Human Anatomy and

Physiology
Sawsan A. Abdullah
M.Sc. Physiology
Lecturer
 Physiology

 Is the study of functions of anatomical

structures, both individual and cooperative.
 KEY CONCEPTS
 All physiological functions are performed by
specific anatomical structures

 Principle of complementarity says that

structure and function are complementary

 Function always reflects structure

 What a structure can do depends on its specific
form
Introduction to anatomy
 Key to learning anatomy is understanding
function, for example:
Left side of heart is larger than right.
 Why is that?

Structure (anatomy) and function (physiology)

are intimately related
Gross Anatomy
 Structures large enough that one can see
with the unaided eye
 Surface Anatomy - study of superficial markings
 Regional Anatomy - The study of specific areas
of the body (e.g. head, trunk)
 Systemic Anatomy - Study of the 11* specific
organ systems
11 Organ systems
Integumentary Lymphatic
Nervous Urinary
Skeletal Respiratory
Endocrine Reproductive
Muscular
Digestive
Cardiovascular
 Microscopic Anatomy
 Involves studying anatomical structures that
cannot be seen with the unaided eye
1. Cytology - cells
2. Histology - tissue
Physiology = Function
 Considers the operation of specific organ
systems
 Renal – kidney function
 Neurophysiology – workings of the nervous
system
 Cardiovascular – operation of the heart and
blood vessels
 Focuses on the functions of the body, often
at the cellular or molecular level
Anatomical Organization
 We will start from the smallest and finish with
the largest
Levels of Organization
 Chemical Level: - atoms (e.g. carbon)
combine to form molecules (e.g. glucose)
 Cellular level:
 Smallest living units in organisms
 Cells contain organelles, each with a function
 Tissue level - different groups of cells that
perform a function
 Organ Level - Different types of tissues that
perform a common function
 Organ system – consists of different organs
that work closely together
 Levels of Structural Organization

Smooth muscle cell

Molecules

2 Cellular level
Atoms
Cells are made up of
molecules.

1 Chemical level
Atoms combine to
form molecules.

Smooth
muscle
3 Tissue level
tissue
Tissues consist of Heart
similar types of cells. Cardiovascular
system Blood
vessels
Epithelial
tissue
Smooth
muscle Blood
tissue vessel
(organ) 6 Organismal level
Connective The human organism
tissue is made up of many
organ systems.
4 Organ level
Organs are made up
5 Organ system level
of different types
of tissues. Organ systems consist of
different organs that
work together closely.
Other Levels
 Organismal Level - All systems working
together (e.g. humans)
 Ecological level - How organisms interact
with each other and their environment
 KEY CONCEPT
 The body is divided into 11 organ systems
 All organ systems work together
Integration
Homeostasis
 Homeostasis: ability to maintain a relatively
stable internal environment in an ever-
changing outside world
 All body systems working together to
maintain a stable internal environment,
respond to external and internal changes to
function within a normal range (body
temperature, fluid balance)
 The internal environment of the body is in a
dynamic state of equilibrium
 Failure to function within a normal range
results in disease
Homeostatic Control
Mechanisms
 Variables produce a change in the body
 The three interdependent components of
control mechanisms:
 Receptor – monitors the environments and
responds to changes (stimuli).
 Control center – determines the set point at
which the variable is maintained.
 Effector – provides the means to respond to
stimuli.
Homeostatic Control Mechanisms
3 Input: Control
Information center 4 Output:
sent along Information sent
afferent along efferent
pathway to pathway to

Receptor (sensor) Effector

2 Change
detected
by receptor

5 Response of
effector feeds
1 Stimulus:
back to
Produces
change influence
in variable magnitude of
stimulus and
Variable (in homeostasis) returns variable
to homeostasis
 Regulation
 Most regulatory systems in the body use
extrinsic regulation:
 responses controlled by nervous and endocrine
systems, e.g. brain regulates body temp
 Usually occurs by negative feedback which
can be modeled as a thermostat:
Negative Feedback
 Most common way that homeostasis is
maintained in the body
 In negative feedback systems the
response of the effector negates or
opposes the stimulus (shuts off the original
stimulus)
 Example: Regulation of body temperature
Negative Feedback

Figure 1–4
Positive Feedback
 NOT a way to maintain
homeostasis
 Rare in nature because
it is a “runaway train”
 The response of the
effector output
reinforces or
exaggerates the
stimulus (e.g. blood
clotting, ovulation,
action potential)
Anatomical terms
Anatomical Position
 Hands at sides, palms forward
Directional Terms
 Superior and Inferior – toward and away from
the head, respectively
 Anterior and Posterior – toward the front and
back of the body
 Medial and Lateral – toward the midline, away
from the midline
 Proximal and Distal – closer to and farther from
the origin of the body part (or from the torso)
 Superficial and Deep – toward and away from
the body surface
 Cranial and Caudal – toward the head and
toward the tail
Alternate Terms
 Ventral (= Anterior)
 Dorsal (= Posterior)
Body Planes
 Sometimes to gain a greater understanding
of 3D images anatomists cut the image at
different planes
 Three planes exists in 3D space
-Two are parallel to the long axis of the body
-One is perpendicular to the long axis.
Body Planes

Figure 1.8
Body Planes
 Sagittal – parallel to long axis, divides the
body into right and left parts
 midsagittal or medial – sagittal plane that lies on
the midline
 Frontal or coronal – also parallel to long
axis, divides the body into anterior and
posterior parts
 Transverse or horizontal (cross section) –
perpendicular to long axis, divides the body
into superior and inferior parts
Anatomical Variability
 Humans vary slightly in both external and
internal anatomy
 Over 90% of all anatomical structures match
textbook descriptions, but:
 Nerves or blood vessels may be somewhat out of
place
 Small muscles may be missing
 Extreme anatomical variations are seldom
seen
Body Cavities
 Dorsal cavity protects the nervous system,
and is divided into two subdivisions
 Cranial cavity – within the skull; encases the brain
 Vertebral cavity – runs within the vertebral
column; encases the spinal cord
 Ventral cavity houses the internal organs
(viscera), and is divided into two subdivisions
 Thoracic
 Abdominopelvic
Body Cavities
Cranial cavity
(contains brain)

Dorsal Thoracic
body cavity
cavity (contains
heart
and lungs)

Diaphragm
Vertebral cavity
(contains spinal Abdominal cavity
cord) (contains digestive
viscera)

Key:
Dorsal body cavity Pelvic cavity
(contains bladder,
Ventral body cavity reproductive organs,
and rectum)

(a) Lateral view

Body Regions
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Cephalic (head)
Frontal (forehead)
Otic (ear)
Orbital (eye cavity)
Nasal (nose) Occipital
Buccal (cheek)
Oral (mouth) (back of head)
Cervical (neck) Mental (chin)

Sternal
Acromial Acromial
(point of shoulder) Pectoral (point of shoulder)
Axillary (armpit) (chest) Vertebral
Mammary (breast) (spinal column)
Brachial (arm)
Brachial
(arm) Dorsum (back)
Umbilical
Antecubital (navel) Cubital (elbow)
(front of elbow)
Inguinal Lumbar
Abdominal (lower back)
(abdomen) (groin)

Antebrachial Sacral (between hips)

(forearm) Coxal Gluteal (buttocks)
(hip)
Carpal (wrist)
Perineal
Palmar (palm)

Digital (finger)

Femoral (thigh)
Genital
(reproductive organs)
Popliteal (back of knee)
Patellar
(front of knee)
Sural (calf)

Crural (leg)

Tarsal (instep)
Pedal (foot)

(a)
Digital (toe)
(b)
Plantar (sole) 31
Ventral Body Cavity
Membranes
 Called serous membranes or serosa
 Parietal serosa lines internal body walls
 Visceral serosa covers the internal organs
 Serous fluid separates the serosae
Heart Serosae

Figure 1.10b
Thanks for your
attention