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SUBJECT TITLE: Methods of research in YEAR LEVEL: WEEK No.:3 INSTRUCTOR: Ms. Cyril-J S. Balboa
Computing BSIS III
INSTRUCTOR’S CONTACT INFO
Email: [email protected] Phone: 09533929012 Facebook (if provided):

Kamusta Ka Comtechian?

Topic: Review of Related Literature Learning Competency:

1. define what is Related Literature
2. Tell the difference between the Review of Related Literature and Related
studies

Lesson Introduction:
The literature review forms the nucleus of all research. As a scientific investigation to succeed in new conclusions and establish facts, each
research builds on existing data. Unless one needs to reinvent the wheel, precise awareness on the extent of knowledge on a topic is
important to hold on analysis that adds worth to the sphere. In Today’s week we will be learning some steps in writing our RRL.

Lessons and Exercises:

A literature review is a survey of scholarly sources on a specific topic. It provides an overview of current
knowledge, allowing you to identify relevant theories, methods, and gaps in the existing research.
Writing a literature review involves finding relevant publications (such as books and journal articles),
critically analyzing them, and explaining what you found. There are five key steps:
 Search for relevant literature
 Evaluate sources
 Identify themes, debates and gaps
 Outline the structure
 Write your literature review
A good literature review doesn’t just summarize sources – it analyzes, synthesizes, and critically evaluates to give a clear
picture of the state of knowledge on the subject.

Why write a literature review?

When you write a thesis, dissertation, or research paper, you will have to conduct a literature review to situate your research
within existing knowledge. The literature review gives you a chance to:

Demonstrate your familiarity with the topic and scholarly context

Develop a theoretical framework and methodology for your research
Position yourself in relation to other researchers and theorists
Show how your research addresses a gap or contributes to a debate
You might also have to write a literature review as a stand-alone assignment. In this case, the purpose is to evaluate the
current state of research and demonstrate your knowledge of scholarly debates around a topic.

The content will look slightly different in each case, but the process of conducting a literature review follows the same steps.

Step 1: Search for relevant literature

Before you begin searching for literature, you need a clearly defined topic.

If you are writing the literature review section of a dissertation or research paper, you will search for literature related to your
research problem and questions.

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If you are writing a literature review as a stand-alone assignment, you will have to choose a focus and develop a central
question to direct your search. Unlike a dissertation research question, this question has to be answerable without collecting
original data. You should be able to answer it based only on a review of existing publications.

Make a list of keywords

Start by creating a list of keywords related to your research question. Include each of the key concepts or variables you’re
interested in, and list any synonyms and related terms. You can add to this list if you discover new keywords in the process
of your literature search.

Search for relevant sources

Use your keywords to begin searching for sources. Some useful databases to search for journals and articles include:

 Your university’s library catalogue

 Google Scholar
 JSTOR
 EBSCO
 Project Muse (humanities and social sciences)
 Medline (life sciences and biomedicine)
 EconLit (economics)
 Inspec (physics, engineering and computer science)
 You can use boolean operators to help narrow down your search:

AND to find sources that contain more than one keyword (e.g. social media AND body image AND generation Z)
OR to find sources that contain one of a range of synonyms (e.g. generation Z OR teenagers OR adolescents)
NOT to exclude results containing certain terms (e.g. apple NOT fruit)

Read the abstract to find out whether an article is relevant to your question. When you find a useful book or article, you can
check the bibliography to find other relevant sources.
To identify the most important publications on your topic, take note of recurring citations. If the same authors, books or
articles keep appearing in your reading, make sure to seek them out.
Step 2: Evaluate and select sources
You probably won’t be able to read absolutely everything that has been written on the topic – you’ll have to evaluate which
sources are most relevant to your questions.

For each publication, ask yourself:

What question or problem is the author addressing?
What are the key concepts and how are they defined?
What are the key theories, models and methods? Does the research use established frameworks or take an innovative
approach?
What are the results and conclusions of the study?
How does the publication relate to other literature in the field? Does it confirm, add to, or challenge established knowledge?
How does the publication contribute to your understanding of the topic? What are its key insights and arguments?

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What are the strengths and weaknesses of the research?

Make sure the sources you use are credible, and make sure you read any landmark studies and major theories in your field
of research. You can find out how many times an article has been cited on Google Scholar – a high citation count means
the article has been influential in the field, and should certainly be included in your literature review.
The scope of your review will depend on your topic and discipline: in the sciences you usually only review recent literature,
but in the humanities you might take a long historical perspective (for example, to trace how a concept has changed in
meaning over time).

Take notes and cite your sources

As you read, you should also begin the writing process. Take notes that you can later incorporate into the text of your
literature review.
It is important to keep track of your sources with citations to avoid plagiarism. It can be helpful to make an annotated
bibliography, where you compile full citation information and write a paragraph of summary and analysis for each source.
This helps you remember what you read and saves time later in the process.
You can use our free citation generator to quickly create correct and consistent APA citations or MLA citations. Want to
check your literature review for plagiarism? Try Scribbr’s Plagiarism Checker for students.

Step 3: Identify themes, debates, and gaps

To begin organizing your literature review’s argument and structure, you need to understand the connections and
relationships between the sources you’ve read. Based on your reading and notes, you can look for:
Trends and patterns (in theory, method or results): do certain approaches become more or less popular over time?
Themes: what questions or concepts recur across the literature?
Debates, conflicts and contradictions: where do sources disagree?
Pivotal publications: are there any influential theories or studies that changed the direction of the field?
Gaps: what is missing from the literature? Are there weaknesses that need to be addressed?
This step will help you work out the structure of your literature review and (if applicable) show how your own research will
contribute to existing knowledge.

Step 4: Outline your literature review’s structure

There are various approaches to organizing the body of a literature review. You should have a rough idea of your strategy
before you start writing. Depending on the length of your literature review, you can combine several of these strategies (for
example, your overall structure might be thematic, but each theme is discussed chronologically).

Chronological
The simplest approach is to trace the development of the topic over time. However, if you choose this strategy, be careful to
avoid simply listing and summarizing sources in order.

Try to analyze patterns, turning points and key debates that have shaped the direction of the field. Give your interpretation
of how and why certain developments occurred.

Thematic
If you have found some recurring central themes, you can organize your literature review into subsections that address
different aspects of the topic.
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For example, if you are reviewing literature about inequalities in migrant health outcomes, key themes might include
healthcare policy, language barriers, cultural attitudes, legal status, and economic access.

Methodological
If you draw your sources from different disciplines or fields that use a variety of research methods, you might want to
compare the results and conclusions that emerge from different approaches. For example:

Look at what results have emerged in qualitative versus quantitative research

Discuss how the topic has been approached by empirical versus theoretical scholarship
Divide the literature into sociological, historical, and cultural sources

Theoretical
A literature review is often the foundation for a theoretical framework. You can use it to discuss various theories, models,
and definitions of key concepts.

You might argue for the relevance of a specific theoretical approach, or combine various theoretical concepts to create a
framework for your research.

Step 5: Write your literature review

Like any other academic text, your literature review should have an introduction, a main body, and a conclusion. What you
include in each depends on the objective of your literature review.

Body
Depending on the length of your literature review, you might want to divide the body into subsections. You can use
a subheading for each theme, time period, or methodological approach.

As you write, you can follow these tips:

 Summarize and synthesize: give an overview of the main points of each source and combine them into a coherent whole
 Analyze and interpret: don’t just paraphrase other researchers—add your own interpretations where possible, discussing the
significance of findings in relation to the literature as a whole
 Critically evaluate: mention the strengths and weaknesses of your sources
 Write in well-structured paragraphs: use transition words and topic sentences to draw connections, comparisons and contrasts

Conclusion

In the conclusion, you should summarize the key findings you have taken from the literature and emphasize their
significance.

Sentence Completion:

1. Today I feel _______________________________________________________________________________________.

2. My family is _______________________________________________________________________________________.
3. I think ___________________________________________________________________________________________.
4. I believe __________________________________________________________________________________________.
5. I suggest _________________________________________________________________________________________

GOOD JOB!
STAY SAFE AND HEALTHY ALWAYS.

SUBJECT TITLE: Methods of research in YEAR LEVEL: WEEK No.:4 INSTRUCTOR: Ms. Cyril-J S. Balboa
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Computing BSIS III

INSTRUCTOR’S CONTACT INFO
Email: [email protected] Phone: 09533929012 Facebook (if provided):

Kamusta Ka Comtechian?

Topic: Sampling, Measurement, Reliability, and Validity Learning Competency:

1. Define reliability and validity
2. Identify the different types of reliability and validity

Lesson Introduction:
Reliability is about the consistency of a measure, and validity is about the accuracy of a measure. It's important to
consider reliability and validity when you are creating your research design, planning your methods, and writing up your
results, especially in quantitative research.

Lessons and Exercises:

Reliability and Validity

All researchers strive to deliver accurate results. Accurate results are both reliable and valid. Reliability means that the results obtained
are consistent. Validity is the degree to which the researcher actually measures what he or she is trying to measure.

Reliability and validity are often compared to a marksman's target. In the illustration below, Target B represents measurement with poor
validity and poor reliability. The shots are neither consistent nor accurate. Target A shows a measurement that has good reliability, but
has poor validity as the shots are consistent, but they are off the center of the target. Target C shows a measure with good validity and
good reliability because all of the shots are concentrated at the center of the target.

Random Errors: Random error is a

term used to describe all chance or random factors than confound—undermine—the measurement of any phenomena. Random errors
in measurement are inconsistent errors that happen by chance. They are inherently unpredictable and transitory. Random errors
include sampling errors, unpredictable fluctuations in the measurement apparatus, or a change in a respondents mood, which may
cause a person to offer an answer to a question that might differ from the one he or she would normally provide. The amount of random
errors is inversely related to the reliability of a measurement instrument.[1] As the number of random errors decreases, reliability rises

Systematic Errors: Systematic or Non-Random Errors are a constant or systematic bias in measurement. Here are two everyday
examples of systematic error: 1) Imagine that your bathroom scale always registers your weight as five pounds lighter that it actually is
and 2) The thermostat in your home says that the room temperature is 72º, when it is actually 75º. The amount of systematic error is
inversely related to the validity of a measurement instrument.[2] As systematic errors increase, validity falls and vice versa.

Reliability:
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As stated above, reliability is concerned with the extent to which an experiment, test, or measurement procedure yields consistent
results on repeated trials. Reliability is the degree to which a measure is free from random errors. But, due to the every present chance
of random errors, we can never achieve a completely error-free, 100% reliable measure. The risk of unreliability is always present to a
limited extent.

Here are the basic methods for estimating the reliability of empirical measurements: 1) Test-Retest Method, 2) Equivalent Form
Method, and 3) Internal Consistency Method.[3]

Test-Retest Method: The test-retest method repeats the measurement—repeats the survey—under similar conditions. The second test
is typically conducted among the same respondents as the first test after a short period of time has elapsed. The goal of the test-retest
method is to uncover random errors, which will be shown by different results in the two tests. If the results of the two tests are highly
consistent, we can conclude that the measurements are stable and reliability is deemed high. Reliability is equal to the correlation of
the two test scores taken among the same respondents at different times.

There are some problems with the test-retest method. First, it may be difficult to get all the respondents to take the test—complete the
survey or experiment—a second time. Second, the first and second tests may not be truly independent. The mere fact that the
respondent participated in the first measurement might affect their responses on the second measurement. And, third, environmental or
personal factors could cause the second measurement to change.

Equivalent Form Method: The equivalent form method is used to avoid the problems mentioned above with the test-retest method. The
equivalent form method measures the ability of similar instruments to produce results that have a strong correlation. With this method,
the researcher creates a large set of questions that address the same construct and then randomly divides the questions into two sets.
Both instruments are given to the same sample of people. If there is a strong correlation between the instruments, we have high
reliability.

The equivalent form method is also not without problems. First, it can be very difficult—some would say nearly impossible—to create
two totally equivalent forms. Second, even when equivalency can be achieved, it may not be worth the investment of time, energy, and
funds.

Internal Consistency and the Split-Half Method: These methods for establishing reliability rely on the internal consistency of an
instrument to produce similar results on different samples during the same time period. Internal consistency is concerned
with equivalence. It addresses the question: Is there an equal amount of random error introduced by using two different samples to
measure phenomena?

The split-half method measures the reliability of an instrument by dividing the set of measurement items into two halves and then
correlating the results. For example, if we are interested the in perceived practicality of electric cars and gasoline-powdered cars, we
could use a split-half method and ask the "same" question two different ways.

To be reliable, the
answers to these two
questions should be consistent. The problem with this method is that different "splits" can result in different coefficients of reliability. To
overcome this problem researchers use the Cronbach alpha (α) technique, which is named for educational psychologist Lee Cronbach.
Cronbach alpha (α) calculates the average reliability for all possible ways of splitting a set of questions in half. A lack of correlation of
an item with other items suggests low reliability and that this item does not belong in the scale. Cronbach's alpha technique requires
that all items in the scale have equal intervals. If this condition cannot be met, other statistical analysis should be considered.
Chronbach's alpha is also called the coefficient of reliability.

Validity:

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Validity is defined as the ability of an instrument to measure what the researcher intends to measure. There are several different types
of validity in social science research. Each takes a different approach to assessing the extent to which a measure actually measures
what the researcher intends to measure. Each type of validity has different meaning, uses, and limitations.[4]

Face Validity: Face validity is the degree to which subjectively is viewed as measuring what it purports to measure. It is based on the
researcher's judgment or the collective judgment of a wide group of researchers. As such, it is considered the weakest form of validity.
With face validity, a measure "looks like it measures what we hope to measure," but it has not been proven to do so.

Content Validity: Content validity is frequently considered equivalent to face validity. Content or logical validity is the extent to which
experts agree that the measure covers all facets of the construct. To establish content validity all aspects or dimensions of a construct
must be included. If we are constructing a test of arithmetic and we only focus on addition skills, we would clearly lack content validity
as we have ignored subtraction, multiplication, and division. To establish content validity, we must review the literature on the construct
to make certain that each dimension of the construct is being measured.

Criterion Validity: Criterion Validity measures how well a measurement predicts outcome based on information from other variables. It
measures the match between the survey question and the criterion—content or subject area—it purports to measure. The SAT test, for
instance, is said to have criterion validity because high scores on this test are correlated with a students' freshman grade point
averages.

There are two types of criterion validity: Predictive Validity and Concurrent Validity. Predictive Validity refers to the usefulness of a
measure to predict future behavior or attitudes. Concurrent Validity refers to the extent to which another variable measured at the same
time as the variable of interest can be predicted by the instrument. Concurrent validity is evidenced when a measure strongly correlates
with a previously validated measure.

Construct Validity: Construct validity is the degree to which an instrument represents the construct it purports to represent. It involves
an understanding the theoretical foundations of the construct. A measure has construct validity when is conforms to the theory
underlying the construct.

There are two types of convergent validity: Convergent Validity and Discriminant Validity. Convergent validity is the correlation among
measures that claim to measure the same construct. Discriminant validity measures the lack of correlation among measures that do not
measure the same construct. For there to be high levels of construct validity you need high levels of correction among measures that
cover the same construct, and low levels of correlation among measures that cover different constructs.

Assessment Part:
I. Read each statement carefully and encircle the answer of your choice.
1. When there are no differences in the scores found between the first and second administration of a survey, the survey is said to
have _________.
a. Validity and Reliability b. Stability and Reliability c. Sensitivity d. Convergent and Discriminate Validity
2. When experts agree that a measurement instrument actually measures when the researchers hope to measure, the measurement
instrument has _______________.
a. Reliability b. Content Validity c. Criterion Validity d. Construct Validity
3. Reliability is concerned with whether a measure actually measures what it is supposed to measure.
a. True b. False
4. Validity is concerned with the consistency of a measure.
a. True b. False
5. If a survey of customer satisfaction conducted for the McDonald's restaurant chain lacked questions about the quality of the food, the
survey lacks ___________.
a. Face Validity or Content Validity b. Convergent Validity c. Criterion Validity d. Construct Validity
6. Face validity is the least sophisticated of all the types of validity.
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a. True b. False
7. Chronbach's alpha is a method used to determine:
a. Content Validity b. Criterion Validity c. Construct Validity d. Reliability

Sentence Completion:

6. Today I feel _______________________________________________________________________________________.

7. My family is _______________________________________________________________________________________.
8. I think ___________________________________________________________________________________________.
9. I believe __________________________________________________________________________________________.
10. I suggest _________________________________________________________________________________________

GOOD JOB!
STAY SAFE AND HEALTHY ALWAYS.

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 COMPUTER TECHNOLOGIES INSTITUTE (COMTECH)
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SUBJECT TITLE: Methods of research in YEAR LEVEL: WEEK No.:5 INSTRUCTOR: Ms. Cyril-J S. Balboa
Computing BSIS III
INSTRUCTOR’S CONTACT INFO
Email: [email protected] Phone: 09533929012 Facebook (if provided):

Kamusta Ka Comtechian?

Topic: Data Collection: Definition, Methods, Example and Learning Competency:

Design 1. Define Data Collection
2. Identify the ways on how to gather data
3. State the importance of Data Gathering

Lesson Introduction:
In most cases, data collection is the primary and most important step for research, irrespective of the field of research. ... The
most critical objective of data collection is ensuring that information-rich and reliable data is collected for statistical analysis so
that data-driven decisions can be made for research.

Lessons and Exercises:

Data Collection Definition
Data collection is defined as the procedure of collecting, measuring and analyzing accurate insights for research using standard validated
techniques. A researcher can evaluate their hypothesis on the basis of collected data. In most cases, data collection is the primary and most
important step for research, irrespective of the field of research. The approach of data collection is different for different fields of study, depending on
the required information.

The most critical objective of data collection is ensuring that information-rich and reliable data is collected for statistical analysis so that data-driven
decisions can be made for research.  

Data Collection Methods: Phone vs. Online vs. In-Person Interviews

Essentially there are four choices for data collection – in-person interviews, mail, phone and online. There are pros and cons to each of these
modes.

In-Person Interviews
Pros: In-depth and a high degree of confidence on the data
Cons: Time consuming, expensive and can be dismissed as anecdotal

Mail Surveys
Pros: Can reach anyone and everyone – no barrier
Cons: Expensive, data collection errors, lag time

Phone Surveys
Pros: High degree of confidence in the data collected, reach almost anyone
Cons: Expensive, cannot self-administer, need to hire an agency

Web/Online Surveys
Pros: Cheap, can self-administer, very low probability of data errors
Cons: Not all your customers might have an email address/be on the internet, customers may be wary of divulging information online.

In-person interviews always are better, but the big drawback is the trap you might fall into if you don’t do them regularly. It is expensive to regularly
conduct interviews and not conducting enough interviews might give you false positives. Validating your research is almost as important as designing
and conducting it. We’ve seen many instances where after the research is conducted – if the results do not match up with the “gut-feel” of upper
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management, it has been dismissed off as anecdotal and a “one-time” phenomenon. To avoid such traps, we strongly recommend that data-
collection be done on an “ongoing and regular” basis. This will help you in comparing and analyzing the change in perceptions according to
marketing done for your products/services. The other issue here is sample size. To be confident with your research you have to interview enough
people to weed out the fringe elements.

A couple of years ago there was quite a lot of discussion about online surveys and their statistical validity. The fact that not every customer had
internet connectivity was one of the main concerns. Although some of the discussions are still valid, the reach of the internet as a means of
communication has become vital in the majority of customer interactions. According to the US Census Bureau, the number of households with
computers has doubled between 1997 and 2001.

In 2001 nearly 50% of the households had a computer. Nearly 55% of all households with an income of more than 35,000 have internet access, and
this jumps to 70% for households with an annual income of 50,000. This data is from the US Census Bureau for 2001.

There are primarily three modes of data collection that can be employed to gather feedback – Mail, Phone, and Online. The method actually used for
data-collection is really a cost-benefit analysis. There is no slam-dunk solution but you can use the table below to understand the risks and
advantages associated with each of the mediums:

Survey Medium Cost per Response Data Quality/Integrity Reach (ALL US Households)

Paper $20 – $30 Medium 100%

Phone $20 – $35 High 95%

Online / Email $1 – $5 Medium 50-70%

Keep in mind, the reach here is defined as “All U.S. Households.” In most cases, you need to take a look at how many of your customers are online
and make a determination. If all your customers have email addresses, you have a 100% reach of your customers.

Another important thing to keep in mind is the ever-increasing dominance of cellular phones over landline phones. United States FCC rules prevent
automated dialing and calling cellular phone numbers and there is a noticeable trend towards people having cellular phones as the only voice
communication device. This introduces the inability to reach cellular phone customers who are dropping home phone lines in favor of going entirely
wireless. Even if automated dialing is not used, another FCC rule prohibits from phoning anyone who would have to pay for the call.

Multi-Mode Surveys

Surveys, where the data is collected via different modes (online, paper, phone etc.), is also another way of going. It is fairly straightforward and easy
to have an online survey and have data-entry operators to enter in data (from the phone as well as paper surveys) into the system. The same system
can also be used to collect data directly from the respondents.

Data Collection Example

Data collection is an important aspect of research. Let’s consider an example of a mobile manufacturer, company X, which is launching a new
product variant. To conduct research about features, price range, target market, competitor analysis etc. data has to be collected from appropriate
sources. The marketing team can conduct various data collection activities such as online surveys or focus groups.

The survey should have all the right questions about features and pricing such as “What are the top 3 features expected from an upcoming product?”
or “How much are your likely to spend on this product?” or “Which competitors provide similar products?” etc.

For conducting a focus group, the marketing team should decide the participants as well as the mediator. The topic of discussion and objective
behind conducting a focus group should be made clear beforehand so that a conclusive discussion can be conducted.

Data collection methods are chosen depending on the available resources. For example, conducting questionnaires and surveys would require the
least resources while focus groups require moderately high resources.

Reason to Conduct Online Research and Data Collection

Feedback is a vital part of any organization’s growth. Whether you conduct regular focus groups to elicit information from key players or, your
account manager calls up all your marquee accounts to find out how things are going – essentially they are all processes to find out from your
customers’ eyes – How are we doing? What can we do better?

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Online surveys are just another medium to collect feedback from your customers, employees and anyone your business interacts with. With the
advent of Do-It-Yourself tools for online surveys, data collection on the internet has become really easy, cheap and effective.

Conducting Customer Surveys for Data Collection to Multiply Sales

It is a well-established marketing fact that acquiring a new customer is 10 times more difficult and expensive than retaining an existing one. This is
one of the fundamental driving forces behind the extensive adoption and interest in CRM and related customer retention tactics.

In a research study conducted by Rice University Professor Dr. Paul Dholakia and Dr. Vicki Morwitz, published in Harvard Business Review, the
experiment inferred that the simple fact of asking customers how an organization was performing by itself to deliver results proved to be an effective
customer retention strategy. In the research study, conducted over the course of a year, one set of customers were sent out a satisfaction and
opinion survey and the other set was not surveyed. In the next one year, the group that took the survey saw twice the number of people continuing
and renewing their loyalty towards the organization.

The research study provided a couple of interesting reasons on the basis of consumer psychology, behind this phenomenon:

1. Satisfaction surveys boost the customers’ desire to be coddled and induce positive feelings. This crops from a section of the human
psychology that intends to “appreciate” a product or service they already like or prefer. The survey feedback collection method is solely a medium
to convey this. The survey is a vehicle to “interact” with the company and reinforces the customer’s commitment to the company.
2. Surveys may increase awareness of auxiliary products and services. Surveys can be considered modes of both inbound as well as
outbound communication. Surveys are generally considered to be a data collection and analysis source. Most people are unaware of the fact that
consumer surveys can also serve as a medium for distributing data. It is important to note a few caveats here.
3. In most countries including the US, “selling under the guise of research” is illegal.
b. However, we all know that information is distributed while collecting information.
c. Other disclaimers may be included in the survey to ensure users are aware of this fact. For example: “We will be collecting your opinion and
informing you about products and services that have come online in the last year…”
4. Induced Judgments: The entire procedure of asking people their feedback can prompt them to build an opinion on something they
otherwise would not have thought about. This is a very underlying yet powerful argument which can be compared to the “Product Placement”
strategy currently used for marketing products in mass-media like movies and television shows. One example is the extensive and exclusive use
of the “mini-Cooper” in the blockbuster movie “Italian Job.” This strategy is questionable and should be used with great caution.
Surveys should be considered as a critical tool in the customer journey dialog. The best thing about surveys is its ability to carry “bi-directional”
information. The research conducted by Paul Dholakia and Vicki Morwitz shows that surveys not only get you the information that is critical for your
business, but also enhances and builds upon the established relationship you have with your customers.

Recent advances in technology have made it incredibly easy to conduct real-time surveys and opinion polls. Online tools make it easy to frame
questions and answers and create surveys on the Web. Distributing surveys via email, website links or even integration with online CRM tools like
Salesforce.com have made online surveying a quick-win solution.

Steps to Effectively Conduct an Online Survey for Data Collection

So, you’ve decided to conduct an online survey. There are a few questions in your mind that you would like answered and you are on the lookout for
a fast and inexpensive way to find out more about your customers, clients etc. The first and foremost thing you need to decide what the objectives of
the study are. Ensure that you can phrase these objectives as questions or measurements. If you can’t, you are better off looking at other means of
gathering data like focus groups and other qualitative methods. The data collected via online surveys is dominantly quantitative in nature.

Review the basic objectives of the study. What are you trying to discover? What actions do you want to take as a result of the survey? –  Answers to
these questions help in validating collected data. Online surveys are just one way of collecting and quantifying data.

 Visualize all of the relevant information items you would like to have. What will the output survey research report look like? What charts
and graphs will be prepared? What information do you need to be assured that action is warranted?
 Assign ranks to each topic (1 and 2) according to their priority, including the most important topics first. Revisit these items again to ensure
that the objectives, topics, and information you need are appropriate. Remember, you can’t solve the problem if you ask the wrong questions.
 How easy or difficult is it for the respondent to provide information on each topic? If it is difficult, is there an alternative medium to gain
insights by asking a different question? This is probably the most important step. Online surveys have to be Precise, Clear and Concise. Due to
the nature of the internet and the fluctuations involved, if your questions are too difficult to understand, the survey dropout rate will be high.
 Create a sequence for the topics that are unbiased. Make sure that the questions asked first do not bias the results of the next questions.
Sometimes providing too much information, or disclosing purpose of the study can create bias. Once you have a series of decided topics, you can
have a basic structure of a survey. It is always advisable to add an “Introductory” paragraph before the survey to explain the project objective and
what is expected of the respondent. It is also sensible to have a “Thank You” text as well as information about where to find the results of the
survey when they are published.

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 Decide the question type according to the requirement of the answers to meet analysis requirements. Choose from an array of question
types such as open-ended text questions, dichotomous, multiple choice, rank order, scaled, or constant sum (ratio scale) questions. You have to
consider an important aspect – Usually difficult analysis requirements will lead to an exponentially complicated survey design. However, there are
a couple of tools available to make life easier:
 Page Breaks – The attention span of respondents can be very low when it comes to a long scrolling survey. Add page breaks as
wherever possible. Having said that, a single question per page can also hamper response rates as it increases the time to complete the
survey as well as increases the chances for dropouts.
 Branching – Create smart and effective surveys with the implementation of branching wherever required. Eliminate the use of
text such as, “If you answered No to Q1 then Answer Q4” – this leads to annoyance amongst respondents which result in increased survey
dropout rates. Design online surveys using the branching logic so that appropriate questions are automatically routed based on previous
responses.
 Write the questions. Initially, write a significant number of survey questions out of which you can use the one which is best suited for the
survey. Divide the survey into sections so that respondents do not get confused seeing a long list of questions.
 Sequence the questions so that they are unbiased.
 Repeat all of the steps above to find any major holes. Are the questions really answered? Have someone review it for you.
 Time the length of the survey. A survey should take less than five minutes. At three to four research questions per minute, you are limited
to about 15 questions. One open end text question counts for three multiple choice questions. Most online software tools will record the time
taken for the respondents to answer questions.
 Pretest the survey to 20 or more people. Obtain their feedback in detail. What were they unsure about? Did they have questions? Did they
have trouble understanding what you wanted? Did they take a point of view not covered in your answers or question?
 Include a few open-ended survey questions that support your survey object. This will be a type of feedback survey.
 Send an email to the project survey to your test group and then email the feedback survey also after that.
 This way, you can have your test group provide their opinion about the functionality as well as usability of your project survey by
using the feedback survey.
 Make changes in your questionnaire on the basis of the received feedback.
 Send the survey out to all your respondents!
Online surveys have over the course of time, evolved into an effective alternative to expensive mail or telephone surveys. There are a few conditions
which need to be met to online surveys however that you must be aware of. If you are trying to survey a sample which represents the target
population, please keep in mind that not everyone is online.

Moreover, not everyone is receptive to an online survey also. Generally, the demographic segmentation belonging to younger individuals are inclined
towards responding to an online survey.

Survey Design for Data Collection

 Writing Great Questions for data collection

Writing great questions can be considered by an art. Art always requires a significant amount of hard work, practice, and help from others.

 Avoid loaded or leading words or questions

A small change in content can produce effective results. Words such as could, should, might are all used for almost the same purpose, but may
produce a 20% difference in agreement to a question. For example, “The management could.. should.. might.. have shut the factory”.

Intense words such as – prohibit or action, which represent control or action also produce similar results. For example,  “Do you believe that Donald
Trump should prohibit insurance companies from raising rates?”.

Sometimes the content is just biased. For instance, “You wouldn’t want to go to Rudolpho’s Restaurant for the organization’s annual party, would
you?”

 Misplaced questions
Questions should always have reference to the intended context, questions placed out of order or without its requirement should be avoided.
Generally, a funnel approach should be implemented – generic questions should be included in the initial section of the questionnaire as a warm-up
and specific ones should follow and towards the end, demographic or geographic questions should be included.

 Mutually non-overlapping response categories

Multiple choice answers should be mutually unique in order to provide distinct choices. Overlapping answer options frustrate the respondent and
make interpretation difficult at best. Also, the questions should always be precise.

For example: “Do you like water juice?”

This question is vague. In which terms is the liking for orange juice is to be rated? – Sweetness, texture, price, nutrition etc.

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 Avoid the use of confusing/unfamiliar words

Asking about industry related terms such as caloric content, bits, bytes, mbs, and other such terms and acronyms can be confusing for respondents.
Ensure that the audience understands your language level, terminology and above all, the question you ask.

 Non-directed questions give respondents excessive leeway

What suggestions do you have for improving our shoes? The question is about quality in general, but the respondent may offer suggestions about
texture, the type of shoes or variants.

 Never force questions

There will always be certain questions which cross certain privacy rules and since privacy is an important issue for most people, these questions
should either be eliminated from the survey or not kept as mandatory. Survey questions about income, family income and status, religious, and
political beliefs etc. should always be avoided as they are considered to be intruding and respondents can choose not to answer them.

 Unbalanced answer options in scales

Unbalanced answer options in scales such as Likert Scale and Semantic Scale may be appropriate for some situations and biased in others. When
analyzing a pattern in eating habits, a study used a quantity scale that made obese people appear in the middle of the scale with the polar ends
reflecting a state where people starve and an irrational amount to consume. There are cases where we usually would not expect poor service such
as hospitals.

 Questions which cover two points

What is the fastest and most convenient ISP for your location? The fastest ISP would be expensive and the less expensive ones will most likely be
slow. To understand both factors, two separate questions should be asked.

 Dichotomous questions

Dichotomous questions are used in case you want a distinct answer, for example – Yes/No, Male/Female. For example, the question “Do you think
Hillary Clinton will win the election?” – The answer can either be Yes or No.

 Avoid the use of long questions

The use of long questions will definitely increase the time taken for completion which will generally lead to an increase in the survey dropout
rate. Multiple choice questions are the longest and most complex and open-ended questions are the shortest and easiest to answer.

Sentence Completion:

11. Today I feel _______________________________________________________________________________________.

12. My family is _______________________________________________________________________________________.
13. I think ___________________________________________________________________________________________.
14. I believe __________________________________________________________________________________________.
15. I suggest _________________________________________________________________________________________

GOOD JOB!
STAY SAFE AND HEALTHY ALWAYS.

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SUBJECT TITLE: Methods of research in YEAR LEVEL: WEEK No.: 6 INSTRUCTOR: Ms. Cyril-J S. Balboa
Computing BSIS III
INSTRUCTOR’S CONTACT INFO
Email: [email protected] Phone: 09533929012 Facebook (if provided):

Kamusta Ka Comtechian?

Topic: Research Ethics Learning Competency:

1. Appreciate the importance of Research Ethics

Lesson Introduction:
There are several reasons why it is important to adhere to ethical norms in research. First, norms promote the aims of research, such
as knowledge, truth, and avoidance of error. For example, prohibitions against fabricating, falsifying, or misrepresenting research data
promote the truth and minimize error.

Lessons and Exercises:

Research ethics provides guidelines for the responsible conduct of research. In addition, it educates and monitors scientists conducting
research to ensure a high ethical standard. The following is a general summary of some ethical principles:
Honesty:
Honestly report data, results, methods and procedures, and publication status. Do not fabricate, falsify, or misrepresent data.
Objectivity:
Strive to avoid bias in experimental design, data analysis, data interpretation, peer review, personnel decisions, grant writing, expert
testimony, and other aspects of research.
Integrity:
Keep your promises and agreements; act with sincerity; strive for consistency of thought and action.
Carefulness:
Avoid careless errors and negligence; carefully and critically examine your own work and the work of your peers. Keep good records of
research activities.
Openness:
Share data, results, ideas, tools, resources. Be open to criticism and new ideas.
Respect for Intellectual Property:
Honor patents, copyrights, and other forms of intellectual property. Do not use unpublished data, methods, or results without
permission. Give credit where credit is due. Never plagiarize.
Confidentiality:
Protect confidential communications, such as papers or grants submitted for publication, personnel records, trade or military secrets,
and patient records.
Responsible Publication:
Publish in order to advance research and scholarship, not to advance just your own career. Avoid wasteful and duplicative publication.
Responsible Mentoring:
Help to educate, mentor, and advise students. Promote their welfare and allow them to make their own decisions.
Respect for Colleagues:
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Respect your colleagues and treat them fairly.

Social Responsibility:
Strive to promote social good and prevent or mitigate social harms through research, public education, and advocacy.
Non-Discrimination:
Avoid discrimination against colleagues or students on the basis of sex, race, ethnicity, or other factors that are not related to their
scientific competence and integrity.
Competence:
Maintain and improve your own professional competence and expertise through lifelong education and learning; take steps to promote
competence in science as a whole.
Legality:
Know and obey relevant laws and institutional and governmental policies.
Animal Care:
Show proper respect and care for animals when using them in research. Do not conduct unnecessary or poorly designed animal
experiments.
Human Subjects Protection:
When conducting research on human subjects, minimize harms and risks and maximize benefits; respect human dignity, privacy, and
autonomy.

Assessment Part:
I. Answer the following questions below.
1. What do we mean by ethics?
2. Is research ethics important?
3. How can research ethics help you?

Sentence Completion:

16. Today I feel _______________________________________________________________________________________.

17. My family is _______________________________________________________________________________________.
18. I think ___________________________________________________________________________________________.
19. I believe __________________________________________________________________________________________.
20. I suggest _________________________________________________________________________________________

GOOD JOB!
STAY SAFE AND HEALTHY ALWAYS.

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 COMPUTER TECHNOLOGIES INSTITUTE (COMTECH)
Inc.
CODL UP! COLLEGE Learning Module
2 Semester A.Y. 2020-2021
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SUBJECT TITLE: Methods of research in YEAR LEVEL: WEEK No.: 6 INSTRUCTOR: Ms. Cyril-J S. Balboa
Computing BSIS III
INSTRUCTOR’S CONTACT INFO
Email: [email protected] Phone: 09533929012 Facebook (if provided):

Kamusta Ka Comtechian?

Topic: Survey Research, Correlational Research and Learning Competency:

Experimental Research 1. Define Survey, Experimental and Correlational Research
2. Differentiate Survey, Experimental and Correlational Research

Lesson Introduction:
The different types of research help build creativity, leadership, reading, analysis, problem-solving, and cognitive abilities in a person. It
is marked as an important tool for success for any business organization or firm.

Lessons and Exercises:

Survey Research
Survey research definition
Survey Research is defined as the process of conducting research using surveys that researchers send to survey respondents. The data
collected from surveys is then statistically analyzed to draw meaningful research conclusions.

In the 21st century, every organization’s eager to understand what their customers think about their products or services and make better
business decisions. Researchers can conduct research in multiple ways, but surveys are proven to be one of the most effective and
trustworthy research methods. An online survey is a method for extracting information about a significant business matter from an individual
or a group of individuals. It consists of structured survey questions that motivate the participants to respond,

Creditable survey research can give these businesses access to a vast information bank. Organizations in media, other companies, and even
governments rely on survey research to obtain accurate data.

The traditional definition of survey research is a quantitative method for collecting information from a pool of respondents by asking multiple
survey questions. This research type includes the recruitment of individuals, collection, and analysis of data. It’s useful for researchers who
aim at communicating new features or trends to their respondents.

Generally, it’s the primary step towards obtaining quick information about mainstream topics and conducting more rigorous and detailed
quantitative research methods like surveys/polls or qualitative research methods like focus groups/on-call interviews can follow. There are
many situations where researchers can conduct research using a blend of both qualitative and quantitative strategies.

Survey research methods

Survey research methods can be derived based on two critical factors: Survey research tool and time involved to conduct research.

There are three main survey research methods, divided based on the medium of conducting survey research:

 Online/ Email: Online survey research is one of the most popular survey research methods today. The cost involved in online survey
research is extremely minimal, and the responses gathered are highly accurate.
 Phone: Survey research conducted over the telephone (CATI) can be useful in collecting data from a more extensive section of the
target population. There are chances that the money invested in phone surveys will be higher than other mediums, and the time required will
be higher.
 Face-to-face: Researchers conduct face-to-face in-depth interviews in situations where there is a complicated problem to solve. The
response rate for this method is the highest, but it can be costly.
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Further, based on the time taken, survey research can be classified into two methods:

 Longitudinal survey research: Longitudinal survey research involves conducting survey research over a continuum of time and
spread across years and decades. The data collected using this survey research method from one time period to another is qualitative or
quantitative. Respondent behavior, preferences, attitudes are continuously observed over time to analyze reasons for a change in behavior or
preferences. For example, suppose a researcher intends to learn about the eating habits of teenagers. In that case, he/she will follow a
sample of teenagers over a considerable period to ensure that the collected information is reliable. Often, cross-sectional survey research
follows a longitudinal survey research study.
 Cross-sectional survey research: Researchers conduct a cross-sectional survey to collect insights from a target audience at a
particular time interval. This survey research method is implemented in various sectors such as retail, education, healthcare, SME
businesses, etc. Cross-sectional survey research can either be descriptive or analytical. It is quick and helps researchers collected
information in a brief period. Researchers rely on cross-sectional survey research method in situations where descriptive analysis of a subject
is required.

Survey research also is bifurcated according to the sampling methods used to form samples for research: Probability and Non-probability
sampling. Every individual of a population should be considered equally to be a part of the survey research sample. Probability sampling is a
sampling method in which the researcher chooses the elements based on probability theory. The are various probability research methods
such as simple random sampling, systematic sampling, cluster sampling, stratified random sampling, etc. Non-probability sampling is a
sampling method where the researcher uses his/her knowledge and experience to form samples. The various non-probability sampling
techniques are convenience sampling, snowball sampling, consecutive sampling, judgemental sampling, and quota sampling.

Process of implementing survey research methods:

 Decide survey questions: Brainstorm and put together valid survey questions that are grammatically and logically appropriate.
Understanding the objective and expected outcomes of the survey helps a lot. There are many surveys where details of responses are not as
important as gaining insights about what customers prefer from the provided options. In such situations, a researcher can include multiple-
choice questions or closed-ended questions. Whereas, if researchers need to obtain details about specific issues, they can consist of open-
ended questions to the questionnaire. Ideally, the surveys should include a smart balance of open-ended and closed-ended questions. Use
survey questions like Likert Scale, Semantic Scale, Net Promoter Score question, etc. to avoid fence-sitting.
 Finalize a target audience: Send out relevant surveys as per the target audience and filter out irrelevant questions as per the
requirement. The survey research will be instrumental in case the target population decides a sample. This way, results can be according to
the desired market and be generalized to the entire population
 Send out surveys via decided mediums: Distribute the surveys to the target audience and patiently wait for the feedback and
comments- this is the most crucial step of the survey research. The survey needs to be scheduled, keeping in mind the nature of the target
audience and its regions. Surveys can be conducted via email, embedded in a website, shared via social media, etc. to gain maximum
responses.
 Analyze survey results: Analyze the feedback in real-time and identify patterns in the responses which might lead to a much-needed
breakthrough for your organization. GAP, TURF, Conjoint analysis, Cross tabulation, and many such survey feedback analysis methods can
be used to spot and shed light on respondent behavior. Researchers can use the results to implement corrective measures to improve
customer/employee satisfaction.

Reasons to conduct survey research

The most crucial and integral reason for conducting market research using surveys is that you can collect answers regarding specific,
essential questions. You can ask these questions in multiple formats as per the target audience and the intent of the survey. Before designing
a study, every organization must figure out the objective of carrying this out so that the study can be structured, planned, and executed to
perfection.

Questions that need to be on your mind while designing a survey are:

 What is the primary aim of conducting the survey?

 How do you plan to utilize the collected survey data?
 What type of decisions you plan to take based on the points mentioned above.

There are three critical reasons why an organization must conduct survey research.

 Understand respondent behavior to get solutions to your queries: If you’ve carefully curated a survey, the respondents will provide
insights about what they like about your organization as well as suggestions for improvement. To motivate them to respond, you must be very
vocal about how secure their responses will be and how you will utilize the answers. This will push them to be 100% honest about their
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feedback, opinions, and comments. Online surveys or mobile surveys have proved their privacy, and due to this, more and more respondents
feel free to put forth their feedback through these mediums.
 Present a medium for discussion: A survey can be the perfect platform for respondents to provide criticism or applause for an
organization. Important topics like product quality or quality of customer service etc. can be put on the table for discussion. A way you can do
it is by including open-ended questions where the respondents can write their thoughts. This will make it easy for you to correlate your survey
to what you intend to do with your product or service.
 Strategy for never-ending improvements: An organization can establish the target audience's attributes from the pilot phase of
survey research. Researchers can use the criticism and feedback received from this survey to improve the product/services. Once the
company successfully makes the improvements, it can send out another survey to measure the change in feedback keeping the pilot phase
the benchmark. By doing this activity, the organization can track what was effectively improved and what still needs improvement.

Survey research scales

There are four main scales for measurement of variables:

 Nominal Scale: A nominal scale associates numbers with variables for mere naming or labeling, and the numbers usually have no
other relevance. It is the most basic of the four levels of measurement.
 Ordinal Scale: The ordinal scale has an innate order within the variables along with labels. It establishes the rank between the
variables of a scale but not the difference value between the variables.
 Interval Scale: The interval scale is a step ahead in comparison to the other two scales. Along with establishing a rank and name of
variables, the scale also makes known the difference between the two variables. The only drawback is that there is no fixed start point of the
scale, i.e., the actual zero value is absent.
 Ratio Scale: The ratio scale is the most advanced measurement scale, which has variables that are labeled in order and have a
calculated difference between variables. In addition to what interval scale orders, this scale has a fixed starting point, i.e., the actual zero
value is present.

Benefits of survey research

In case survey research is used for all the right purposes and is implemented properly, marketers can benefit by gaining useful, trustworthy
data that they can use to better the ROI of the organization.

Other benefits of survey research are:

 Minimum investment: Mobile surveys and online surveys have minimal finance invested per respondent. Even with the gifts and
other incentives provided to the people who participate in the study, online surveys are extremely economical compared to the paper-based
surveys.
 Versatile sources for response collection: You can conduct surveys via various mediums like online and mobile surveys. You can
further classify them into qualitative mediums like focus groups, interviews, and quantitative mediums like customer-centric surveys. Due to
the offline survey response collection option, researchers can conduct surveys in remote areas with limited internet connectivity. This can
make data collection and analysis more convenient and extensive.
 Reliable for respondents: Surveys are extremely secure as the respondent details and responses are kept safeguarded. This
anonymity makes respondents answer the survey questions candidly and with absolute honesty. An organization seeking to receive explicit
responses for its survey research must mention that it will be confidential.

Survey research design

Researchers implement a survey research design in cases where there is a limited cost involved, and there is a need to access details easily.
This method is often used by small and large organizations to understand and analyze new trends, market demands, and opinions. Collecting
information through a tactfully designed survey research can be much more effective and productive than a casually conducted survey.

There are five stages of survey research design:

 Decide an aim of the research: There can be multiple reasons for a researcher to conduct a survey, but they need to decide a
purpose for research. This is the primary stage of survey research as it can mold the entire path of a survey, impacting its results.
 Filter the sample from target population: Who to target? is an essential question that a researcher should answer and keep in mind
while conducting research. The precision of the results is driven by who the members of a sample are and how useful their opinions are. The
quality of respondents in a sample is essential for the results received for research and not the quantity. If a researcher seeks to understand
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whether a product feature will work well with their target market, he/she can conduct survey research with a group of market experts for that
product or technology.
 Zero-in on a survey method: Many qualitative and quantitative research methods can be discussed and decided. Focus groups,
online interviews, surveys, polls, questionnaires, etc. can be carried out with the pre-decided sample of individuals.
 Design the questionnaire: What will the content of the survey be? A researcher is required to answer this question to be able to
design it effectively. What will the content of the cover letter be? Or what are the survey questions of this questionnaire? Understand the
target market thoroughly to create a questionnaire that targets a sample to gain insights about a survey research topic.
 Send out surveys and analyze results: Once the researcher decides on which questions to include in a study, they can send it
across to the selected sample. Answers obtained for this survey can be analyzed to make product-related or marketing-related decisions.

Survey examples: 10 tips to design the perfect research survey

Picking the right survey design can be the key to gaining the information you need to make crucial decisions for all your research. It is
essential to choose the right topic, choose the right questions types, and pick a corresponding design. If this is your first time creating a
survey, it can seem like an intimidating task. But with QuestionPro, each step of the process is made simple and easy.

Below are the Survey Examples: 10 Tips To Design The Perfect Research Survey

 Set your SMART goals: Before conducting any market research or creating a particular plan, set your SMART Goals. What is that
you want to achieve with the survey? How will you measure it promptly, and what are the results you are expecting?
 Choose the right questions: Designing a survey can be a tricky task. Asking the right questions may help you get the answers you
are looking for and ease the task of analyzing. So, always choose those specific questions – relevant to your research.
 Begin your survey with a generalized question: Preferably, start your survey with a General Question to understand whether the
respondent uses the product or not. That also provides an excellent base and intro for your survey.
 Enhance your survey: Choose the best, most relevant, 15-20 questions. Frame each question as a different question type, based on
the kind of answer you would like to gather from each. Create a survey using different types of questions such as multiple-choice, rating
scale, open-ended, etc. Look at more survey examples and four measurement scales every researcher should remember.
 Prepare yes/no questions: You may also want to use yes/no questions to separate people or branch them into groups of those who
“have purchased” and those who “have not yet purchased” your products or services. Once you separate them, you can ask them different
questions.
 Test all electronic devices: It becomes effortless to distribute your surveys if respondents can answer them on different electronic
devices like mobiles, tablets, etc. Once you have created your survey, it’s time to TEST. You can also make any corrections if needed at this
stage.
 Distribute your survey: Once your survey is ready, it is time to share and distribute to the right audience. You can share handouts
and share them via email, social media, and other industry-related offline/online communities.
 Collect and analyze responses: After distributing your survey, it is time to gather all responses. Make sure you store your results in a
particular document or an excel sheet, with all the necessary categories mentioned, so that you don’t lose your data. Remember, this is the
most crucial stage. Segregate your responses based on demographics, psychographics, and behavior. This is because, as a researcher, you
must know where your responses are coming from. It will help you to analyze, predict decisions, and help write the summary report.
 Prepare your summary report: Now, is the time to share your analysis. At this stage, you should mention all the responses gathered
from a survey in a fixed format. Also, the reader/customer must get clarity about your goal, which you were trying to gain from the study.
Questions such as – whether the product or service has been used/preferred or not. Do respondents prefer some other product to another?
Any recommendations?

Correlational Research

What is Correlational Research?

Correlational research is a type of research method that involves observing two variables in order to
establish a statistically corresponding relationship between them. The aim of correlational research is to
identify variables that have some sort of relationship do the extent that a change in one creates some
change in the other. 

This type of research is descriptive, unlike experimental research that relies entirely on scientific
methodology and hypothesis. For example, correlational research may reveal the statistical relationship
between high-income earners and relocation; that is, the more people earn, the more likely they are to
relocate or not. 
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What are the Types of Correlational Research?

Essentially, there are 3 types of correlational research which are positive correlational research, negative
correlational research, and no correlational research. Each of these types is defined by peculiar
characteristics. 

 Positive Correlational Research

Positive correlational research is a research method involving 2 variables that are statistically
corresponding where an increase or decrease in 1 variable creates a like change in the other. An example
is when an increase in workers' remuneration results in an increase in the prices of goods and services
and vice versa.  

 Negative Correlational Research

Negative correlational research is a research method involving 2 variables that are statistically opposite
where an increase in one of the variables creates an alternate effect or decrease in the other variable. An
example of a negative correlation is if the rise in goods and services causes a decrease in demand and
vice versa. 

 Zero Correlational Research

Zero correlational research is a type of correlational research that involves 2 variables that are not
necessarily statistically connected. In this case, a change in one of the variables may not trigger a
corresponding or alternate change in the other variable.

Zero correlational research caters for variables with vague statistical relationships. For example, wealth
and patience can be variables under zero correlational research because they are statistically
independent. 

Sporadic change patterns that occur in variables with zero correlational are usually by chance and not as
a result of corresponding or alternate mutual inclusiveness. 

Correlational research can also be classified based on data collection methods. Based on these, there are
3 types of correlational research: Naturalistic observation research, survey research and archival
research. 

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What are the Data Collection Methods in Correlational research? 

Data collection methods in correlational research are the research methodologies adopted by persons
carrying out correlational research in order to determine the linear statistical relationship between 2
variables. These data collection methods are used to gather information in correlational research. 

The 3 methods of data collection in correlational research are naturalistic observation method, archival
data method, and the survey method. All of these would be clearly explained in the subsequent
paragraphs. 

 Naturalistic Observation

Naturalistic observation is a correlational research methodology that involves observing people's

behaviors as shown in the natural environment where they exist, over a period of time. It is a type of
research-field method that involves the researcher paying closing attention to natural behavior patterns of
the subjects under consideration.

This method is extremely demanding as the researcher must take extra care to ensure that the subjects
do not suspect that they are being observed else they deviate from their natural behavior patterns. It is
best for all subjects under observation to remain anonymous in order to avoid a breach of privacy. 

The major advantages of the naturalistic observation method are that it allows the researcher to fully
observe the subjects (variables) in their natural state. However, it is a very expensive and time-consuming
process plus the subjects can become aware of this act at any time and may act contrary. 

 Archival Data

Archival data is a type of correlational research method that involves making use of already gathered
information about the variables in correlational research. Since this method involves using data that is
already gathered and analyzed, it is usually straight to the point. 

For this method of correlational research, the research makes use of earlier studies conducted by other
researchers or the historical records of the variables being analyzed. This method helps a researcher to
track already determined statistical patterns of the variables or subjects. 

This method is less expensive, saves time and provides the researcher with more disposable data to work
with. However, it has the problem of data accuracy as important information may be missing from previous
research since the researcher has no control over the data collection process. 

 Survey Method

The survey method is the most common method of correlational research; especially in fields like
psychology. It involves random sampling of the variables or the subjects in the research in which the
participants fill a questionnaire centered on the subjects of interest. 

This method is very flexible as researchers can gather large amounts of data in very little time. However, it
is subject to survey response bias and can also be affected by biased survey questions or under-
representation of survey respondents or participants. 

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These would be properly explained under data collection methods in correlational research. 

Examples of Correlational Research

Correlational research examples are numerous and highlight several instances where a correlational study
may be carried out in order to determine the statistical behavioral trend with regards to the variables under
consideration. Here are 3 case examples of correlational research. 

 You want to know if wealthy people are less likely to be patient. From your experience, you believe
that wealthy people are impatient. However, you want to establish a statistical pattern that proves
or disproves your belief. In this case, you can carry out correlational research to identify a trend
that links both variables. 
 You want to know if there's a correlation between how much people earn and the number of
children that they have. You do not believe that people with more spending power have more
children than people with less spending power. 

You think that how much people earn hardly determines the number of children that they have. Yet,
carrying out correlational research on both variables could reveal any correlational relationship that exists
between them. 

 You believe that domestic violence causes a brain hemorrhage. You cannot carry out an
experiment as it would be unethical to deliberately subject people to domestic violence. 

However, you can carry out correlational research to find out if victims of domestic violence suffer brain
hemorrhage more than non-victims. 

What are the Characteristics of Correlational Research? 

 Correlational Research is non-experimental

Correlational research is non-experimental as it does not involve manipulating variables using a scientific
methodology in order to agree or disagree with a hypothesis. In correlational research, the researcher
simply observes and measures the natural relationship between 2 variables; without subjecting either of
the variables to external conditioning. 

 Correlational Research is Backward-looking

Correlational research doesn't take the future into consideration as it only observes and measures the
recent historical relationship that exists between 2 variables. In this sense, the statistical pattern resulting
from correlational research is backward-looking and can seize to exist at any point, going forward. 

Correlational research observes and measures historical patterns between 2 variables such as the
relationship between high-income earners and tax payment. Correlational research may reveal a positive
relationship between the aforementioned variables but this may change at any point in the future. 

 Correlational Research is Dynamic

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Statistical patterns between 2 variables that result from correlational research are ever-changing. The
correlation between 2 variables changes on a daily basis and such, it cannot be used as a fixed data for
further research. 

For example, the 2 variables can have a negative correlational relationship for a period of time, maybe 5
years. After this time, the correlational relationship between them can become positive; as observed in the
relationship between bonds and stocks. 

 Data resulting from correlational research are not constant and cannot be used as a standard
variable for further research. 

What is the Correlation Coefficient? 

A correlation coefficient is an important value in correlational research that indicates whether the inter-
relationship between 2 variables is positive, negative or non-existent. It is usually represented with the
sign [r] and is part of a range of possible correlation coefficients from -1.0 to +1.0. 

The strength of a correlation between quantitative variables is typically measured using a statistic
called Pearson’s Correlation Coefficient (or Pearson’s r). A positive correlation is indicated by a value of
1.0, a perfect negative correlation is indicated by a value of -1.0 while zero correlation is indicated by a
value of 0.0. 

It is important to note that a correlation coefficient only reflects the linear relationship between 2 variables;
it does not capture non-linear relationships and cannot separate dependent and independent variables.
The correlation coefficient helps you to determine the degree of statistical relationship that exists between
variables. 

What are the Advantages of Correlational Research?

 In cases where carrying out experimental research is unethical, correlational research  can be used
to determine the relationship between 2 variables. For example, when studying humans, carrying
out an experiment can be seen as unsafe or unethical; hence, choosing correlational research
would be the best option. 
 Through correlational research, you can easily determine the statistical relationship between 2
variables.
 Carrying out correlational research is less time-consuming and less expensive than experimental
research. This becomes a strong advantage when working with a minimum of researchers and
funding or when keeping the number of variables in a study very low. 
 Correlational research allows the researcher to carry out shallow data gathering using different
methods such as a short survey. A short survey does not require the researcher to personally
administer it so this allows the researcher to work with a few people. 

What are the Disadvantages of Correlational Research? 

 Correlational research is limiting in nature as it can only be used to determine the statistical
relationship between 2 variables. It cannot be used to establish a relationship between more than 2
variables. 

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 It does not account for cause and effect between 2 variables as it doesn't highlight which of the 2
variables is responsible for the statistical pattern that is observed. For example, finding that
education correlates positively with vegetarianism doesn't explain whether being educated leads to
becoming a vegetarian or whether vegetarianism leads to more education.
 Reasons for either can be assumed, but until more research is done, causation can't be
determined. Also, a third, unknown variable might be causing both. For instance, living in the state
of Detroit can lead to both education and vegetarianism.
 Correlational research depends on past statistical patterns to determine the relationship between
variables. As such, its data cannot be fully depended on for further research. 
 In correlational research, the researcher has no control over the variables. Unlike experimental
research, correlational research only allows the researcher to observe the variables for connecting
statistical patterns without introducing a catalyst. 
 The information received from correlational research is limited. Correlational research only shows
the relationship between variables and does not equate to causation. 

What are the Differences between Correlational and Experimental Research? 

 Methodology

The major difference between correlational research and experimental research is methodology. In
correlational research, the researcher looks for a statistical pattern linking 2 naturally-occurring variables
while in experimental research, the researcher introduces a catalyst and monitors its effects on the
variables. 

 Observation

In correlational research, the researcher passively observes the phenomena and measures whatever
relationship that occurs between them. However, in experimental research, the researcher actively
observes phenomena after triggering a change in the behavior of the variables. 

 Causality

In experimental research, the researcher introduces a catalyst and monitors its effects on the variables,
that is, cause and effect. In correlational research, the researcher is not interested in cause and effect as it
applies; rather, he or she identifies recurring statistical patterns connecting the variables in research. 

 Number of Variables

research caters to an unlimited number of variables. Correlational research, on the other hand, caters to
only 2 variables. 

 Experimental research is causative while correlational research is relational.

 Correlational research is preliminary and almost always precedes experimental research. 
 Unlike correlational research, experimental research allows the researcher to control the variables.

How to Use Online Forms for Correlational Research

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One of the most popular methods of conducting correlational research is by carrying out a survey which
can be made easier with the use of an online form. Surveys for correlational research involve generating
different questions that revolve around the variables under observation and, allowing respondents to
provide answers to these questions. 

Using an online form for your correlational research survey would help the researcher to gather more data
in minimum time. In addition, the researcher would be able to reach out to more survey respondents than
is plausible with printed correlational research survey forms. 

In addition, the researcher would be able to swiftly process and analyze all responses in order to
objectively establish the statistical pattern that links the variables in the research. Using an online form for
correlational research also helps the researcher to minimize the cost incurred during the research period. 

To use an online form for a correlational research survey, you would need to sign up on a data-gathering
platform like Formplus. Formplus allows you to create custom forms for correlational research surveys
using the Formplus builder. 

You can customize your correlational research survey form by adding background images, new color
themes or your company logo to make it appear even more professional. In addition, Formplus also has
a survey form template that you can edit for a correlational research study. 

You can create different types of survey questions including open-ended questions, rating

questions, close-ended questions and multiple answers questions in your survey in the Formplus builder.
After creating your correlational research survey, you can share the personalized link with respondents via
email or social media.

Formplus also enables you to collect offline responses in your form.

Conclusion 
Correlational research enables researchers to establish the statistical pattern between 2 seemingly
interconnected variables; as such, it is the starting point of any type of research. It allows you to link 2
variables by observing their behaviors in the most natural state. 

Unlike experimental research, correlational research does not emphasize the causative factor affecting 2
variables and this makes the data that results from correlational research subject to constant change.
However, it is quicker, easier, less expensive and more convenient than experimental research. 

It is important to always keep the aim of your research at the back of your mind when choosing the best
type of research to adopt. If you simply need to observe how the variables react to change then,
experimental research is the best type to subscribe for. 

It is best to conduct correlational research using an online correlational research survey form as this
makes the data-gathering process, more convenient. Formplus is a great online data-gathering platform
that you can use to create custom survey forms for correlational research. 

Experimental research
Definition:
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Experimental research is research conducted with a scientific approach using two sets of variables. The first
set acts as a constant, which you use to measure the differences of the second set. Quantitative research
methods, for example, are experimental.

If you don’t have enough data to support your decisions, you must first determine the facts. Experimental
research gathers the data necessary to help you make better decisions.

Any research conducted under scientifically acceptable conditions uses experimental methods. The success
of experimental studies hinges on researchers confirming the change of a variable is based solely on the
manipulation of the constant variable. The research should establish a notable cause and effect.

You can conduct experimental research in the following situations:

 Time is a vital factor in establishing a relationship between cause and effect.

 Invariable behavior between cause and effect.
 You wish to understand the importance of the cause and effect.
Learn about: Quantitative Market Research

Types of experimental research design

The classic experimental design definition is, “The methods used to collect data in experimental studies.”

There are three primary types of experimental design:

 Pre-experimental research design

 True experimental research design
 Quasi-experimental research design
The way you classify research subjects, based on conditions or groups, determines the type of design.

1. Pre-experimental research design: A group, or various groups, are kept under observation after
implementing factors of cause and effect. You’ll conduct this research to understand whether further
investigation is necessary for these particular groups.

You can break down pre-experimental research further in three types:

 One-shot Case Study Research Design

 One-group Pretest-posttest Research Design
 Static-group Comparison
2. True experimental research design: True experimental research relies on statistical analysis to prove or
disprove a hypothesis, making it the most accurate form of research. Of the types of experimental design, only
true design can establish a cause-effect relationship within a group. In a true experiment, three factors need to
be satisfied:

 There is a Control Group, which won’t be subject to changes, and an Experimental Group, which will
experience the changed variables.
 A variable which can be manipulated by the researcher
 Random distribution
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This experimental research method commonly occurs in the physical sciences.

3. Quasi-experimental research design: The word “Quasi” indicates similarity. A quasi-experimental design is

similar to experimental, but it is not the same. The difference between the two is the assignment of a control
group. In this research, an independent variable is manipulated, but the participants of a group are not
randomly assigned. Quasi-research is used in field settings where random assignment is either irrelevant or
not required.

Learn about: Market research

Advantages of experimental research

It’s vital to test new ideas or theories. Why put time, effort, and funding into something that may not work?

Experimental research allows you to test your idea in a controlled environment before taking it to market. It
also provides the best method to test your theory, thanks to the following advantages:

 Researchers have a stronger hold over variables to obtain desired results.

 The subject or industry does not impact the effectiveness of experimental research. Any industry can
implement it for research purposes.
 The results are specific.
 After analyzing the results, you can apply your findings to similar ideas or situations.
 You can identify the cause and effect of a hypothesis. Researchers can further analyze this
relationship to determine more in-depth ideas.
 Experimental research makes an ideal starting point. The data you collect is a foundation on which to
build more ideas and conduct more research.

Assessment Part:
I. Answer the following questions below.
Define the following:
1. What is a Survey Research?
2. What is a Correlational Research?
3. What is Experimental Research?

Sentence Completion:

1. Today I feel _______________________________________________________________________________________.

2. My family is _______________________________________________________________________________________.
3. I think ___________________________________________________________________________________________.
4. I believe __________________________________________________________________________________________.
5. I suggest _________________________________________________________________________________________

GOOD JOB!

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STAY SAFE AND HEALTHY ALWAYS.

SUBJECT TITLE: Methods of research in YEAR LEVEL: WEEK No.:7- INSTRUCTOR: Ms. Cyril-J S. Balboa
Computing BSIS III 8
INSTRUCTOR’S CONTACT INFO
Email: [email protected] Phone: 09533929012 Facebook (if provided):

Kamusta Ka Comtechian?

Topic: Action Research, Managing Research and Learning Competency:

Qualitative Research 1. select computational techniques from information sciences for data
analysis and inference.
2. associate different types of research to computational problems in various
domains.
3. recommend research management techniques.

Lesson Introduction:
In this week you will be learning about the different types of research related to your field of study. Are you now ready?
Let’s goooo!

Lessons and Exercises:

Action Research
What Is Action Research?
A succinct definition of action research appears in the workshop materials we use at the Institute for the Study of Inquiry in
Education. That definition states that action research is a disciplined process of inquiry conducted by and for those taking
the action The primary reason for engaging in action research is to assist the “actor” in improving and/or refining his or her
actions.
Practitioners who engage in action research inevitably find it to be an empowering experience. Action research has this
positive effect for many reasons. Obviously, the most important is that action research is always relevant to the
participants. Relevance is guaranteed because the focus of each research project is determined by the researchers, who
are also the primary consumers of the findings.
Perhaps even more important is the fact that action research helps educators be more effective at what they care most
about—their teaching and the development of their students. Seeing students grow is probably the greatest joy educators
can experience. When teachers have convincing evidence that their work has made a real difference in their students'
lives, the countless hours and endless efforts of teaching seem worthwhile.

The Action Research Process

Educational action research can be engaged in by a single teacher, by a group of colleagues who share an interest in a
common problem, or by the entire faculty of a school. Whatever the scenario, action research always involves the same
seven-step process. These seven steps, which become an endless cycle for the inquiring teacher, are the following:

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1. Selecting a focus
2. Clarifying theories
3. Identifying research questions
4. Collecting data
5. Analyzing data
6. Reporting results
7. Taking informed action

Step 1—Selecting a Focus

The action research process begins with serious reflection directed toward identifying a topic or topics worthy of a busy
teacher's time. Considering the incredible demands on today's classroom teachers, no activity is worth doing unless it
promises to make the central part of a teacher's work more successful and satisfying. Thus, selecting a focus, the first
step in the process, is vitally important. Selecting a focus begins with the teacher researcher or the team of action
researchers asking:
What element(s) of our practice or what aspect of student learning do we wish to investigate?

Step 2—Clarifying Theories

The second step involves identifying the values, beliefs, and theoretical perspectives the researchers hold relating to their
focus. For example, if teachers are concerned about increasing responsible classroom behavior, it will be helpful for them
to begin by clarifying which approach—using punishments and rewards, allowing students to experience the natural
consequences of their behaviors, or some other strategy—they feel will work best in helping students acquire responsible
classroom behavior habits.
Step 3—Identifying Research Questions
Once a focus area has been selected and the researcher's perspectives and beliefs about that focus have been clarified,
the next step is to generate a set of personally meaningful research questions to guide the inquiry.
Step 4—Collecting Data
Professional educators always want their instructional decisions to be based on the best possible data. Action researchers
can accomplish this by making sure that the data used to justify their actions are valid (meaning the information
represents what the researchers say it does) and reliable (meaning the researchers are confident about the accuracy of
their data). Lastly, before data are used to make teaching decisions, teachers must be confident that the lessons drawn
from the data align with any unique characteristics of their classroom or school.
To ensure reasonable validity and reliability, action researchers should avoid relying on any single source of data. Most
teacher researchers use a process called triangulation to enhance the validity and reliability of their findings. Basically,
triangulation means using multiple independent sources of data to answer one's questions. Triangulation is like studying
an object located inside a box by viewing it through various windows cut into the sides of the box. Observing a
phenomenon through multiple “windows” can help a single researcher compare and contrast what is being seen through a
variety of lenses.
When planning instruction, teachers want the techniques they choose to be appropriate for the unique qualities of their
students. All teachers have had the experience of implementing a “research-proven” strategy only to have it fail with their
students. The desire of teachers to use approaches that “fit” their particular students is not dissimilar to a doctor's concern
that the specific medicine being prescribed be the correct one for the individual patient. The ability of the action research
process to satisfy an educator's need for “fit” may be its most powerful attribute. Because the data being collected come
from the very students and teachers who are engaged with the treatment, the relevance of the findings is assured.
For the harried and overworked teacher, “data collection” can appear to be the most intimidating aspect of the entire
seven-step action research process. The question I am repeatedly asked, “Where will I find the time and expertise to
develop valid and reliable instruments for data collection?”, gives voice to a realistic fear regarding time management.
Fortunately, classrooms and schools are, by their nature, data-rich environments. Each day a child is in class, he or she is

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producing or not producing work, is interacting productively with classmates or experiencing difficulties in social situations,
and is completing assignments proficiently or poorly. Teachers not only see these events transpiring before their eyes,
they generally record these events in their grade books. The key to managing triangulated data collection is, first, to be
effective and efficient in collecting the material that is already swirling around the classroom, and, second, to identify other
sources of data that might be effectively surfaced with tests, classroom discussions, or questionnaires.
Step 5—Analyzing Data
Although data analysis often brings to mind the use of complex statistical calculations, this is rarely the case for the action
researcher. A number of relatively user-friendly procedures can help a practitioner identify the trends and patterns in
action research data. During this portion of the seven-step process, teacher researchers will methodically sort, sift, rank,
and examine their data to answer two generic questions:
 What is the story told by these data?
 Why did the story play itself out this way?
By answering these two questions, the teacher researcher can acquire a better understanding of the
phenomenon under investigation and as a result can end up producing grounded theory regarding what might
be done to improve the situation.

Step 6—Reporting Results

It is often said that teaching is a lonely endeavor. It is doubly sad that so many teachers are left alone in their classrooms
to reinvent the wheel on a daily basis. The loneliness of teaching is unfortunate not only because of its inefficiency, but
also because when dealing with complex problems the wisdom of several minds is inevitably better than one.
The sad history of teacher isolation may explain why the very act of reporting on their action research has proven so
powerful for both the researchers and their colleagues. The reporting of action research most often occurs in informal
settings that are far less intimidating than the venues where scholarly research has traditionally been shared. Faculty
meetings, brown bag lunch seminars, and teacher conferences are among the most common venues for sharing action
research with peers. However, each year more and more teacher researchers are writing up their work for publication or
to help fulfill requirements in graduate programs. Regardless of which venue or technique educators select for reporting
on research, the simple knowledge that they are making a contribution to a collective knowledge base regarding teaching
and learning frequently proves to be among the most rewarding aspects of this work.
Step 7—Taking Informed Action
Taking informed action, or “action planning,” the last step in the action research process, is very familiar to most teachers.
When teachers write lesson plans or develop academic programs, they are engaged in the action planning process. What
makes action planning particularly satisfying for the teacher researcher is that with each piece of data uncovered (about
teaching or student learning) the educator will feel greater confidence in the wisdom of the next steps. Although all
teaching can be classified as trial and error, action researchers find that the research process liberates them from
continuously repeating their past mistakes. More important, with each refinement of practice, action researchers gain valid
and reliable data on their developing virtuosity.

Three Purposes for Action Research

As stated earlier, action research can be engaged in by an individual teacher, a collaborative group of colleagues sharing
a common concern, or an entire school faculty. These three different approaches to organizing for research serve three
compatible, yet distinct, purposes:
 Building the reflective practitioner
 Making progress on schoolwide priorities
 Building professional cultures
Building the Reflective Practitioner

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When individual teachers make a personal commitment to systematically collect data on their work, they are embarking
on a process that will foster continuous growth and development. When each lesson is looked on as an empirical
investigation into factors affecting teaching and learning and when reflections on the findings from each day's work inform
the next day's instruction, teachers can't help but develop greater mastery of the art and science of teaching. In this way,
the individual teachers conducting action research are making continuous progress in developing their strengths as
reflective practitioners.
Making Progress on Schoolwide Priorities
Increasingly, schools are focusing on strengthening themselves and their programs through the development of common
focuses and a strong sense of esprit de corps. Peters and Waterman (1982) in their landmark book, In Search of
Excellence, called the achievement of focus “sticking to the knitting.” When a faculty shares a commitment to achieving
excellence with a specific focus—for example, the development of higher-order thinking, positive social behavior, or
higher standardized test scores—then collaboratively studying their practice will not only contribute to the achievement of
the shared goal but would have a powerful impact on team building and program development. Focusing the combined
time, energy, and creativity of a group of committed professionals on a single pedagogical issue will inevitably lead to
program improvements, as well as to the school becoming a “center of excellence.” As a result, when a faculty chooses to
focus on one issue and all the teachers elect to enthusiastically participate in action research on that issue, significant
progress on the schoolwide priorities cannot help but occur.
Building Professional Cultures
Often an entire faculty will share a commitment to student development, yet the group finds itself unable to adopt a single
common focus for action research. This should not be viewed as indicative of a problem. Just as the medical practitioners
working at a “quality” medical center will hold a shared vision of a healthy adult, it is common for all the faculty members
at a school to share a similar perspective on what constitutes a well-educated student. However, like the doctors at the
medical center, the teachers in a “quality” school may well differ on which specific aspects of the shared vision they are
most motivated to pursue at any point in time.
Schools whose faculties cannot agree on a single research focus can still use action research as a tool to help transform
themselves into a learning organization. They accomplish this in the same manner as do the physicians at the medical
center. It is common practice in a quality medical center for physicians to engage in independent, even idiosyncratic,
research agendas. However, it is also common for medical researchers to share the findings obtained from their research
with colleagues (even those engaged in other specialties).
School faculties who wish to transform themselves into “communities of learners” often empower teams of colleagues who
share a passion about one aspect of teaching and learning to conduct investigations into that area of interest and then
share what they've learned with the rest of the school community. This strategy allows an entire faculty to develop and
practice the discipline that Peter Senge (1990) labeled “team learning.” In these schools, multiple action research inquiries
occur simultaneously, and no one is held captive to another's priority, yet everyone knows that all the work ultimately will
be shared and will consequently contribute to organizational learning.

Why Action Research Now?

If ever there were a time and a strategy that were right for each other, the time is now and the strategy is action research!
This is true for a host of reasons, with none more important than the need to accomplish the following:
 Professionalize teaching.
 Enhance the motivation and efficacy of a weary faculty.
 Meet the needs of an increasingly diverse student body.
 Achieve success with “standards-based” reforms.
Professionalizing Teaching

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Teaching in North America has evolved in a manner that makes it more like blue-collar work than a professional
undertaking. Although blue-collar workers are expected to do their jobs with vigilance and vigor, it is also assumed that
their tasks will be routine, straightforward, and, therefore, easily handled by an isolated worker with only the occasional
support of a supervisor.
Professional work, on the other hand, is expected to be complex and non-routine, and will generally require collaboration
among practitioners to produce satisfactory results. With the exploding knowledge base on teaching and learning and the
heightened demands on teachers to help all children achieve mastery of meaningful objectives, the inadequacy of the
blue-collar model for teaching is becoming much clearer.
When the teachers in a school begin conducting action research, their workplace begins to take on more of the flavor of
the workplaces of other professionals. The wisdom that informs practice starts coming from those doing the work, not from
supervisors who oftentimes are less in touch with and less sensitive to the issues of teaching and learning than the
teachers doing the work. Furthermore, when teachers begin engaging their colleagues in discussions of classroom issues,
the multiple perspectives that emerge and thus frame the dialogue tend to produce wiser professional decisions.
Enhancing Teacher Motivation and Efficacy
The work of teaching has always been difficult. But now it isn't just the demands of the classroom that are wearing
teachers down. Students increasingly bring more problems into the classroom; parental and societal expectations keep
increasing; and financial cutbacks make it clear that today's teachers are being asked to do more with less. Worse still,
the respect that society had traditionally placed upon public school teachers is eroding, as teacher bashing and attacks on
the very value of a public education are becoming a regular part of the political landscape. Consequently, teacher burnout
has become the plague of the modern schoolhouse.
Many teachers now ask, “Am I making any difference?” Regardless of all the negative pressures on teachers, the sheer
nobility of the work keeps many dedicated educators on the job, but only so long as they can get credible answers to the
“efficacy” question. However, without credible evidence that the work of teaching is making a difference, it is hard to
imagine the best and brightest sticking with such a difficult and poorly compensated line of work. Fortunately, evidence
has shown that teachers who elect to integrate the use of data into their work start exhibiting the compulsive behavior of
fitness enthusiasts who regularly weigh themselves, check their heart rate, and graph data on their improving physical
development. For both teachers and athletes, the continuous presence of compelling data that their hard work is paying
off becomes, in itself, a vitally energizing force.
Meeting the Needs of a Diverse Student Body
In a homogeneous society in which all students come to school looking alike, it might be wise to seek the one right answer
to questions of pedagogy. But, as anyone who has recently visited an American classroom can attest, it is rare to find any
two children for whom the same intervention could ever be “right on target.” The days are gone when it was possible to
believe that all a teacher had to do was master and deliver the grade-level curriculum. It is now imperative that classroom
teachers have strong content background in each of the subjects they teach, be familiar with the range of student
differences in their classrooms, and be capable of diagnosing and prescribing appropriate instructional modifications
based upon a knowledge of each child's uniqueness.
Crafting solutions to these dynamic and ever changing classroom issues can be an exciting undertaking, especially when
one acknowledges that newer and better answers are evolving all the time. Nevertheless, great personal satisfaction
comes from playing a role in creating successful solutions to continually changing puzzles. Conversely, if teachers are
expected to robotically implement outdated approaches, especially when countless new challenges are arriving at their
door, the frustration can become unbearable.
Achieving Success in a Standards-Based System
In most jurisdictions standards-driven accountability systems have become the norm. Although they differ somewhat from
state to state and province to province, fundamentally these standards-based systems have certain things in common.

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Specifically, most education departments and ministries have declared that they expect the standards to be rigorous and
meaningful, and that they expect all students to meet the standards at the mastery level.
The stakes in the standards movement are high. Students face consequences regarding promotion and graduation.
Teachers and schools face ridicule and loss of funding if they fail to meet community expectations. Of course, none of that
would be problematic if we as a society knew with certainty how to achieve universal student success. However, the
reality is that no large system anywhere in the world has ever been successful in getting every student to master a set of
meaningful objectives. If we accept the truth of that statement, then we need to acknowledge the fact that achieving the
goal of universal student mastery will not be easy. That said, most people will agree it is a most noble endeavor in which
to invest energy and a worthy goal for any faculty to pursue.
The reality is that our public schools will not prevail with the challenges inherent in the standards movement unless they
encourage experimentation, inquiry, and dialogue by those pioneers (the teachers) who are working toward meeting those
challenges. For this reason, it is imperative that these 21st century pioneers, our classroom teachers, conduct the
research on “standards attainment” themselves.
So the time is right for action research. The teachers, schools, and school systems that seize this opportunity and begin
investing in the power of inquiry will find that they are re-creating the professional practice of education in their locale as a
meaningful and rewarding pursuit. Conversely, school systems that enter the 21st century unwilling to invest in the
“wisdom of practice” will likely find it increasingly hard to fill their classrooms with enough teachers who are both capable
of and willing to tackle the challenges that lie ahead.

Managing Research
1. The challenges of independent research
All of the study activities that you engage in whilst at university involve an element of self-management and organization. But, the
activity where these qualities become especially important and will be tested to the full, is in the independent research project that you
will undertake to complete your dissertation (undergraduate or Masters) or thesis (PhD).
By its very nature, completing an independent research project on time, and to the best of your abilities, requires the completion of
multiple, interrelated activities, and multiple deadlines. You will need to be able to respond dynamically to any additional challenges you
might face along the way. And, at the same time, your research project might well be just one of a number of key activities that you are
involved in at that time – especially so for an undergraduate dissertation.
2. The common nature of a research projects
Whatever the academic discipline, and whatever the subject, the key elements of research projects tend to be the same. This is true
whether you are researching in the sciences, the social sciences or the arts and humanities. This is because the deliverables (i.e. the
written dissertation or thesis) and the intellectual ingredients of the deliverables (i.e. your research) are common across disciplines and
subjects.
All dissertations/theses will consist of an introduction, a main body and a conclusion, some form of literature review, a detailed and in-
depth investigation of the topic, original research of one form or another, critical analysis, discussion and contextualisation of the
research findings, both on their own grounds, and in the light of what has already been written about the topic.
All dissertations/ theses should be structured into a logical, systematic narrative that leads the reader through the subject matter, and is
formatted in a way that reflects the accepted standards within the discipline, and meet your School’s formal requirements/guidelines for
the submission of dissertations/theses.www.kent.ac.uk/learning
3. The structure of a research project
At a basic level, a university research project of any length and at any level can be categorized into ten activities that need to be
completed in order to complete the assignment:
1. Choose your research area
This is the general area within your academic field where you intend to conduct your research; usually it will relate to an area you have
already studied or are studying, since you will be better placed to identify potential research topics than with an entirely new area. It

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should also be an area that you find particularly interesting, since your interest in the subject is going to be vital in sustaining your
engagement. Finally, it should also be a subject area where it is going to be possible to find a suitable supervisor within the University,
and you have access to reliable resources.
2. Conduct preliminary research (scope out the topic)
This involves surveying current research literature, getting advice from academic staff and reflecting carefully, in order to work out what
has already been written about your chosen subject area, and to identify more clearly what it is that you can do that is different to what
has been done before.
3. Decide your research topic
This involves formulating a clearly defined and delineated research topic. The more clearly your research topic is defined at the start of
your project, the better. This will give you confidence and clarity in what you are trying to achieve, and will allow you to monitor your
progress more effectively. If you’re not sure of what you’re trying to achieve, then how will you know whether you’re on schedule or not
– whether you’re on course or not? At this stage you might also formulate a provisional research question – that is, the question your
research will answer:
Research topic: Investigate ‘A’ and ‘B’ to see if/how they interrelate.
Research Question: ‘To what extent is A caused by B?’
4. Decide your methodology
At the same time, you are deciding your topic, you should be investigating and thinking about your research methodology – the way in
which you will conduct your research. Is your research going to be experimental, observational, theoretical, textual, qualitative,
quantitative, etc.? Will it involve human subjects? Are there ethical considerations – specific protocols, procedures, approaches to
follow? Think about why you intend to conduct your research the way you have chosen; what advantages does this give? What insights
might it yield? What difficulties might it pose?
5. Submit/present your research proposal for approval
Most Schools will have a formal deadline for receiving research proposals/dissertation plans, and a formal approval process. In some
cases this is an assessment stage – so make sure you know exactly what you need to submit and when in order to progress with your
project. www.kent.ac.uk/learning
6. Finalize your topic & methodology
You may need to revise your research plan in the light of feedback you receive during the approval process. Many students are
overambitious in their aims; academic staff have a much clearer idea of what is achievable and what is necessary in terms of a
successful research project. Be guided by their advice. Also, you might need to modify you methodology in the light of your initial
research (or a pilot study); e.g., the questionnaire you designed needs altering since it isn’t generating the data you were expecting.
7. Conduct you research (fieldwork)
This might take place in a laboratory, in a library or archive, at a computer, on the streets or in a field. Whatever the location, this is the
practical activity of collecting raw information/data. NB: what you thought you were going to find out, and what you actually find out, can
quite often end up being different, so always be prepared to alter your research aims/question accordingly.
8. Analysis/data processing
Whatever your research topic, you will need to analyse/process your raw information/data in order to make sense of it. This might
involve statistical analysis, generating graphs, charts or tables, organising information into discrete categories, and so on – or it might
involve historiographic or critical analysis of texts or events. Whichever, it is important that you not only find something out, but that you
understand what it means within your academic field.
9. Writing up
This is the process of producing the written document that your research project will be assessed on – your dissertation or thesis. NB:
Writing up includes editing, proof-reading, formatting and binding your dissertation; don’t underestimate how long this will take –
especially the referencing. You will also need to make sure that any graphs/images are properly numbered and labelled, and referred to
and discussed within your main text.
10. Submission

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All academic research projects are time-constrained. That is, you will have a specific deadline for submitting you work. With longer
research projects, you will also have intermediate deadlines (e.g., progress/upgrade boards). What this means is that you have a finite
amount of time in which to complete your research project, and, by definition, that you will need to time-manage each stage in order to
ensure that you complete the project as a whole on time.
4. Project managing your research
Any complex project involving multiple activities and deadlines requires some form of management. Using simple project management
techniques will allow you to keep control of your research project – to schedule your work more effectively, to identify how much time
you have to spend on each stage of your project, to create intermediate goals/milestones that will tell you if you’re on schedule or not
(and be able to respond accordingly), and will give you www.kent.ac.uk/learning clear oversight of progress of your project as a whole.
One simple but highly effective technique is to produce a Gantt chart. This provides you with a clear visual plan of your research
project, based on scheduling the different stages of your project against a time base. The below example (Figure 1) is based on the ten
basic research project stages, scheduled against two (hypothetical) formal deadlines – submission of the proposal in week 10 and
submission of the finished dissertation in week 24:

Figure 1: Simple research project Gantt chart

This example is typical of an undergraduate or taught Masters’ dissertation. Longer research projects (PhD, Masters by research, etc.)
will generally have more activities spread over a longer timeframe (See below, Figure 2, for an example of a project plan for a
humanities PhD). In project management, the scheduling of individual activities/tasks is always worked backwards from the deadline.
Thus, the amount of time that you have to complete each task is a function of the overall project schedule. As shown above, some
tasks have to be carried out consecutively (i.e., you can’t start the next task until you’ve completed the previous one), but other tasks
can be carried out concurrently (i.e., at the same time), while other tasks can be started before the previous task has been completed,
but cannot themselves be completed until after the previous task is completed (e.g., you might be able to start analysing your data
whilst you’re still collecting it).
What you also need to bear in mind with undergraduate dissertations is that your research project constitutes only one part (25%) of
your academic activities, and that you’ll be working on other assignments, reading, exam revision, etc, at the same time. As such, it is
important that you make full use of the time period have available, and balance your priorities accordingly.

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What is qualitative research?

Qualitative research is defined as a market research method that focuses on obtaining data through open-ended and
conversational communication.

This method is not only about “what” people think but also “why” they think so. For example, consider a convenience store
looking to improve its patronage. A systematic observation concludes that the number of men visiting this store are more.
One good method to determine why women were not visiting the store is to conduct an in-depth interview of potential
customers in the category.

For example, on successfully interviewing female customers, visiting the nearby stores and malls, and selecting them
through random sampling, it was known that the store doesn’t have enough items for women and so there were fewer
women visiting the store, which was understood only by personally interacting with them and understanding why they didn’t
visit the store, because there were more male products than female ones.

Qualitative research is based on the disciplines of social sciences like psychology, sociology, and anthropology. Therefore,
the qualitative research methods allow for in-depth and further probing and questioning of respondents based on their
responses, where the interviewer/researcher also tries to understand their motivation and feelings. Understanding how your
audience takes decisions can help derive conclusions in market research.

Types of qualitative research methods with examples

Qualitative research methods are designed in a manner that help reveal the behavior and perception of a target audience
with reference to a particular topic. There are different types of qualitative research methods like an in-depth interview, focus
groups, ethnographic research, content analysis, case study research that are usually used.

The results of qualitative methods are more descriptive and the inferences can be drawn quite easily from the data that is
obtained.

Qualitative research methods originated in the social and behavioral sciences. Today our world is more complicated and it is
difficult to understand what people think and perceive. Online qualitative research methods make it easier to understand
that as it is more communicative and descriptive.

The following are the qualitative research methods that are frequently used. Also, read about qualitative research examples:

1. One-on-one interview:

Conducting in-depth interviews is one of the most common qualitative research methods. It is a personal interview that is
carried out with one respondent at a time. This is purely a conversational method and invites opportunities to get details in
depth from the respondent.

One of the advantages of this method provides a great opportunity to gather precise data about what people believe and
what their motivations are. If the researcher is well experienced asking the right questions can help him/her collect
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meaningful data. If they should need more information the researchers should ask such follow up questions that will help
them collect more information.

These interviews can be performed face-to-face or on phone and usually can last between half an hour to two hours or even
more. When the in-depth interview is conducted face to face it gives a better opportunity to read the body language of the
respondents and match the responses.

2. Focus groups: A focus group is also one of the commonly used qualitative research methods, used in data collection. A
focus group usually includes a limited number of respondents (6-10) from within your target market.

The main aim of the focus group is to find answers to the “why” “what” and “how” questions. One advantage of focus groups
is; you don’t necessarily need to interact with the group in person. Nowadays focus groups can be sent an online survey on
various devices and responses can be collected at the click of a button.

Focus groups are an expensive method as compared to the other online qualitative research methods. Typically, they are
used to explain complex processes. This method is very useful when it comes to market research on new products and
testing new concepts.

3. Ethnographic research: Ethnographic research is the most in-depth observational method that studies people in their
naturally occurring environment.

This method requires the researchers to adapt to the target audiences’ environments which could be anywhere from an
organization to a city or any remote location. Here geographical constraints can be an issue while collecting data.

This research design aims to understand the cultures, challenges, motivations, and settings that occur. Instead of relying on
interviews and discussions, you experience the natural settings first hand.

This type of research method can last from a few days to a few years, as it involves in-depth observation and collecting data
on those grounds. It’s a challenging and a time-consuming method and solely depends on the expertise of the researcher to
be able to analyze, observe and infer the data.

4. Case study research: The case study method has evolved over the past few years and developed into a valuable qual
research method. As the name suggests it is used for explaining an organization or an entity.

This type of research method is used within a number of areas like education, social sciences and similar. This method may
look difficult to operate, however, it is one of the simplest ways of conducting research as it involves a deep dive and
thorough understanding of the data collection methods and inferring the data.

5. Record keeping: This method makes use of the already existing reliable documents and similar sources of information as
the data source. This data can be used in new research. This is similar to going to a library. There one can go over books
and other reference material to collect relevant data that can likely be used in the research.

6. Process of observation:

Qualitative Observation is a process of research that uses subjective methodologies to gather systematic information or
data. Since, the focus on qualitative observation is the research process of using subjective methodologies to gather
information or data. Qualitative observation is primarily used to equate quality differences.

Qualitative observation deals with the 5 major sensory organs and their functioning – sight, smell, touch, taste, and hearing.
This doesn’t involve measurements or numbers but instead characteristics.

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Qualitative research: data collection and analysis

A. Qualitative data collection

Qualitative data collection allows collecting data that is non-numeric and helps us to explore how decisions are made and
provide us with detailed insight. For reaching such conclusions the data that is collected should be holistic, rich, and
nuanced and findings to emerge through careful analysis.

1. Whatever method a researcher chooses for collecting qualitative data, one aspect is very clear the process will
generate a large amount of data. In addition to the variety of methods available, there are also different methods of
collecting and recording the data.
For example, if the qualitative data is collected through a focus group or one-to-one discussion, there will be handwritten
notes or video recorded tapes. If there are recording they should be transcribed and before the process of data analysis can
begin.

2. As a rough guide, it can take a seasoned researcher 8-10 hours to transcribe the recordings of an interview, which
can generate roughly 20-30 pages of dialogues. Many researchers also like to maintain separate folders to maintain
the recording collected from the different focus group. This helps them compartmentalize the data collected.
2. In case there are running notes taken, which are also known as field notes, they are helpful in maintaining
comments, environmental contexts, nonverbal cues etc. These filed notes are helpful and can be compared while
transcribing audio recorded data. Such notes are usually informal but should be secured in a similar manner as the video
recordings or the audio tapes.
B. Qualitative data analysis

Qualitative data analysis such as notes, videos, audio recordings images, and text documents. One of the most used
methods for qualitative data analysis is text analysis.

Text analysis is a data analysis method that is distinctly different from all other qualitative research methods, where
researchers analyze the social life of the participants in the research study and decode the words, actions, etc. 

There are images also that are used in this research study and the researchers analyze the context in which the images are
used and draw inferences from them. In the last decade, text analysis through what is shared on social media platforms has
gained supreme popularity.

Characteristics of qualitative research methods

1. Qualitative research methods usually collect data at the sight, where the participants are experiencing issues or
problems. These are real-time data and rarely bring the participants out of the geographic locations to collect information.
2. Qualitative researchers typically gather multiple forms of data, such as interviews, observations, and documents,
rather than rely on a single data source.
3. This type of research method works towards solving complex issues by breaking down into meaningful inferences,
that is easily readable and understood by all.
4. Since it’s a more communicative method, people can build their trust on the researcher and the information thus
obtained is raw and unadulterated.

Qualitative research method case study

Let’s take the example of a bookstore owner who is looking for ways to improve their sales and customer outreach. An
online community of members who were the loyal patrons of the bookstore were interviewed and related questions were
asked and the questions were answered by them.

At the end of the interview, it was realized that most of the books in the stores were suitable for adults and there were not
enough options for children or teenagers.
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By conducting this qualitative research, the bookstore owner realized what the shortcomings were and what were the
feelings of the readers. Through this research now the bookstore owner can now keep books for different age categories
and can improve his sales and customer outreach.

Such qualitative research method examples can serve as the basis to indulge in further quantitative research, which
provides remedies.

When to use qualitative research

Researchers make use of qualitative research techniques when they need to capture accurate, in-depth insights. It is very
useful to capture “factual data”. Here are some examples of when to use qualitative research.

 Developing a new product or generating an idea.

 Studying your product/brand or service to strengthen your marketing strategy.
 To understand your strengths and weaknesses.
 Understanding purchase behavior.
 To study the reactions of your audience to marketing campaigns and other communications.
 Exploring market demographics, segments, and customer groups.
 Gathering perception data of a brand, company, or product.

Qualitative research methods vs quantitative research methods

The basic differences between qualitative research methods and quantitative research methods are simple and
straightforward. They differ in:

 Their analytical objectives

 Types of questions asked
 Types of data collection instruments
 Forms of data they produce
 Degree of flexibility

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Assessment Part:
1. What is the importance of the Gantt chart.?
2.. Create a simple research project Gantt chart.

Sentence Completion:

1. Today I feel _______________________________________________________________________________________.

2. My family is _______________________________________________________________________________________.
3. I think ___________________________________________________________________________________________.
4. I believe __________________________________________________________________________________________.
5. I suggest _________________________________________________________________________________________

GOOD JOB!
STAY SAFE AND HEALTHY ALWAYS.

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