PHYSICS

CATCH-UP MANUAL

Ms. T. D’Aguilar

GRADE 11 PHYSICS CATCH UP MANUAL 1

TABLE OF CONTENTS

WORK, ENERGY AND POWER 4

WORK 4
ENERGY 6
KINETIC ENERGY 6
POTENTIAL ENERGY 7
CONSERVATION OF MECHNAICAL ENERGY 8
ENERGY TRANSFORMATIONS 10
ENERGY SOURCES 11
ALTERNATIVE SOURCES OF ENERGY: 12
POWER 12
EFFICIENCY 13
WORKSHEET 1 14
SUMMARY OF ENERGY FORMULAE 19
PRESSURE 20
PRESSURE IN FLUIDS 20
HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS 21
DEVICES FOR MEASURING PRESSURE 23
U TUBE MANOMETER 23
MERCURY BAROMETER 24
ARCHIMEDES' PRINCIPLE 25
LAW OF FLOATATION 26
APPLICATIONS OF ARCHIMEDES' PRINCIPLE 27
WORKSHEET 2 29
THERMAL PHYSICS 31
CALORIC THEORY 31
KINETIC THEORY OF HEAT 31
HEAT AND TEMPERATURE 32
THERMOMETRIC PROPERTIES 33
THERMAL EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION 33
THE GAS LAWS 36
BOYLE’S LAW 36

GRADE 11 PHYSICS CATCH UP MANUAL 2

 BOYLE’S LAW WORKSHEET 38
CHARLES' LAW 39
CHARLES’ LAW WORKSHEET 40
PRESSURE LAW 42
PRESSURE LAW WORKSHEET 43
THE COMBINED GAS LAW 45
COMBINED GAS LAW WORKSHEET 45
GAS LAWS SUMMARY 46
THE IDEAL GAS EQUATION 47
COMBINED WORKSHEET 48
HEAT CAPACITY 50
SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY 50
LATENT HEAT 51
HEATING AND COOLING CURVES 52
PRINCIPLE OF CALORIMETRY: 53
METHODS FOR FINDING SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY 53
ELECTRICAL METHOD FOR METAL 53
METAL BY METHOD OF MIXTURES 54
ELECTRICAL METHOD FOR METAL 55
LIQUID BY METHOD OF MIXTURES 56
SPECIFIC LATENT HEAT OF FUSION OF ICE 57
SPECIFIC LATENT HEAT OF VAPOURIZATION OF WATER 58
TRANSMISSION OF HEAT 59
MECHANISM OF CONDUCTION 59
MECHANISM OF CONVECTION 61
MECHANISM OF RADIATION 62
VACUUM FLASK 62
THE GREEN HOUSE/ GLASS HOUSE EFFECT 63
EVAPORATION & BOILING 63
EVAPORATION AND COOLING 64
EMITTERS AND ABSORBERS OF THERMAL RADIATION 65
FACTORS AFFECTING THE ABSORPTION OR EMISSION OF RADIATION 65

GRADE 11 PHYSICS CATCH UP MANUAL 3

WORK, ENERGY AND POWER
In this section of the syllabus we will look at the energy changes that take place when a force
acts upon an object. Energy can’t be created or destroyed, it can only be changed from one
type into another type. This is called the law of conservation of energy.

WORK
Work is defined as the force used to move an object through a distance. When a force moves
something along any distance it is said that work has been done and energy has been transformed
(energy has been changed from one type to another type). Work is done whenever energy
transfers take place.
o The SI Unit of work: ________joule_______________
If an object does not move when the force is applied then no work is done. Work is only done if
the object moves.
For example, if a box is pushed across the floor, work has to be done to overcome the force of
friction between the floor and the bottom of the box that is opposing the movement.
o Formula for work: w=fxd

► Work is not done when:

► The object is stationary (not moving)
► No force is applied on the object in the direction of displacement.
► The direction of motion of the object is perpendicular to that of the applied force.

Example 1: A 30 N force is applied horizontally causing a block to be displaced horizontally 5

m along a frictionless surface. How much work is done?
Solution: W=F×d
W = 30 N×5 m
W = 150 J

GRADE 11 PHYSICS CATCH UP MANUAL 4

 ✔ Example 2: A crate of mass 50 kg is pushed along a floor with a force of 20 N for a
distance of 5m. Calculate the work done.
✔ Solution: w=fxd
w=20Nx5m
w=100Nm
w=100J

But energy transformed = work done Energy is measured in Joules (J) so Nm must be the
same unit as J. This means we can say that WD = 100 J Note that the mass of the crate is not
required to answer the question. The mass would be required if we needed to calculate the
work done by lifting the crate but not by pushing it.

✔ Example 3: How far must a 5 N force pull a 50 g toy car if 30 J of energy are
transferred? m=w/kg 5g-kg 5g-0.05kg
✔ Solution: m=30J/0,05kg
m=600m

✔ Example 4: A man exerts a force of 2 kN on a boulder but fails to move it. Calculate the
work done.
✔ Solution:

GRADE 11 PHYSICS CATCH UP MANUAL 5

 ✔ Example 5: A block which is at rest is acted on by force of magnitude 3 N in different
direction. Determine the work done by the block in each case.
  a) The force act from the left, the object move to the right for 2 m.
  b) The force act from the right, the object moves to the left for 2 m.

ENERGY
Energy is the capacity to do work. Energy is scalar quantity.
o The SI unit for energy: ____________joule_______________same as work.
The work done is equal to the amount of energy transferred. Energy exists in different forms:

Mechanical Electrical
Thermal Chemical
Nuclear Elastic
Magnetic Gravitational
Potencial Radiant
Kinetic Sound

KINETIC ENERGY
Every moving object has Kinetic Energy (Ek). Kinetic energy is the energy of an object due to
its motion.
NB 1. The kinetic energy of an object will increase if mass increases. The kinetic energy will
increase if speed increases.
NB 2 We can calculate kinetic energy using the equation: ke=½(mv)2

Where: m is the mass of the object and v is the speed.

Notice that the speed is squared in the equation. This means that:
• if speed is doubled, energy _________increases_______________
• if speed is trebled, energy ___________decreases_______________

GRADE 11 PHYSICS CATCH UP MANUAL 6

Example 1: How much kinetic energy does a 160g cricket ball have when it is thrown at a speed
of 22 m/s?
Solution: Ek = ½ mv2
Ek = 0.5 x 0.16 x (22)2
Ek = 0.5 x 0.16 x 484
Ek = 38.72J

✔ Example 2: How fast is a trolley of 4 kg moving if it has 180.5 J of kinetic energy?

✔ Solution: Ek = ½ mv2
m/s= 0.5x4kgx180.5J
m/s=2kgx180.5J
m/s=361

POTENTIAL ENERGY
Potential energy is the energy a body has due to its position, state or condition. Examples of
potential energy include:
► Gravitational
► Elastic
► Chemical
Gravitational potential energy is the energy of an object due to its higher position in the
gravitational field.
Gravitational Potential Energy- Whenever we lift up an object we are providing a force to act
against gravity. By lifting the object we are storing energy in it. We can calculate the energy
stored in an object when it is raised up by looking at the work done in lifting it. Imagine that a

GRADE 11 PHYSICS CATCH UP MANUAL 7

box of mass, m is lifted up to a height, h above the ground. The force that must be overcome to
move the box is the weight due to gravity.
The gravitational potential energy of an object depends on:
a) its mass
b) its height
c) the gravitational field
Formula for gravitational potential energy:

Unit for gravitational potential energy:

ELASTIC POTENTIAL ENERGY
Energy is needed to compress and extend an elastic material such as a spring and rubber. The
spring obtains its energy when work is done on it by compressing or stretching it. The energy
which an object possesses when it is compressed or stretched is known as the elastic potential
energy.
✔ WHAT ARE THE TYPES OF POTENTIAL ENERGY IN EACH EXAMPLE?
Activity Type or energy
A fast moving cricket ball
Gasoline, food and batteries
A stretched elastic band
A football kicked into the air (maximum height}

CONSERVATION OF MECHANICAL ENERGY

Potential and Kinetic Energy often appear in the same problems. Imagine a brick falling from a
wall. The brick originally has only potential energy. As the brick falls, it loses potential energy
but gains kinetic energy as it accelerates towards the ground. The total energy of the brick at any
point in time is given by the sum of the potential and kinetic energies and is always equal to the
initial potential energy. This is due to the conservation of mechanical energy.
THE PRINCIPLE OF CONSERVATION OF MECHANICAL ENERGY STATES THAT THE TOTAL
MECHANICAL ENERGY IN A SYSTEM (IE. THE SUM OF POTENTIAL AND KINETIC ENERGIES)
REMAINS CONSTANT AS LONG AS THE ONLY FORCES ACTING ARE CONSERVATIVE.

GRADE 11 PHYSICS CATCH UP MANUAL 8

NB1. Total amount of energy remains the same.
For example: When water falls from a dam, its potential energy changes to kinetic energy.
When a swing moves from one position to another position, its potential energy changes to
kinetic energy alternately.

Example: A ball rolls off a table and hits the floor at 5m/s. What is the height of the table?
Initial energy = Ep Final energy = Ek
But conservation of energy tells us Ep = Ek.
So mgh = ½ mv2
Eliminate mass as mass is the same on both sides of the equation
2gh = v2
2 x 10 x h = 52
20 x h =25
h = 25/20
h = 1.25 m

GRADE 11 PHYSICS CATCH UP MANUAL 9

Example1: A football of mass 2.5 kg is lifted up to the top of a cliff that is 180m high. How
much potential energy does the football gain?
Solution: Ep = mgh
Ep = 2.5 x 10 x 180
Ep = 4500J
Example 2:  A student of mass 50 kg walks up a flight of stairs 1.5 m high. What is…
a) the work done by the student?
b) energy needed?

ENERGY TRANSFORMATIONS

► A coconut falling (no rebounding)

► Gasoline powered car (accelerating)

► Gasoline powered car (constant velocity )

► Boy running up a flight of stairs

► Swinging pendulum

► Electric fan

► Electric oven

GRADE 11 PHYSICS CATCH UP MANUAL 10

 ► Electric lamp

► Loud speaker

► Battery operated crane lifting an object

ENERGY SOURCES
Non-Renewable sources of energy: Nonrenewable sources of energy are found to be accumulated
in nature over a very long time and cannot be quickly replaced when exhausted at their origin
place. For example:

Renewable sources of energy:

These are sources of energy that can be replaced if they are exhausted at their origin place. They
are being produced continuously in nature and cannot be exhausted. Examples include:

 The Sun as the ultimate source of energy

The sun is the ultimate source of almost all kinds of energy on earth, either directly or indirectly.
Fossil fuels (coal, oil and gas) are the transformed forms of plants (and animals) which once
lived on the earth and grew capturing the energy of the sun. Biomass is a product of
photosynthesis where the sun has the major role. Hydro-electricity depends upon the water cycle
which again is dependent on solar radiation. Similarly, wind energy, tidal power, wave power all,
in some way or other, and depend on the sun.

 Energy /fuel crisis:

The future scarcity of the energy sources on the earth due to the over population, urbanization
and industrialization is called energy crisis. Since the non-renewable resources of the energy will
not last long and cannot be regained, the world is going to face the problem of energy crisis in

GRADE 11 PHYSICS CATCH UP MANUAL 11

the near future. The only solution of energy crisis is energy saving .It can be done in following
ways:

● By reducing the use of nonrenewable sources of energy.

● By developing the alternative source of energy.

● By controlling the population growth.

 ALTERNATIVE SOURCES OF ENERGY:

The source of energy which can be used instead of non- renewable sources of energy is called
alternative source of energy. E.g. nuclear energy

Renewable Non-renewable
Readily replaced Not readily replaced and become scarce
Examples: Examples:

► Problems associated with obtaining electricity from fossil fuels

► Limited resources- supplies are diminishing
► Pollution- burning fossil fuels cause contamination of the environment
(greenhouse gas emissions)
► Fluctuating oil prices
► Health care costs- illnesses associated with pollutants from fossil fuels

POWER
Power is the way we measure how quickly energy is being changed. When we look at the power
of a moving object, we are really looking at how fast work is happening.
o Formula for Power:

o SI unit of Power:

GRADE 11 PHYSICS CATCH UP MANUAL 12

Example 1: A person of mass 70 kg runs up a flight of stairs with a vertical height of 5m. If the
trip takes 7s to complete, calculate the person’s power.
Solution: WD = Ep = mgh
Ep = 70 x 10 x 5 = 3500J
Power = work done /time
Power = 3500 /7
Power = 500W

✔ Example 2: A lift motor has to move a fully laden lift 4m between floors in 1.5s. The lift
has a mass of 1850 kg (ignore friction).
a) Calculate the weight of the fully laden lift.
b) What is the upward force in the cable when the lift is moving at a constant speed?
c) What is the work done by the motor?
d) What is the minimum power of the motor to raise the lift at a steady speed?

EFFICIENCY
Efficiency of a device is defined as the percentage of the energy input that is transformed into
useful energy.
► Efficiency =

► Efficiency =

GRADE 11 PHYSICS CATCH UP MANUAL 13

 Unit is given in percentage.
Machines require energy to work. This energy is called the input. Machines transform this input
into other forms of energy to perform useful works. However, the useful work obtained is not
equal to the input as there is energy “loss” in this process. This loss is mainly due to work done
against frictional forces and takes the forms of heat. So, a machine is not perfect because the
work done by the effort or input energy is not entirely used to overcome the load.

WORKSHEET 1

1. (i) State the principle of conservation of energy.

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________ ( 2 marks)

(ii) Define the term 'potential energy’.

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________ (1 mark)

(iii) Give ONE example of a body possessing potential energy.

________________________________________________________________ (1 mark)

(iv) Define the term 'kinetic energy'.

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________ (1 mark)
(v) Give ONE example of a body possessing kinetic energy.
________________________________________________________________ (1 mark)

GRADE 11 PHYSICS CATCH UP MANUAL 14

 (b) At a football match between two college teams, the referee ordered a free kick. The
ball of mass 1.5 kg was placed at rest. The kick was about to be taken by an eager
footballer. What was the potential energy of the ball just before the kick was taken?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________ (1 mark)

(c) The footballer kicked the ball and it was caught by the opposing goalkeeper, 4 meters
above the ground. The hall was travelling at 10 ms-1
(i) Calculate the potential energy of the ball just before it was caught.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________ ( 3 marks)
(ii) Calculate the kinetic energy of the ball just before it was caught.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________ (3 marks)
(iii) After the ball was caught, what was the kinetic energy converted into?
________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________ (2 marks)

My score _________/15

2. (A) (I) Complete the following table, by inserting the correct quantity, formula and unit.
QUANTITY FORMULA UNIT
F = ma

GRADE 11 PHYSICS CATCH UP MANUAL 15

Potential Energy
kgms–1
(3 MARKS)
(II) State the ‘law of conservation of linear momentum’.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________ ( 4 marks)

(b) (i) “BIG CRASH ON THE HIGHWAY”

“Two trucks of equal mass collided head-on at the same speed on the busy East-West
Highway. They both remained stationary on impact.”
Explain this crash in terms of conservation of linear momentum. Assume the masses of
other contents of the trucks are equal.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________(4 marks)
(ii) A police recruit, while training, shot at a stationary target of mass 5.0 kg, with a bullet
of mass 0.1 kg. The target was mounted on low-fiction wheels and as soon as the bullet
struck the target, the target with the embedded bullet sped off with a velocity of 6.0 m s–1.
Calculate the velocity of the bullet just before it hit the stationary target.

GRADE 11 PHYSICS CATCH UP MANUAL 16

 ________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________(4 marks)

My score _________/15

3. (a) Complete the graphic below by drawing an arrow from each physical quantity to its
respective unit.

Physical quantity Unit

Density Nm
Moment Ns
Linear momentum kgm-3
(3 marks)
(b) The formula for the change in gravitational potential energy is
________________________________________________________________ (1 mark)
(c) Waterfalls are commonly found across the Caribbean. Describe the energy changes
taking place in a waterfall.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________(2 marks)

(d) A pendulum swings from A through B to C and returns to A as seen in Figure 1.

GRADE 11 PHYSICS CATCH UP MANUAL 17

 .
State the type of energy that exists at
(i) A _______________________________ (1
mark)
(ii) B ______________________________ (1
mark)
(iii) D ______________________________ (1
mark)

(e) If the pendulum is returning to A to complete an oscillation, explain which type of

energy is increasing and why.
At D, the type of energy increasing is ______________________________________
Reason:
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________(3 marks)
(d) Netball is a popular sport played across the Caribbean. If a netball has a mass of 0.4
kg and a velocity of 5 m s–1, calculate its kinetic energy.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________ (3 marks)

My score _________/15

WORKSHEET TOTAL 45 MARKS

GRADE 11 PHYSICS CATCH UP MANUAL 18

 My score _________/45

SUMMARY OF ENERGY FORMULAE

GRADE 11 PHYSICS CATCH UP MANUAL 19

PRESSURE
Pressure is defined as the force acting per unit area surface. Pressure is scalar quantity.

o Formula:

o S.I unit:

NB1.

NB2.

PRESSURE IN FLUIDS
● Pressure increases with depth- the deeper a liquid, the greater the weight above and so the
higher the pressure.
● Pressure acts equally in all directions- The liquid pushes on all surfaces it is in contact
with. For a submarine this means that pressure is being exerted equally on all parts of the
hull.
● Pressure depends upon the density of the liquid. The denser a liquid, the higher the
pressure at any given depth.
● Pressure doesn’t depend upon the shape of the container. The pressure at any particular
depth is the same whatever the shape or width of the container.
● All points on the same horizontal level in a fluid at rest have the same pressure

GRADE 11 PHYSICS CATCH UP MANUAL 20

 ● The pressure in a liquid can be used to transmit a force because of the following
properties:
o Liquids are incompressible
o Pressure in a liquid acts equally in all directions at the same depth
o Changes in liquid pressure are transmitted instantaneously and uniformly to all
parts of a liquid

Pascal stated that if pressure is applied to a confined fluid, the pressure in all parts of the fluid
increases by that amount.

o Formula for pressure in a fluid:

o Unit for pressure:

Example: If the density of water is 1000 kg/m3, what is the pressure due to the water at the
bottom of a swimming pool 3m deep?

HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS
► A hydraulic system is a device in which a small applied force can give rise to a larger
force.

► The principle in the hydraulic system is widely used in jacks, vehicle brake systems,
hydraulic presses and heavy machinery and a few more examples.

► All hydraulic systems transmit force

through a liquid. Liquids cannot be
compresed like gases and therefore if 1
cm3 of a liquid leaves a pump then 1cm3
of liquid must enter the motor. If this
doesn’t occur then there is a leak in the
system.

GRADE 11 PHYSICS CATCH UP MANUAL 21

 ► In a simple system, the motor can be a simple cylinder with a piston ( because it moves).
In this case the motor is a ram, a cylinder in which there is a piston that moves when oil
is pumped in. the system above acts as a force multiplier, which means that a small force
can be used to make a bigger force.
► A key principle of working with hydraulic systesm is that pressure is the same throughout
which means that the pressure at the motor is the same as the pressure in the pump.
► Examples:

✔ Find the force applied on side B

GRADE 11 PHYSICS CATCH UP MANUAL 22

 ✔ Solution

DEVICES FOR MEASURING PRESSURE

U TUBE MANOMETER

GRADE 11 PHYSICS CATCH UP MANUAL 23

 ► A manometer consists of a U-tube filled with a liquid (mercury, water or oil) with a
certain density.

► The manometer is used to measure the difference in pressure between the two sides of the
U-tube.

► When the manometer is not connected to the gas supply, i.e. when both arms are open to
the atmosphere, the liquid levels in both arms are equal.

► To measure the pressure of a gas, the other arm is connected to the gas pipe and the gas
pressure acts on the surface of the liquid in the respective arm.

► If the gas pressure is greater than the atmospheric pressure, the liquid in the respective
arm (say arm B) will be pushed downwards. Under equilibrium conditions, (same
pressure from both arms), the level of the liquid will be at the same level.

MERCURY BAROMETER
⮚ A mercury barometer consists of a thick-walled glass tube, which is closed at one end.

⮚ The tube is completely filled with mercury and inverted several times to remove air
bubbles.
The tube is then completely filled again with mercury.

⮚ After all air has been removed, the open end of the glass tube is inverted into a container
of mercury.

⮚ The mercury column drops until it reaches a height of about 76 cm above the lower
surface.

GRADE 11 PHYSICS CATCH UP MANUAL 24

 ⮚ The space between the top of the mercury and the end of the tube should contain no air; it
must be in a complete vacuum.

⮚ The column of mercury in the tube is supported by the atmospheric pressure and its
height depends on the magnitude of the atmospheric pressure.

⮚ Since the atmospheric pressure at sea level can support a vertical column of mercury 76
cm or 760 mm high, we can, for convenience, express mm Hg as a unit of pressure. 1
Standard atmospheric pressure (1 P atm) = 76 cm Hg or 760 mm Hg (also known as one
atmosphere).

ARCHIMEDES' PRINCIPLE
► Archimedes' principle states that an object, whether completely or partially immersed in a
fluid, is acted on by a buoyant force, which is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced.

► Archimedes (287-212 B.C.) was a greek scientist who first discovered that "an object
submerged in a liquid is acted on by an upward buoyant force (or upthrust).“

► The buoyant force is due to the surrounding liquid which causes the object to weigh less
in the liquid.

► Archimedes realized that submerged objects always displace liquid upwards, (when you
put an ice to a glass of water, the water level rise).

GRADE 11 PHYSICS CATCH UP MANUAL 25

Later he did show that the upthrust is equal to the weight of water displaced.

Upthrust: Up thrust is defined as the resultant thrust that a liquid uses to push up a body
immersed in the liquid. Its SI unit is Newton

⮚ In the figure, when the object is lowered into the water, the following observations are
made:

► The object experiences a reduction in weight. The weight of the object in water is
less than its weight in air.

► The apparent loss in weight of the object is caused by the buoyant force of the surro
unding water on the object.

Apparent loss in weight of object =Weight of object - weight of object in water.

► The object displaces a volume of water.

Volume of water displaced = volume of the submerged part of the stone

► From the figure, the apparent loss in weight is due to the buoyant force.
Therefore : Bouyant Force = Actual weight - weight in water

LAW OF FLOATATION
⮚ Floating is caused by an upthrust force that acts on the material and the "Law of flotation
is an application of Archimedes' principle“

⮚ When a piece of wood of density more than water is placed on water, it sinks and

displaces some water.

GRADE 11 PHYSICS CATCH UP MANUAL 26

 ⮚ As it sinks, more and more water is displaced.

⮚ This increases the buoyant force as the buoyant force is equal to the weight of water
displaced.

⮚ The wood will sink until the buoyant force equal its weight.

⮚ The law of flotation states that a floating object displaces its own weight of the fluid in
which it floats.

i.e. Weight of floating object= weight of fluid displaced

Mass of floating object = mass of fluid displaced

⮚ Any changes in the density of the surrounding liquid affects the level in which an object
floats.

⮚ Thus, an object will DISPLACE the amount of water or liquid that is equal to its own
mass in order to float.

⮚ The density of liquid is directly proportional to the floatation of the object. It means that if
the density of liquid is more than the object, then the object floats whereas if the density of
liquid is less than that of the object, then the object will sink.

APPLICATIONS OF ARCHIMEDES' PRINCIPLE

SUBMARINES
► A submarine has a large ballast tank, which is used to control its position and depth from
the surface of the sea.

► A submarine submerges by letting water into the ballast tank so that its weight becomes
greater than the buoyant force.

► Conversely, it floats by reducing water in the ballast tank.-thus its weight is less than the
buoyant force

HOT AIR BALOONS

► The atmosphere is filled with air that exerts buoyant force on any object.

GRADE 11 PHYSICS CATCH UP MANUAL 27

 ► A hot air balloon rises and floats due to the buoyant force (when the surrounding air is
greater than its weight).

► It descends when the balloon's weight is higher than the buoyant force.

► It becomes stationary when the weight equals the buoyant force.

► The weight of the Hot-air balloon can be controlled by varying the quantity of hot air in
the balloon.

SHIPS
► A ship floats on the surface of the sea because the volume of water displaced by the ship
is enough to have a weight equal to the weight of the ship.

► A ship is constructed in a way so that the shape is hollow, to make the overall density of
the ship less than the sea water.

► Therefore, the buoyant force acting on the ship is large enough to support its weight.

► The density of sea water varies with location.

► The PLIMSOLL LINE marked on the body of the ship acts as a guideline to ensure that
the ship is loaded within the safety limit.

► A ship submerges lower in fresh water as the density of fresh water is less than sea water.

► Ships will float higher in cold water as cold water has a relatively higher density than
warm water.

► The density of sea water varies with location.

► The PLIMSOLL LINE marked on the body of the ship acts as a guideline to ensure that
the ship is loaded within the safety limit.

► A ship submerges lower in fresh water as the density of fresh water is less than sea water.

► Ships will float higher in cold water as cold water has a relatively higher density than
warm water.

GRADE 11 PHYSICS CATCH UP MANUAL 28

WORKSHEET 2
The yacht shown in Figure 1 has a mass of 8300 kg.

Figure 3. Diagram showing a yacht on a trailer

(a) Determine its weight in air.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

GRADE 11 PHYSICS CATCH UP MANUAL 29

______________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________ (2 marks)
[Acceleration due to gravity, g = 10 N kg–1]

(b) For land transport, the yacht is secured on a trailer. Each tyre on the trailer can support up to
a maximum of 7000 N. What is the LEAST number of tyres the trailer should have to support the
yacht adequately?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________ (2 marks)

(c) (i) Many forces act on the yacht yet it is in equilibrium. State TWO conditions that must be
satisfied for an object to be in equilibrium.
1.____________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
2.____________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________(2 marks)

(ii) State the effect that the position of the centre of gravity of an object has on its stability.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________ (1 mark)

(d) (i) State Archimedes’ Principle.

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________ (2 marks)

GRADE 11 PHYSICS CATCH UP MANUAL 30

(ii) The yacht’s hull is made of steel with density, ρs, equal 7850 kg m–3. Explain how the yacht
is able to float in sea water of density, ρw,1025 kg m–3.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________ (2 marks)

(iii) Calculate the volume of sea water displaced by the yacht as it floats.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________ (4 marks)

THERMAL PHYSICS
CALORIC THEORY
It was first thought that heat was a weightless fluid called caloric. A hot object contained a large
quantity of caloric while a cold object contained very little of no caloric. Heat was transferred
from one place to another via the movement of caloric.

► According to the theory:

► Heat is a fluid called caloric

► Caloric flows from a hot object to a cold object when they are in contact

► Caloric flows more easily through metals than non-metals

GRADE 11 PHYSICS CATCH UP MANUAL 31

 ► Since caloric repels itself a body with a lot of caloric expands

► The smaller the object the less caloric it can hold

► Friction creates small particles caused by the rubbing process and these particles
produce more caloric

KINETIC THEORY OF HEAT

In 1798 Benjamin Thompson also known as Count Rumford proposed the kinetic theory of heat.
His experiment was called the Cannon Boring Experiment. In drilling the hole within the cannon,
Count Rumford made the following observations:

1. The procedure produced a lot of heat energy.

2. The longer the drilling occurred the greater the amount of heat produced.

3. When the cannon boring was done in water, enough heat was produced to convert water into
steam.

4. The tiny drops of metal produced in the drilling procedure were hot enough to burn through
skin.

From the observations he concluded the following:

1. Heat was generated from motion.

2. Since heat could be generated then it is not possible for heat to be a material substance (since
matter cannot be created). Recall: The law of conservation of energy states that energy cannot be
created or destroyed but instead be converted from one form to another. Energy conversions are
never 100% efficient. There is always some loss of energy during energy conversions. This loss
in energy is usually in the form of heat.

GRADE 11 PHYSICS CATCH UP MANUAL 32

HEAT AND TEMPERATURE
► In earlier times there was no distinction between temperature and heat. The terms were
used interchangeably.

HEAT TEMPERATURE
Heat is a form of energy Temperature measures the degree of
hotness of a body (“how hot”).
Heat is dependent on the amount and Temperature is independent of the amount
nature of the substance. (mass) of substance
Heat is a measure of the total kinetic It can be thought of as a measure of the
energy of the atoms or molecules in a average kinetic energy of the atoms or
body molecules in a body.

NB: As the temperature decreases, the kinetic energy of the particles will decrease. At some
point the kinetic energy of the particles will reach zero. The temperature at which this would
occur is known as “absolute zero”.

THERMOMETRIC PROPERTIES
Many physical properties vary with temperature. Knowledge of how these properties vary can be
used to measure temperature. Therefore thermometric properties are used as the basis for
making/ calibrating thermometers. A thermometric medium is one whose properties change
with temperature

GRADE 11 PHYSICS CATCH UP MANUAL 33

 ► Examples of thermometric properties include:

THERMAL EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION

Thermal expansion- when an object is heated, molecules move further apart due to their
increased kinetic energy. Heated objects EXPAND- volume gets larger. When an object‘s
kinetic energy (temperature) increases, the molecules move more rapidly. This causes them to
spread apart and the object expands (volume increases).

Thermal contraction-when an object cools, molecules move closer together due to their
decreased kinetic energy. Cooled objects CONTRACT- volume gets smaller. When an
object‘s kinetic energy (temperature) decreases, the molecules move less rapidly. This causes
them to move closer together and the object contracts (volume decreases).

You see this in action when reading a thermometer, adjusting a thermostat, or watching
the weather report.

► Solids, liquids and gases all show thermal expansion/contraction, but gases
expand/contract the most. Thermal expansion is a CHARACTERISTIC PROPERTY
of solids and liquids- this means solids/liquids expand differently; depending on what
materials they are made of. All gases expand and contract equally, regardless of what
they are, so thermal expansion is NOT a characteristic property of gasses.

► SOLIDS- Thermal expansion of sidewalks.

Expansion joints.

Bimetallic strip

► LIQUIDS- thermometers

GRADE 11 PHYSICS CATCH UP MANUAL 34

Effects of heat are:

a. It changes the state of matter

b. It changes the temperature of an object.

c. It changes the solubility of a substance.

d. It changes the size of an object.

e. It changes the color of the body.

f. It changes the volume of the body

TEMPERATURE SCALES:
✔ Define the upper and lower fixed points of the Celsius scale

✔ upper fixed point:

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

✔ lower fixed point:

GRADE 11 PHYSICS CATCH UP MANUAL 35

 ________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

✔ What is the value of the upper and lower fixed points of the Celsius and Kelvin scale?

o lower fixed point Celsius scale: _________________________________________

o upper fixed point Celsius scale: _________________________________________

o lower fixed point Kelvin scale: _________________________________________

o upper fixed point Kelvin scale: _________________________________________

 THE GAS LAWS

Molecules gain extra kinetic energy and move about with greater speeds when heated. The gas
laws describe the experimental evidence about the ways in which the temperature, pressure and
volume of a gas are related to each other.

NB: Temperature used in the calculation should always be in Kelvin

0oC = 273K

1 K = -273 oC (absolute zero)

✔ 20 oC = 20 K= 500 K =

GRADE 11 PHYSICS CATCH UP MANUAL 36

Three gas laws are important at this point:

● Boyles law
● Charles law
● Pressure law
BOYLE’S LAW
Boyle’s law states that the volume of a fixed mass of gas is inversely proportional to the
pressure if the temperature and the mass of the gas remains unchanged.
o Variables to control: temperature and the number of particles

Method for Boyle’s law experiment

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

GRADE 11 PHYSICS CATCH UP MANUAL 37

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

● Breathing system in Humans- Boyle's law is often used as part of an explanation on how
the breathing system works in the human body. This commonly involves explaining how
the lung volume may be increased or decreased and thereby cause a relatively lower or
higher air pressure within them (in keeping with Boyle's law). This forms a pressure
difference between the air inside the lungs and the environmental air pressure, which in
turn precipitates either inhalation or exhalation as air moves from high to low pressure.

BOYLE’S LAW WORKSHEET

From the data in the following table calculate the missing quantity (assuming
constant temperature).
a)    V1 = 22.4 L;   P1= 1 atm;    P2 = ? atm;   V2 =  2.8 L

b)    V1 = 60 mL;   P1 = ? kPa;   P2 = 101.3 kPa;  V2 = 16 mL

c)     V1 = ? m3 ;    P1 = 40 Pa;   P2 = 100 kPa;  V2 = 1.0 L

d)    V1 = 2.50 L;   P1 = 7.5 atm;   P2 = ? atm;  V2 = 100 mL

GRADE 11 PHYSICS CATCH UP MANUAL 38

CHARLES' LAW
Charles' Law states that if the pressure of a gas sample is kept constant, the volume of the
sample will vary directly with the temperature in Kelvin. As the temperature increases, so
will the volume; if the temperature decreases, the volume will decrease.
o Variables to control: pressure and the number of particles

GRADE 11 PHYSICS CATCH UP MANUAL 39

 ________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

CHARLES’ LAW WORKSHEET

1) A container holds 50.0 mL of nitrogen at 25° C and a pressure of 736 mm Hg. What
will be its volume if the temperature increases by 35° C?

2) A sample of oxygen occupies a volume of 160 dm3 at 91° C. What will be volume of
oxygen when the temperature drops to 0.00° C?

GRADE 11 PHYSICS CATCH UP MANUAL 40

 3) A sample of hydrogen has an initial temperature of 50° C. When the temperature is
lowered to -5.0° C, the volume of hydrogen becomes 212 cm3. What was the initial
volume of the hydrogen in dm3?

4) 568 cm3 of chlorine at 25° C will occupy what volume at -25° C while the pressure
remains constant?

5) A sample of helium has a volume of 521 dm3 at a pressure of 75 cm Hg and a

temperature of 18° C. When the temperature is increased to 23° C, what is the volume of
the helium?

GRADE 11 PHYSICS CATCH UP MANUAL 41

PRESSURE LAW
For a fixed mass of gas at constant volume the pressure exerted is proportional to its temperature
in Kelvin.

o Variables to control: volume and the number of particles

 
 

GRADE 11 PHYSICS CATCH UP MANUAL 42

 ________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

PRESSURE LAW WORKSHEET

1. Determine the pressure change when a constant volume of gas at 1.00 atm is heated
from 30.0 °C to 40.0 °C.

GRADE 11 PHYSICS CATCH UP MANUAL 43

 2. A gas has a pressure of 0.470 atm at 60.0 °C. What is the pressure at standard
temperature?

3. A gas has a pressure of 799.0 mm Hg at 50.0 °C. What is the temperature at standard
pressure?

4. If a gas is cooled from 343.0 K to 283.15 K and the volume is kept constant what
final pressure would result if the original pressure was 760.0 mm Hg?

GRADE 11 PHYSICS CATCH UP MANUAL 44

THE COMBINED GAS LAW

The combined gas law states that the volume of a gas sample changes inversely with its pressure
and directly with its Kelvin temperature. The number of particles must remain constant.

✔ Formula:

Rules for using the combined gas equation:

1. The number of particles of the gas must be constant

2. The temperatures must be in Kelvin
3. The units of pressure and volume must be the same on both sides

GRADE 11 PHYSICS CATCH UP MANUAL 45

COMBINED GAS LAW WORKSHEET
1. A gas balloon has a volume of 106.0 liters when the temperature is 45.0 °C and the
pressure is 740.0 mm of mercury. What will its volume be at 20.0 °C and 780 .0 mm of
mercury pressure?

2. If 10.0 liters of oxygen at STP are heated to 512 °C, what will be the new volume of gas if
the pressure is also increased to 1520.0 mm of mercury?

3. A gas is heated from 263.0 K to 298.0 K and the volume is increased from 24.0 liters to
35.0 liters by moving a large piston within a cylinder. If the original pressure was 1.00 atm,
what would the final pressure be?

4. The pressure of a gas is reduced from 1200.0 mm Hg to 850.0 mm Hg as the volume of its
container is increased by moving a piston from 85.0 mL to 350.0 mL. What would the final
temperature be if the original temperature was 90.0 °C?

GRADE 11 PHYSICS CATCH UP MANUAL 46

GAS LAWS SUMMARY

The three gas laws give the following equations:

Boyle's Law – p V = constant (when T is kept constant)

V
Charles’ Law – = constant (when p is kept constant)
T

p
Pressure Law - = constant (when V is kept constant)
T

pV
These 3 equations are combined to give the ideal gas equation: = constant
T

Where - p = the pressure of the gas

V = the volume the gas occupies
T = the gas temperature on the Kelvin scale

p1V1 p2V2
=
T1 T2

THE IDEAL GAS EQUATION

The various statements relating the pressure, volume, temperature, and number of moles of a gas
sample can be combined into one statement: The volume (V) occupied by a gas is directly
proportional to its Kelvin temperature (T) and the number of moles (n) of gas in the sample, and
it is inversely proportional to its pressure (P). In mathematical form, this statement becomes:

nRT
V=
P

GRADE 11 PHYSICS CATCH UP MANUAL 47

where V = volume, n = moles of sample, P = pressure, T = temperature in K, and R = a
proportionality constant known as the gas constant. This equation, called the ideal gas equation,
is often seen in the form

PV =nRT

The term ideal gas means a gas that obeys exactly the gas laws. Real gases, those gases whose
molecules do not follow exactly the postulates of the kinetic molecular theory, exhibit minor
variations in behavior from those predicted by the gas laws.

COMBINED WORKSHEET

1. A sample of gas has a volume of 6.20 L at 20°C and 0.980 atm pressure. What is its
volume at the same temperature and at a pressure of 1.11 atm?

2. The volume of a gas sample is 746 mL at 20° C. What is its volume at body temperature
(37°C)? Assuming the pressure remains constant.

GRADE 11 PHYSICS CATCH UP MANUAL 48

 3. 3.0 m3 of a gas at 20 oC and a pressure of 760 mmHg is warmed to 80 oC. At the same
time the pressure on it is increased to 800 mmHg. Find its new volume.

4. A gas sample occupies a volume of 2.5 L at 10°C and 0.95 atm. What is its volume at
25°C and 0.75 atm?

5. Sabah pumps up her front bicycle tyre to 1.7 x 105 Pa. The volume of air in the tyre at
this pressure is 300 cm3. She takes her bike for a long ride during which the temperature
of the air in the tyre increases from 20°C to 30°C. Calculate the new front tyre pressure
assuming the tyre had no leaks and so the volume remained constant

GRADE 11 PHYSICS CATCH UP MANUAL 49

 6. 10 liters of oxygen in a piston at 300 K are warmed to 600 K. Its pressure does not
change. What is the new volume?

HEAT CAPACITY

The heat capacity of a substance is the heat which is required to increase the temperature of the
substance by 1°C.
✔ Formula for heat capacity:

✔ The SI unit for heat capacity:

For example, the heat capacity for 100 g of water is 420 J/ K. This means that 420 J of heat
energy is required to raise the temperature of 100 g water by 1K. To increase temperature by 2K,
840 J are needed and so on.

If a body absorbs a lot of heat but there is only a slight increase in temperature, then the body is
said to possess a large heat capacity. On the other hand, if a body absorbs a little amount of heat
but shows a big rise in temperature, then the body is said to possess a small heat capacity.

SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY

Water is very effective as an extinguishing agent because of its cooling effect. Why is this so?
Would other liquids have the same cooling effect? When sand and water are exposed to the same
amount of heat energy from the sun, you will have observed that sand gets much “hotter” (attains
a higher temperature) than water. This is because water has a much higher specific heat than

GRADE 11 PHYSICS CATCH UP MANUAL 50

sand. This means that for each degree temperature rise it will absorb a greater amount of heat
than sand.

The specific heat capacity (c) of a substance is the heat needed to change unit mass of the
substance by unit temperature.
Specific heat capacity, c, of a body is the heat that is required to increase the heat of 1 kg of a
material by 1°C or 1K.
The formula of specific heat capacity:

The SI unit of specific heat capacity:

For example, the specific heat capacity of water is 4200 J kg-1°C-1 . This means that 4200J of heat
is needed to increase the temperature of 1 Kg of water by 1°C.
The specific heat capacity is dependent upon the type of substance- Different substances have
different specific heat capacities. By knowing the specific heat capacity, we can determine the
mass and also the change of temperature of a body if we know the amount of heat that is
transferred. Generally, liquid has more specific heat capacity than solids. This means that liquids
need more heat energy than solids to show the same value of rise in temperature.
The relationship between heat capacity, C and specific heat capacity, c is shown by the following
equation:

Substance Specific heat (kJ/kg K) Substance Specific heat (kJ/kg K)

water 4.20 iron 0.46
carbon tetrachloride 0.85 aluminum 0.90
alcohol 2.56 copper 0.40
ice 2.10 earth, sand etc 0.84

LATENT HEAT
Latent heat is the heat absorbed or released when a substance changes state. The heat absorbed
during the melting process is called the latent heat of fusion (Lf) and is equivalent to the amount
of heat released when the liquid freezes. The heat needed to convert a liquid into a gas is called
the latent heat of vaporization (Lv)
GRADE 11 PHYSICS CATCH UP MANUAL 51
 ● Specific Latent Heat - The specific latent heat of a substance is the energy which is
required to change 1 Kg of a substance from a certain physical condition to another
physical condition without any change in temperature.
The unit for specific latent heat is:
● Specific Latent Heat of Vaporization - The specific latent heat of vaporization, lv of a
substance is the heat quantity required to convert 1kg of a liquid into water vapor at its
boiling point without any change in temperature. This causes the second cooling effect of
water is due to the amount of heat that is absorbed as the liquid water turns to steam.
Most of the cooling effect of water occurs when water is turned to steam.
Its formula is:
Its unit is:
● Specific Latent Heat of fusion - The specific latent heat of fusion, lf of a substance is the
heat quantity required to convert 1kg of a solid into a liquid at its freezing point without
any change in temperature.
Its formula is:

Its unit is:

Substanc Specific Latent heat (of vaporisation) Specific Latent Heat of fusion
e
Water 2260 kJ/kg 334 kJ/kg
Lead 855 22.4
Oxygen 213 13.9

HEATING AND COOLING CURVES

GRADE 11 PHYSICS CATCH UP MANUAL 52

The graphs above show how the temperature of a quantity of substance such as water changes
over time when heat is supplied to it.
From the principle of conservation of energy, we can infer that:
a) latent heat must be given out when a gas condenses to become a liquid and when the liquid
solidifies to the solid phase.
b) These two processes also occur at constant temperature.

 PRINCIPLE OF CALORIMETRY:
When two body of different temperature are kept in thermal contact, heat transfers takes place
from the hot body to cold body and the process continues until the equilibrium (same
temperature) state is maintained. This principle works on the principle of the conservation of
energy.

Heat lost = Heat gained

METHODS FOR FINDING SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY

ELECTRICAL METHOD FOR METAL

GRADE 11 PHYSICS CATCH UP MANUAL 53

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________

METAL BY METHOD OF MIXTURES

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

GRADE 11 PHYSICS CATCH UP MANUAL 54

ELECTRICAL METHOD FOR METAL

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

GRADE 11 PHYSICS CATCH UP MANUAL 55

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

LIQUID BY METHOD OF MIXTURES

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

GRADE 11 PHYSICS CATCH UP MANUAL 56

SPECIFIC LATENT HEAT OF FUSION OF ICE

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
GRADE 11 PHYSICS CATCH UP MANUAL 57
SPECIFIC LATENT HEAT OF VAPOURIZATION OF WATER

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

GRADE 11 PHYSICS CATCH UP MANUAL 58

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

TRANSMISSION OF HEAT
Heat may be transferred from one place to another in three ways:

1. Conduction is most obvious in solids. All liquids (except mercury) and gases are very
poor conductors of heat. When a solid heats up, its particles gain kinetic energy and
increase the energy with which they vibrate. Conduction occurs when heat energy travels
through a body, passing from particle to particle as they vibrate against each other. A
good conductor must have particles which are close enough together to collide with
sufficient force for energy to be transferred. Metals are all good conductors of heat
especially copper, aluminium and silver, because they have “free” electrons which are
easily able to transfer heat energy.

MECHANISM OF CONDUCTION
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________

GRADE 11 PHYSICS CATCH UP MANUAL 59

_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________

2. Convection is the transfer of heat by the movement of the heated particles themselves.
This can only take place in liquids and gases
because in solids the particles are not able to
move from their fixed positions. When a liquid
or gas is heated, it expands and becomes less
dense. The lighter liquid or gas rises allowing a
flow of cooler material to take its place. This in
turn becomes heated and so a convection current
is set up. Heat will continue to be transferred
through the available space in this way until it is
evenly distributed.

GRADE 11 PHYSICS CATCH UP MANUAL 60

MECHANISM OF
CONVECTION
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________

3. Radiation is the way we receive heat energy from the sun. It does not require a medium
for its transmission (i.e. it can travel through empty space) and is in the form of
electromagnetic energy waves which travel in the same way as light or radio waves.
When these energy waves fall on a body, the energy may be: • absorbed • transmitted •
reflected When radiant energy is absorbed the body will rise in temperature.

GRADE 11 PHYSICS CATCH UP MANUAL 61

 ● Black and dull surfaces absorb (and radiate) heat much more efficiently than white shiny
surface
● The amount of heat energy received decreases with the square of the distance from a
radiant source
● Radiant energy is transmitted through clear materials such as glass. The glass does not
heat up.
● Radiant heat from the sun may be concentrated by means of a magnifying glass,
sufficient to ignite flammable material.
● Shiny, silver surfaces will reflect radiant energy and not heat up. This is the reason for the
silver coating on a fire-fighter’s jacket.
● Heat energy flows from bodies of high temperature to bodies of lower temperature.

MECHANISM OF RADIATION
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________

VACUUM FLASK
● A vacuum flask/ thermos keeps hot things hot or cold things cold.
● It is difficult for heat to travel into or out of the flask
o Transfer by conduction is minimized by making the flask a double walled glass
vessel with a vacuum between the walls
o Radiation is reduced by silvering both walls on the vacuum side.
o If a hot liquid is stored the small about of radiation is reflected from the hot inside
wall is reflected across the vacuum by the silvering on the outer wall.
o The slight heat loss which does occur is by conduction up the side of the flask
through the stopper.

GRADE 11 PHYSICS CATCH UP MANUAL 62

THE GREEN HOUSE/ GLASS HOUSE EFFECT

EVAPORATION & BOILING

Boiling Evaporation

GRADE 11 PHYSICS CATCH UP MANUAL 63

Boiling is the process of converting a liquid to a This occurs when the most energetic particles of a
gaseous form using heat substance escape from the surface if the liquid.
In boiling the liquid is turned into vapour by heat. In evaporation, the liquid is freely converted into
vapour.
Boiling involves heat. Evaporation does not involve heat.
Boiling does not cause cooling Evaporation causes cooling
Takes place only at the boiling point of the liquid Takes place at any given temperature
Takes place throughout the liquid Takes place at the surface
This is a quick process Takes place slowly
Bubbles formed No bubbles formed
Source of energy needed Energy is absorbed from the environment
Note: The vapour pressure is the pressure of the gaseous form of the substance in the presence of
the liquid form. (The vapour pressure must be equal to atmospheric pressure for boiling to
occur.)

EVAPORATION AND COOLING

Molecules in a liquid have varied kinetic energy. Some particles contain large amount of kinetic
energy. While others contain lower amounts. The average kinetic energy is directly related to the
temperature of the liquid. The particles with the highest kinetic energy move rapidly and are able
to break the bonds of the liquid state. These particles go into vapour form. Since the particles
with the highest kinetic energy leaves the liquid, the average kinetic energy drops. This results in
a decrease of temperature in the liquid.

Factors Affecting Evaporation

1. Surface area – Increase in surface area decreases the rate of evaporation.

2. Temperature – higher temperature increases evaporation since water molecules are more likely
to break the bonds.

3. Wind – the vapour that is formed after evaporation removed increases the rate of evaporation.

GRADE 11 PHYSICS CATCH UP MANUAL 64

THE REFRIGERATOR
1. The compressor constricts the refrigerant vapor, raising its pressure, and pushes it into the
coils on the outside of the refrigerator.

2. When the hot gas in the coils meets the cooler air temperature of the kitchen, it becomes a
liquid.

3. Now in liquid form at high pressure, the refrigerant cools down as it flows into the coils inside
the freezer and the fridge.

4. The refrigerant absorbs the heat inside the fridge, cooling down the air.

5. Last, the refrigerant evaporates to a gas, then flows back to the compressor, where the cycle
starts all over.

Perspiration

Sweating is one of the body’s mechanism of temperature control. When the water from the sweat
evaporates, the skin is cooled and this results in the cooling of the entire body.

EMITTERS AND ABSORBERS OF THERMAL RADIATION

All bodies emit and absorb infrared radiation. At any
given time a body may be a net emitter or net absorber
of radiation

• Bodies that are hotter than their surroundings

are net emitters of thermal radiation - they emit
more radiant energy than they absorb.
• Bodies that are cooler than their surroundings are net absorbers of thermal radiation -
they absorb more radiant energy than they emit.
• The surface of a body will reflect some of the radiation.
● A good absorber is a poor reflector, and a poor absorber is a good reflector. Surfaces that
are good absorbers are also good emitters

GRADE 11 PHYSICS CATCH UP MANUAL 65

FACTORS AFFECTING THE ABSORPTION OR EMISSION OF RADIATION
1. Texture of surface:
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
2. Colour of surface:
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

GRADE 11 PHYSICS CATCH UP MANUAL 66

 3. Area of surface:
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
4. Surface temperature:
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

Matt/dull /rough /black Shiny/polished/smooth/silver or white

Good absorbers (poor reflectors) Poor absorbers (good reflectors)
good emitters Poor emitters

It is important to note that texture and colour do not determine whether a body is a net absorber
or a net emitter. This depends on its temperature relative to the surroundings at the time.

• First determine if the body is a net absorber or net emitter by considering its temperature
relative to surrounding bodies.

• Then examine the physical properties of its surface to determine how good an absorber or
emitter it is.

A black surface is a better emitter of radiation than a white or silver surface.

A black surface is a better absorber of radiation than a white or silver surface.

GRADE 11 PHYSICS CATCH UP MANUAL 67