal Current

• The half-cycle average value of AC is that value of steady current (DC) which
would send the same amount of charge through a circuit for half the time period
of AC as is sent by the DC through the same circuit in the same time.

• This can be obtained by integrating the instantaneous value of current over one
half cycle (i.e. area over half-cycle) and dividing the result by base length of
half-cycle (= π).

AC Fundamentals Module 3 12
 The equation of an alternating current varying sinusoidally is given by
i=Im sin 𝜃
• Consider an elementary strip of thickness d𝜃 in the first half-cycle of
current wave as shown in Fig
Area of strip = i d𝜃(consider as a rectangle)
𝜋
Area of half-cycle =‫׬‬0 i d𝜃
𝜋
= ‫׬‬0 Im sin 𝜃 d𝜃
=Im[-cos 𝜃]𝜋0 =2Im

Area of half-cycle 2Im

Average value, Iav = =
Area of half-cycle 𝜋

Iav= 0.637 Im and Vav= 0.637Vm

AC Fundamentals Module 3 13
 R.M.S. or Effective Value

The effective or RMS value of an alternating current is that steady current (DC)
which when flowing through a given resistance for a given time produces the
same amount of heat as produced by the alternating current when flowing
through the same resistance for the same time

Area of half-cycle of squared wave

RMS value=
Half-cycle base

AC Fundamentals Module 3 14
 R.M.S. Value of Sinusoidal Current
The equation of an alternating current varying sinusoidally is given by
i=Im sin 𝜃
• Consider an elementary strip of thickness d𝜃 in the first half-cycle of
current wave as shown in Fig
Area of strip = i d𝜃
𝜋 2
Area of squared wave =‫׬‬0 i d𝜃
𝜋 2
= ‫׬‬0 𝐼𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 d𝜃
𝜋 2
𝜋𝐼𝑚
=𝐼𝑚 ‫׬‬0 𝑠𝑖𝑛2
2 𝜃 d𝜃 =
2

Area of half−cycle of squared wave 2 /2 𝐼

𝜋𝐼𝑚
• Irms = = =𝑚
Half−cycle base π 2
Irms= 0.707 Im and Vrms= 0.707Vm
AC Fundamentals Module 3 15
 Importance of R.M.S. Values
• The domestic AC supply is 230 V, 50 Hz. It is the RMS or effective value. It means
that alternating voltage available has the same heating effect as 230 V DC. The
equation of this alternating voltage is given by ;
v=Vm sin 𝜔𝑡
v=230× 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝜋 × 50 × 𝑡
v=230 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 314𝑡
• When we say that alternating current in a circuit is 5A, we are specifying the RMS
value. It means that the alternating current flowing in the circuit has the same
heating effect as 5A DC
• A.C. ammeters and voltmeters record RMS values of alternating current and
voltage respectively
AC Fundamentals Module 3 16
Radian Measure

•  is usually expressed in radians/second

• 2 radians = 360°
• To convert from degrees to radians, multiply by
/180

AC Fundamentals Module 3 17
Radian Measure

• To convert from radians to degrees, multiply by

180/
• When using a calculator
• Be sure it is set to radian mode when working with angles
measured in radians

AC Fundamentals Module 3 18
Relationship between ,T, and f

• One cycle of a sine wave may be represented by  =

2 rads or t = T sec

 = t
T = 2
2
=
T
 = 2f

AC Fundamentals Module 3 19
Summary
• Vp-p(peak-peak)=2Vm

• Vav=0.637Vm

• Vrms=0.707Vm

• Vm=1.414Vrms

𝑅𝑀𝑆 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 0.707𝑉𝑚

• 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = = = 1.11
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 0.637𝑉𝑚

AC Fundamentals Module 3 20
 Assignment: Numerical Problems
1. A square coil of 10 cm side and with 100 turns is rotated at a uniform speed of
500 r.p.m. about an axis at right angles to a uniform field of 0·5 T. Calculate the
maximum e.m.f. produced in the coil. What is the instantaneous value of e.m.f.
when the plane of the coil makes an angle of 30° with the magnetic field ?

Note: Make sure that your calculator setting for angle is correct. Set as Degree in
mode setup of calculator for trigonometric operations if you are using value 180°
for 𝜋 and set as Radians if you are using the value of 𝜋 (i.e 3.14)

AC Fundamentals Module 3 21
2. An a.c. generator consists of a coil of 50 turns and area 2·5 m2 rotating at an
angular speed of 60 rad/s in a uniform magnetic field B = 0·3 T. The resistance of
the circuit including that of the coil is 500 Ω
(a)What is the maximum current drawn from the generator?
(b)What is the flux through the coil when the current is zero? What is the flux when
the current is maximum?

3. An alternating current i is given by ;

i=141.4 sin314t Amps
Find (i) the maximum value (ii) frequency (iii) time period and (iv) the
instantaneous value
when t is 3 ms

AC Fundamentals Module 3 22
4. An alternating current of frequency 60 Hz has a maximum value of
120 A.
(i) Write down the equation for the instantaneous value.
(ii) Reckoning time from the instant the current is zero and becoming
positive, find the
instantaneous value after 1/360 second.
(iii) Time taken to reach 96 A for the first time

AC Fundamentals Module 3 23