Research Methods and

Professional Skills / Advanced

Research Methods

Instructor: Abdul Hameed

Why this
course?
• One of the primary goals of graduate program is to learn how to
learn, i.e., to learn how to continuously absorb new knowledge.

• The process of exploring the unknown, studying and learning new

things, building new knowledge about things that no one has
understood before - that is what I think of as performing research.

• The activity of a diligent and systematic inquiry or investigation in an

area, with the objective of discovering or revising facts, theories,
applications etc.

• The goal is to discover and disseminate new knowledge.

Expectations from this course?
• Refine your critical thinking skills
• Refine your ability to work independently or in a group
• Increase your understanding of how to use research tools
• How to conduct research on any topic of mutual interest
• Refine your oral and written presentation skills
Assessment of the
Course
• Relevance
• Originality
• Significance
• Not plagiarized
• Clearly presented
• Consistent presentation
• Apparent understanding of topic
• Ability to handle references and citations
• Ability to meet deadlines
• Ability to adhere to the requirements
What is Research?
What is the difference between a homework problem and a
research problem?
• Probably no, except for your fear.

Research is anything but homework:

• Finding a good problem to study is part of research too.

Research is about pushing the limits:

• Dismiss the problem if the solution is not interesting
enough.
Computer Science Research
• Inherently multidisciplinary
• Many other fields are not multidisciplinary
• Planned
• Specific Purpose
• Clear start and finish dates
• Finite resources (time, people, and money)
Which of these can be classified as research?

• A prepared a paper on “computer usage in secondary schools and

colleges or university” after reviewing literature on the subject
available in his college or university library.

• B says that he has researched and completed a document which gives

information about the age of his students, their results, their parents
income and distance of their schools from the Central Office.

• C participated in a workshop on curriculum development and prepared

what he calls, a report on the curriculum for Software Engineers.
None of the above examples can be classified
under the name research.
An example of research
• A general manager of a car producing company received complaints received
from the car users that the car they produce have some problems with sound
at the dash board and the rear passenger seat after few thousand kilometers of
driving.

• He obtained information from the company workers to identify the various

factors influencing the problem.

• He formulated the problem and generated guesses (hypotheses).

• He constructed a checklist and obtained requisite information from a

representative sample of cars.

• He analyzed the collected data, interpreted the results in the light of his
hypotheses and reached conclusions.
What is
Research?
Examples of Everyday Research -
• Finding out why the car will not start
• Finding out which company or store has the best offers
for the consumer products
Example of Formal Research -
• Attempting to discover the advantages and
disadvantages of using various software testing methods
on large scale software development projects
 Research
“Careful study and investigation, especially
in order to discover new facts or
information”
(Oxford paperback dictionary)
Some definitions of Research
Research means different things to different people in different circumstances.

• “A fact finding activity”

• “The use of facts to research an opinion, decision or conclusion”
• “A critical process for asking and attempting to answer questions about the
world”
• “A systematic inquiry to describe, explain, predict, and control the observed
phenomenon”
Some more definitions of Research
Research means different things to different people in different circumstances.

• “A process of systematic inquiry that entails collection of data; documentation

of critical information; and analysis and interpretation of that
data/information, in accordance with suitable methodologies set by specific
professional fields and academic disciplines”

• “The creation of new knowledge and/or the use of existing knowledge in a

new and creative way so as to generate new concepts, methodologies and
understandings. This could include synthesis and analysis of previous research
to the extent that it leads to new and creative outcomes”
What is Research?

Most people agree:

• Research is a process of enquiry and investigation

• Research is a systematic and careful process
• Research increases knowledge
• Deepen understanding of a topic
• Contribute to the understanding of a topic
What is Research?
• Research means finding answers to the questions.

• It is a systematic search for truth.

• Through research, new and original information, ideas about the world we
live in, are obtained.

• Research is search for knowledge.

• Research is defined as a scientific and systematic search for information on

a specific topic.
 What is
research?
Research is systematic, because it follows certain steps that are
logical in order.
These steps are:
1. Understanding the nature of problem to be studied and identifying the related area
of knowledge.
2. Reviewing literature to understand how others have approached or dealt with
the problem.
3. Collecting data in an organized and controlled manner so as to arrive at valid decisions.
4. Analyzing data appropriate to the problem.
5. Drawing conclusions and making generalizations.
 What is purpose of
research?
• Generally, there are four types of research based on different
purposes:
• Basic Research:
• The purpose of this research is to understand and explain
• The research is interested in formulating and testing theoretical
construct and propositions that ideally generalize across time and
space.
• This type of research takes the form of a theory that explains the
phenomenon under investigation to give its contribution to
knowledge.
• This research is more descriptive in nature exploring what, why and
how questions.
• Generally, there are four types of research based on different
purposes:
• Applied Research:
• The purpose of this research is to help people understand the nature of human
problems so that human beings can more effectively control their environment.
• This type of research pursues potential solutions to human and societal
problems.
• This research is more prescriptive in nature, focusing on how questions.
• Generally, there are four types of research based on different
purposes:
• Evaluation Research:

• Evaluation research studies the processes and outcomes aimed at attempted

solution.

• The purpose of formative research is to improve human intervention

within specific conditions, such as activities, time, and groups of people

• The purpose is to judge the effectiveness of a program, policy, or product.

• Generally, there are four types of research based on different
purposes:
• Action Research:
• Action research aims at solving specific problems within a program,
organization, or community.

• Design and data collection in action research tend to be more informal

• The people in the situation are directly involved in gathering

information and studying themselves
Summary of Purposes of Research

• Exploration
• gaining some familiarity with a topic, discovering some of its main
dimensions, and possibly planning more structured research

• Description
• Census Bureau’s report on number of Pakistanis living in Islamabad
• Political poll predicting who will win an election

• Explanation
• Take it one step further
 Type of Research Questions
• What’s out there?
• What does it look like?
• How does it work?
• How well does a method solve a problem?
• Why does something happen the way it happens?
• What would happen if?
Research ‘Musts’

• Problem must be clearly recognized

• Determine information already available and what further

information is required, as well as the best approach for obtaining it

• Obtain and assess information objectively to help inform the

decision
 Different Levels of
Research
1. Level one: research
assistant Learn the drill

2. Level two: homework like research

Build up your confidence

3. Level three: formulating your own problem and solve it

Exercise your creativity

4. Level four: formulating problems for others to solve

Realize your vision

Knowing what to do is more important than knowing how!

What is Good
Research?
1. Novelty (better if you were not able to publish it at first)

2. Simplicity (better if your advisor refused to grant you a degree)

3. Universality (better if others found it trivial at first sight)

Warning Signs of Bogus
Research
1. Prove by successful instances

2. Results too complicated to reproduce

3. Reinvent the wheel without proper acknowledgment

4. Tackle ill-posed problems directly

Such results will NOT stand the test of time!

How to Do Research? Common
Misunderstandings
1. Think research is only for genius.

2. Think yourself as a genius.

3. Think you need to know everything about the subject in

advance.

4. Think you should wait for the most important problem to

work on.

5. Think a solution is correct just because you cannot find

anything wrong.
 Some Qualities Needed for
Research?
1. Be both confident and humble

2. Be both critical and collaborative

3. Be both ambitious and realistic

4. Be proactive and willing to take a chance!

The only way you can improve yourself is to learn

things that you are the most afraid of!
How does Doing Research Feel Like?
1. An endless cycle between excitement and depression…

2. An endless cycle between sense of success and failure…

3. An endless cycle between over-confidence and self-doubt…

Research needs faith in there are always interesting

new things for you to discover and by doing so you
can make the world a better place!
Research Process
• Realize there is a problem
• Look to see if anyone has solved it
• Develop a plan to solve it
• Solve it
• Evaluate your solution
• Disseminate your solution

How to Read a Scientific Paper

 Agenda

• Types of scientific papers

• Organization of a paper
• Actions to take – to properly read a paper
• Difficulties in reading scientific papers
 Why read a scientific paper?
• Scientific papers are a great source of
information because they are CURRENT
• Textbooks can be years out of date by the
time they are published
• Often the complete version of a conference
paper may come out several years after the
conference paper
• Scientific journals tell you what is happening
RIGHT NOW
• If not recent, atleast what has happened
Why read a scientific paper?
more recently than text book
• Another reason scientific papers are useful is
that they can be REPLICATED.
• While popular articles and books give you
general information and results, scholarly
journals give you enough information that
you DO THE EXPERIMENT YOURSELF
• You can verify the research to see if you get
the same results.
• Scientific papers also provide ACTUAL
DATA
• If you need to know exact results or
properties for your own research.. Articles
include actual data, uncertainties, conditions
of the experiment, and much more.
• Another reason: you can EVALUATE THE
CONCLUSIONS
• Do you believe it or not? Articles provide
authors’ explanation of their results and
conclusions
• You can see their assumptions and
determine whether you believe them or
not.
• CURRENT- provides the most up-to-date
information.
• REPLICABLE-you can perform the
experiment by yourself.
• ACTUAL DATA- you can use the raw data in
your own research.
• SHOWS LOGIC- you can evaluate the
conclusions yourself and decide if you
believe the claim or not.
 Types of Scientific Papers
• Original article – information based on original research
• Case reports – usually of a single case
• Technical notes - describe a specific technique or
procedure
• Pictorial essay – teaching article with images
• Review – detailed analysis of recent research on a
specific topic
• Commentary – short article with author’s personal
opinions
• Editorial – often short review or critique of original
articles
• Letter to the Editor – short and on subject of interest to
readers
 Two Types of Scientific
Papers in this course
There are two types of scientific
papers:
• Review articles:
– give an overview of the scientific field or topic by
summarizing the data and conclusions from many
studies.
• Primary research articles:
– contain the original data and conclusions of the
researchers who were involved in the experiments
and how the experiments were done.
 Organization of a Paper
• Title
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Methods
• Results
• Discussion/Conclusions
• Acknowledgements
• References
Note: most scientific journals follow the format of the Structured
Abstract.
Occasionally, the Results and Discussion are combined –
when the data need extensive discussion to allow the
reader to follow the train of logic of the research.
 IMRAD Format

• Introduction: What was the

question?
• Methods: How did the research(s) try to
answer it?
• Results: What did the researchers find?
• And
• Discussion:What do the results
mean?
 IMRAD Format- Bradford Hill’s
version
• Introduction: Why did you start?
• Methods: What did you do?
• Results: What did you find?
• And
• Discussion:What does this all
mean?
 What does a scientific paper
contain?

• Title – describes paper’s content clearly using

keywords (for databases and search engines)

• Abstract - a summary (~ 150-300 words) of the

problem, the method, the results and the
conclusions; the reader can decide whether or
not to read the whole article
• Introduction - clearly states the problem being
investigated and reasons for the research
• Rationale of the study
• Supply sufficient background information to allow a
reader to understand and evaluate the results of
present study without referring to previous
publications on the topic
• Summarizes relevant research to provide context;
identifies the questions being answered
• Briefly describes the experiment, hypothesis(es),
research question(s) and general experimental
design or method
• Methods - provides the reader enough details so
they can understand and replicate the research
– explains how the problem was studied
– identifies the procedures followed
– explains new methodology in detail
– includes the frequency of observations, what types of
data were recorded, etc.

• Results - presents the findings, and explains

what was found
– shows how the new results are contributing to the
body of scientific knowledge
– follows a logical sequence based on the tables and figures
presenting the findings to answer the question or
hypothesis(es)
• Discussion/Conclusions - describes what the results
mean regarding what was already known about the
subject
– indicates how the results relate to expectations and to the
literature previously cited
– explains how the research has moved the body of
scientific knowledge forward
– outlines the next steps for further study

• Acknowledgements – recognize various

contributions of other workers
• References - the sources of previously
published work and includes information not
from the experiment and not ‘common
knowledge’
 How do you read a scientific
paper?
• Tip-1: Before you read, you need the right
equipment.
– A scientific dictionary- to look up the terms
you don’t know.
– You handy notebook- to make notes so you will
remember your insights.
– Your friends and colleagues- explaining what you
have read to others will help you understand the
paper yourself.
How do you read a scientific
paper?
• Tip 2: Don’t read straight through.
– It is like walking through quick sand
– Instead, read the sections of a paper in the
order that makes for faster, more efficient
comprehension than reading the paper
straight through.
 Actions to Take
• Skim the article without taking notes:
– Read the abstract; it will tell you the major
findings of the article and why they matter
– It refreshes your memory about the topic
– Read first for the ‘big picture’
– Note any terms or techniques you need to define
– Jot down any questions or parts you don’t
understand
– If you are unfamiliar with any of the key concepts in
the article, look them up in a textbook or search at
 Actions to Take
Internet
• Re-read the article more carefully especially the
‘methods’ and ‘results/conclusions’ sections:
– Carefully examine the graphs, tables, and
diagrams
– Try to interpret the data first before reading the
captions and details
– You might want to ask yourself:
• What specific results are mentioned?
• Are they relevant?
– Make sure you understand the article fully
• Ask yourself questions about the study, such as:
– What problems does the study address?
– Why is it important?
– Is the method good?
– Are there any assumptions?
– Are the findings supported by evidence?
– Are the experimental settings repeatable?
– Are they unique and supported by other work in
the field?
– Is the study repeatable?
– What was the sample size?
– Is this representative of the larger population?
– What variables were held constant?
– Was there a control?
– What factors might affect the outcome?
– How can I repeat the same experiments?
– Are my results same or different?
– Is there any parameter that can be changed?
– Can I make any contribution to current work?
• Next, skip over to discussion.
• The discussion summarizes important
results
• It also gives reasons for conclusions
based on the results
• You might want to ask yourself:
– Do I agree with the logic of the conclusions?
– Are these results useful to me?
• Take a look at the introduction.
• This section explains the motivation and
importance of the research.
• It also provides background information on
the research.
• You might want to ask yourself:
– Do I understand background information?
– Do I need to look up references for more
information?
• Review the results
• This section provides the raw data you might
need for your own research.
• The results often include figures and tables to
provide the data in a compact format for easy
viewing
• You might want to ask yourself:
– Do I understand what figures mean?
– Do I understand the units being used?
– Do the figures and tables make sense and
communicate the data well?
 Reflection and Criticism
• Do you agree with the authors’ rationale for
setting up the experiments as they did?
• Did they perform the experiments
appropriately?
• Were there enough experiments to support the
major finding?
• Do you see trends/patterns in their data?
• Do you agree with the author’s conclusions?
• What further questions do you have?
• What might you suggest they do next?
 Actions to Take

• Write a ‘summary’ of the article

– Describe the article in your own words - to distill the article
down to its ‘scientific essence’
– Note the ‘key points’ - purpose of the study/questions asked,
assumptions, major findings and conclusions, questions
unanswered & any surprises
 Other Useful Hints
• Draw inferences (a conclusion reached on the basis of
evidence and reasoning):
– not everything in an article is stated explicitly; rely on
your prior knowledge/experience and the background in
the article, to draw inferences from the material
• Distinguish main points:
– Document level: in title, abstract and keywords
– Paragraph level: look for words/phrases like
unexpected, in contrast to previous work, hypothesize
that, propose, introduce, data suggests
 Actions to Take
• Take notes as you read:
– this improves recall and comprehension; you may
think you’ll remember everything but details will slip
away
– develop a template for recording notes on articles
– can use the structured abstract format (abstract,
introduction, methods, results, discussion and
conclusions, references)
 Difficulties in Reading Papers
• Papers can be poorly written:
– some scientists are poor writers and others do not
enjoy writing
– author can be so familiar with the material that
he/she cannot see it from the point of view of a
reader not familiar with the topic
• Bad writing has consequences for the reader:
– logical connections are often left out - instead of
saying why an experiment was done, or what ideas
were being tested, the experiment is simply
‘described’;
– papers often are cluttered with ‘jargon’
– authors often do not provide a clear road-map
through the paper
• The reader cannot easily understand what the
experiment was:
• the descriptions are not well-written and it is
ambiguous what was done
– authors refer back to previous papers
– these refer in turn to previous papers in a long chain
– it is unclear which methods were used in this
experiment
• Authors are uncritical about their experiments:
– if they firmly believe in a particular model, they may
not be open-minded about other possibilities
– these may not be tested experimentally, and may go
unmentioned in the discussion
– authors do not clearly distinguish between fact and
speculation especially in the Discussion/Conclusions
• The sociology of science:
– many authors are ambitious and wish to
publish in trendy journals
– they overstate the importance of their findings,
or put a speculation into the title in a way that
makes it sound like a well- established finding
 Reading a Scientific Paper
• Struggle with the paper
• Active not passive reading
• Use highlighter, underline text, scribble
comments or questions on it, make notes
• If at first you don’t understand, read and re-read,
spiraling in on central points
• Get into question-asking mode
get used to doing peer review
just because it’s published, doesn’t mean it’s
right
• Move beyond the text of the paper
• Talk to other people about it
• Read commentaries
• Consult, dictionaries, textbooks
• Online links to references
• Figure legends to clarify things you don’t
understand
 Annotated Journal Article Appendix
(Part A How to Read a Scientific Paper Appendix)

• Annotated Journal Article by Michele Yeoman…

analyzes the content of a scientific journal article
• The author notes why this is a well-written article
• Using text boxes and arrows, Yeoman analyzes each
section of this article - title, abstract, introduction,
methods, results, discussion, acknowledgements,
charts and references
 Additional Resources
• How to read a scientific article. Mary Purugganan & Jan Hewitt, Rice
University www.owlnet.rice.edu/~cainproj/courses/HowToReadSciAr ticle.pdf
• How to read a scientific paper. John W. Little & Roy Parker--University of
Arizona www.biochem.arizona.edu/classes/bioc568/papers.htm
• How to read and review a scientific journal article. Duke University Writing
Studio twp.duke.edu/uploads/media_items/scientificarticlereview. original.pdf

Research Methods and

Professional Skills / Advanced
Research Methods

Instructor: Abdul Hameed

Outline

• Initial Intelligence Gathering

• Data Collection, Analysis and Hypothesis Testing
• The Scientific Method
• Originality Within Research
• Skills Required to undertake Good research
The Intelligence
Cycle
• The intelligence cycle is the process through which intelligence is
obtained, produced, and made available to users.
• In depicting this cycle, the United States Intelligence Community uses
a five-step process.
• Other nations may describe this cycle differently; however, the
process is largely the same.
The steps in the intelligence cycle are
depicted in the following
illustration: Planning Requirement and Direction

Dissemination Collection

Production Analysis and

Processing
Modified Intelligence Cycle
Scientists added two more phases in the intelligence process as
• requirements
• collection
• processing and exploitation
• analysis and production
• dissemination
• consumption
• feedback.
 What is
Research

• Initial intelligence Gathering will involve

• Undertaking a survey of the literature already published on
the topic area
• Investigating a number of relevant questions that are fundamental
to the research
• Questions formulated need to be very carefully defined so that they
cannot be misinterpreted and the answers are meaningful
• The answers must be appropriate to the research being undertaken
• The answers must be objective and not biased by personal emotion
• Hypothesis -
“The number of men and women on the course is approximately equal”
• “Please supply a figure for the number of people in your class and
the split between males and females”
• “Please include figures for previous years”
Answer 1
20 people
total
5 Female
Answer 1 Answer 2
20 people 15 people
total total
5 Female 40%
Female
 Answer 2
Answer 1

20 people 15 people
total total

5 Female 40%
Female
(6
Female)
• Hypothesis –
“There are approximately thrice as many men as women on the course worldwide”
• DataCollection, Analysis and Hypothesis
Testing
• Examination of the data involves asking the “why” questions
• Hypothesis -
“There are approximately thrice as many men as women on the course
worldwide”

• Why do we wish to know this?

• What is the context in which we are asking the question?
•Possible Goals of above Hypothesis
• To write a report on the growth or decline of female students on the course
• (May lead to collecting further information from other courses)
• Clarify how many mature female students there are on the course
• (All students above the age of 26 or all students are registered in MS and PhD programs are
considered as mature students)
•It is important to seek out and
critically appraise further sources of
information
• There may be work undertaken by other people on numbers of
students on particular courses at any one time
• Examining this work may prove of use
• The results already gathered could be compared with results
obtained by other people
• This information could be used to prove or disprove the
hypothesis
The Scientific
Method
• The scientific method is a process for experimentation that is used to
explore observations and answer questions.
• When direct experimentation is not possible, scientists modify the
scientific method.
• But even when modified, the goal remains the same:
• to discover cause and effect relationships by asking questions
• carefully gathering and examining the evidence
• seeing if all the available information can be combined in to a logical answer
• Keep in mind that new information or thinking might cause a scientist
to back up and repeat steps at any point during the process
• A process like the scientific method that involves such backing up and
repeating is called an iterative process
Ask a
Question
• The scientific method starts when you ask a question about something
that you observe:
• How, What, When, Who, Which, Why, or Where?
• Some supervisors require that the question be something you
can measure, preferably with a number.
• Characteristics of a good problem:
• Itshould be interesting enough to read about, then work on for the next few weeks.
• There should be at least three sources of written information on the subject. You
want to be able to build on the experience of others!
• The question should contain one factor (variable) that you can change in your
experiment and at least one factor (variable) that you can measure.
Do Background
Research
• Rather than starting from scratch in putting together a plan for
answering your question, use digital library and Internet research to
help you find the best way to do things.
• For detailed help with this step:
• Background Research Plan
• Finding Information
• Bibliography
• Review Paper
Construct a
Hypothesis
• A hypothesis is an educated guess about how things work.
• It is an attempt to answer your question with an explanation that can
be tested.
• A good hypothesis allows you to then make a prediction:
"If [I do this] , then [this] will happen.“
• State both your hypothesis and the resulting prediction you will be testing.
• Predictions must be easy to measure.
• Conducting a fair test is one of the most important ingredients of
doing good, scientifically valuable experiments.
• To ensure that your experiment is a fair test, you must change only
one factor at a time while keeping all other conditions the same.
• Scientists call the changing factors in an experiment variables.
Test Your Hypothesis by Doing an
Experiment
• Your experiment tests whether your prediction is accurate and your
hypothesis is supported or not.
• It is important for your experiment to be a fair test.
• You conduct a fair test by making sure that you change only one
factor at a time while keeping all other conditions the same.
• You should also repeat your experiments several times to make sure
that the first results weren't just an accident.
Analyze Your Data and Draw a
Conclusion
• Once your experiment is complete, you collect your measurements
and analyze them to see if they support your hypothesis or not.
• Scientists often find that their predictions were not accurate and their
hypothesis was not supported,
• Scientists may communicate the results of their experiment and then
go back and construct a new hypothesis and prediction based on the
information they learned during their experiment.
• This starts much of the process of the scientific method over again.
• Even if they find that their hypothesis was supported, they may want
to test it again in a new way.
Communicate Your
Results
• To complete your research you will communicate your results to
others in a research and on a poster.
• Professional scientists do almost exactly the same thing by publishing
their research in a scientific journal or by presenting their results in a
conference or during a talk at a scientific meeting.
• In case of a poster presentation, judges are interested in your findings
regardless of whether or not they support your original hypothesis.
Modified Scientific
Method
Existing Theories
and Observations Hypothesis Prediction
1 2 3

Hypothesis must Hypothesis must

be redefined be adjusted

Selection among Tests and New

Competing theories Observations
6 4
 Consistency Achieved

Existing Theories
Confirmed
(wit
hin
a
new
cont
ext)
or
Ne
w
The
ory
publ
ishe
d --
5
Literature Review
 What is a Literature
Review?
• When hearing this for the first time,
many wonder, “okay, what is this?”
• While the name may be unfamiliar, we actually
do papers like literature reviews a lot.
• It is not a discussion of creative literature.
• Simply put:
• A Literature Review surveys, summarizes, and links together
research (a.k.a., literature) in a given field.
•A literature review is a text of a scholarly
paper, which includes
• the current knowledge including substantive
findings
• theoretical and methodological contributions to
a particular topic
• Literature reviews are secondary sources, and
do not report new or original experimental
work.
• Literature reviews are a basis for research in
nearly every academic field
Annotated Bibliography

• Pleasenote that a Literature Review is NOT

an annotated bibliography.
• An annotated bibliography is the following:
• The full References/Bibliography/Works Cited citation for
a source
• A brief summation of the major points of the work
• A brief indication of how this research is helpful to
your project
• And at times, any indications of weaknesses that are
in the source that could compromise using it.
Annotated Bibliography
(cont.)
• An Annotated Bibliography is a list of sources, their
content, and how you will use them in a paper.
• A literature review is an ESSAY that covers
• Major findings of a field
• How they relate to or are dissimilar from other findings
• Major methodological and informational problems
Why?

• Literature
Reviews are considered important
for numerous reasons:
• They allow you to know just WHAT is out there;
• They allow you to demonstrate mastery over a subject;
• They allow you to locate your area of research
within the literature, such as “how does this fit in
with
everything else that has been written on this subject?”
What is a Literature
Review?
 Surveys scholarly sources relevant to a particular issue,
area of research, or theory
 Provides a description, summary, and critical evaluation of
each work
 Offers an overview of significant literature published on
a topic
 Gives future research context by telling the story of work
done so far
The Pragmatic
Why
• Of course, there is pragmatism in knowing just what
is out there, but here is the crux:
• Most master’s projects/theses, doctoral
dissertations, and journal articles will have
literature reviews.
• If you are in graduate program, learning how
to do literature reviews is imperative!
General
Guidelines to
Writing a Literature
Review
• You will need to pick out the research most
relevant to the topic you are studying
• Don’t attempt to cover everything written on your
topic
• You will use the studies in your literature review
as “evidence” that your research question is an
important one
 Types of Literature Reviews
P.ort of larger
a «ork

Selective €ioinpreheiisi›e
Long versus Short Literature
Reviews
• Literature reviews are divided between being long or
short literature reviews.
• Long literature reviews are those typically done for
theses, dissertations, and some journal articles.
• These literature reviews will have dozens of cited
studies. They will be organized by THEME.
• Shorter literature reviews usually have around 20 or
less cited studies. They are often organized by
AUTHOR, but the THEMATIC organization is still
considered better.
Themes vs.
authors
• What’s the difference?

• To organize by author, it is simply discussing one

author at a time.

• However, academic literature reviews are organized

by theme with the research synthesized together to
discuss the theme.
Functions of Literature Reviews

• Establish research context

• Show why the question is significant

• Illustrate and describe previous research, including gaps

and flaws

• Ensure that research has not been done before

• Understand the structure of the problem

• Demonstrate your knowledge of the field

• Synthesize previous perspectives and develop your

own perspective

• Point the way to future research

Organizing Your Literature
Review?
CHRONOLOGICAL:
• This is a common approach, especially for topics
that have been talked about for a long time and
have changed over their history.
COMPARISON TO PRESENT HYPOTHESIS:
• If your literature review is part of an empirical article or
meta-analysis, where you intend to present a
hypothesis and come to a conclusion
• You can organize the literature review to show the
articles that share or support your hypothesis,
and those that disagree with it.
PROMINENT AUTHORS:
• If a certain researcher started a field, and there are several
famous people who developed it more, a good approach can
be grouping the famous author/researchers and what each
is known to have said about the topic.
PROCESS FLOW:
• If your literature review centers around part of a
process, you may want to describe the stages in that
process and group your citations by different stages or
steps in that process.
Justifying yourself

• When writing a thesis or dissertation, it is important to demonstrate

how your research is integral to the field.

• Your literature review can help to justify that your

study/thesis/dissertation exists at all.

• You can do this in a few ways…

Justifying yourself…
• Your study/paper/thesis performs at least one
of the following:
• Closes gaps in the research;
• Tests an aspect of a theory;
• Replicates an important study;
• Retests a hypothesis with a new or
improved methodology;
• Resolves conflicts in the field;
• Creates original research (this is rare).
Getting
Started
• The first place to begin is to establish a GENERAL field of interest.

• You DO NOT have to narrow right away.

• This step is just to get the most basic idea about the field.
Some general
guidelines
• Start with the MOST RECENT and WORK BACKWARDS to the
oldest.
• Many books suggest using a five-year span from the present for
sufficient coverage.

• Read through abstracts to identify if an article would be good

• Believe it or not, some people actually start with a GOOGLE

search or even with WIKIPEDIA to get a general idea about a field.

• Look for MAJOR figures in the field and MAJOR studies/articles.

Narrowing

• All literature reviews will be FOCUSED.

• You will narrow down my topic through research
Narrowing
= Major works

C
A
= Major works
= Studies that rely on major works

C
A
= Major works
= Something new!
= Studies that rely on major works

A C
New!
Narrowing– How?
Aspect How?
Major works •Literature databases
•Instructor recommendations
•Cited work
Related works Citation searching:
•Web of Science
•Google Scholar
New information •Articles alerts/RSS feeds
•Tables of Contents

Put it all together, you have a literature review!

 Overview of the
Process

Topic Research and

Collect Information

Writing and RefWorks

revision
Work with
Articles and
Brain
 Topic

Initial topic won’t be your final topic!

Choose, explore, focus
Refine as you go based on:
Availability of research – too much?
too little?
Discovering new ideas
Writing progress
 Topic
Research and Collect Information

Search digital library

Find, evaluate, and select articles
 Topic Research and
Collect Information

 Save your work in a conceptual

citation manager. framework
 Read,
analyze,
synthesize
 Develop
your
 RefWorks

Work with
Articles and
Brain
 Topic Research and
Collect Information

Refine topic? RefWorks

 Use your citation
manager to stay
organized Work with
Articles and
Brain
 Topic Research and
Collect Information

Writing and RefWorks

revision
Work with
Articles and
Brain
Paraphrase as you
go
• There are numerous ways of jotting down
information for a literature review

• Some people take notes and come back to articles

•I recommend paraphrasing AS YOU GO.

Why as you
go?
• Thisis a good idea because you can do the
following:

1) Each article you find is ALREADY summarized, so you

WRITE AS YOU GO

2) You have a better chance of remembering something

and drawing connections
Some Tips for Writing
• Write as you go: don’t wait until you’ve finished
searching the literature
• Set some times to write regularly, and do it!
• Start with the easier sections (probably not the
introduction)
• Jot down notes and ideas and keep them handy
• Get feedback, and don’t take it too personally
• Aim for a style that is clear, simple, and
straightforward
General Principles: Option 1
• Do NOT just take notes—WRITE AS YOU
READ. This cuts down on 90% of your
workload.
• CITE AS YOU GO! You will not have to go back
to examine a source.
• You can either maintain separate sections
for EACH author OR you can create sections
that deal with similar ideas and place the
information within those sections.
• Let’s discuss the first one…
An example…
• After I have the articles paraphrased, I can then organize the information
by theme.
• Since I have read and paraphrased a lot of articles, I can begin to think
about how to organize the paper.
• Using this methodology, I can go through my ALREADY WRITTEN
paraphrased information, cut and paste information from different
authors, and then add transitions between the ideas to make the
paper flow.
Advantages

• This way of paraphrasing has a few advantages:

• Since I cite as I go, ALL of my citations are complete as I write
the paper;
• I have the ENTIRE article paraphrased;
• I can choose which information to include and which to
exclude;
• I can cut and paste ANY piece of information to any section I
want;
• By the time I bring the paper together, 90% of it is ALREADY
written.
• All I have left to do is organize the information, create
transitions and explanations where necessary, and write
the Introduction and Conclusion
Minimum information (Option
2)
• Regardless of whether you choose to paraphrase as you go OR NOT,
you will need at a minimum:
1) The FULL bibliographic/Reference page/Works Cited page citation
2) The methodology
3) The major findings
4) The areas of expansion
5) Weaknesses and strengths
Quantitative and
Qualitative
• Always note if the study was qualitative
or quantitative
• Note if study is experimental or non-
experimental
• If an experiment, how were subjects assigned
to test conditions?
• Cause-and-effect vs. correlation
• Reliability
• Validity
• Sampling, demographics, statistical significance
Managing Numerous Definitions

• Very often, you will encounter the same

concept defined in different ways by different
researchers.
• This is especially important in research as
how we define something determines how
we can measure it.
• Consider building tables for definitions so as
to keep track.
Creating the
Outline
• The good literature will start with a good outline.
• At a minimum, you will have:
1) An introduction that establishes the importance of the
topic, the scope of the review, and the organization of
the paper;
2) The major section headers and sub-sections that
follow the same organization as the organization
established in the introduction;
3) Summary of findings, implications of findings,
and discussion.
Other Guidelines

• It recommended that you:

• NOT use contractions;
• NOT use first person;
• ONLY use acronyms AFTER you have defined their meaning;
• Spell out numbers from 0-9 and use the numerals for all numbers
above 9;
• Avoid slang, colloquialisms, and idioms;
• Make sure that every source you cite in your paper is included
in the References page(s);
• Double-space ALL lines, number ALL pages; do not futz around
with margins;
• Be consistent with verb tenses.
• APA recommends past (discussed) or present perfect (have discussed) when
presenting results
• Chicago and MLA are a little more accepting of present tense
Expanding Scope

• As you research, you will begin to notice more connections.

• For longer literature reviews, this means looking up studies in new

areas of enquiry.
Drawing Connections

• This is a key step. When looking at these articles, begin to note

connections between studies.
• Note how authors discuss a particular field.
The Synthesis Matrix

• Tool to aid in writing a document showing synthesis

• Based on a grid

Concept 1 Concept 2 Concept 3 Concept 4

ABC, et al. xxxxx xxxxx

XYZ xxxxx xxxxx

LMN & IJK xxxx xxxxx

 Models of Paper Structures

“Stringing” Model: “Synthesis” Model:

Organization of a Simple Paper showing Synthesis of Sources and
Summary Paper Sequencing by Theme

• Introduction--Introduce context, topic,

• Introduction importance, research questions, overview
 Paragraph 1: Summary or  Theme A: Introduce concept or theme,
discuss/compare the relevant parts of
description of article 1 papers 1, 3, and 4
 Paragraph 2: Summary or  Theme B: Introduce concept or theme,
discuss/compare the relevant parts of
description of article 2 papers 2,4, and 5
 Paragraph 3: Summary or  Theme C: Introduce concept or theme,
discuss/compare the relevant parts of
description of article 3 papers 5 and 6
• …and on… • Final paragraphs --Summarize and
highlight conclusions, unresolved issues,
• Summary and conclusions identify possible next steps in research
and/or practice.
Introductions and Summaries

• Literature Review sections will be similarly

structured as they are in other types of
writing.
• For example, in other essays, the best sections
have introductions to the new topic area,
(typically) a review of the main points, and
the order of the presentation.
• A summary for each section is a good idea as
you can summarize complex research for
your reader.
• A summary is also a good place to comment
on the problems with the research.
Creating categories

• As you narrow down the research, the major categories you identify
will probably end up being the section headers for your paper.
Being specific with
References
• It is often tempting to make blanket statements and refer to
numerous authors at once.
• It is better to divide up blanket statements into smaller and more
manageable snippets.
Things to Look
for
• Let’s take a look at the sample provided to see how the authors
organize the paper.

• Keep an eye out for:

1) Introductions, conclusions, and summaries;
2) Major categories;
3) Citations;
4) Problems with the research
• Let’s use this time to ask specific questions about how to
craft literature reviews or any other concerns

HOW TO WRITE AN
ABSTRACT
AND CONCLUSION
Instructor: Abdul Hameed
Agenda
• WHAT IS AN ABSTRACT
• WHO WRITES IT
• FOR WHAT PURPOSES
• WHO READS IT
• DIFFERENT TYPES OF ABSTRACT
• WHAT TO INCLUDE
• WHAT NOT TO INCLUDE
• WHAT IS CONCLUSION
• WHAT TO WRITE IN CONCLUSION
• WHAT NOT TO WRITE IN CONCLUSION
• FEW STRATEGIES TO TAKE INTO CONSIDERATION
WHAT IS AN
ABSTRACT?
• A short, self-contained, powerful summary of
an article, paper or thesis;
• Length: between 150 and 250 words;
• Layout: usually one single paragraph; font size is
different from the main text;
• Position: usually at the beginning of the paper (but
it can appear elsewhere, e.g. in book of abstracts or
on-line);
WHAT IS AN ABSTRACT?
(continued)
• An abstract is an original document, not a collection
of quotations taken from the text it summarizes, i.e.
it must be able to stand alone.

• It does not contain vague statements which force

the reader to refer to the main text.

• An abstract is a condensed version of a full scientific

paper.
Four C's of Abstract
Writing

• Complete — it covers the major parts of the

project/study
• Concise — it contains no excess wordiness or
unnecessary information.
• Clear — it is readable, well organized, and does not
contain any jargon.
• Cohesive — it flows smoothly between the parts.
WHO WRITES
IT?
• Usually the author of the paper, because they have
a first hand knowledge their piece of research;

• Sometimes professional writers, who abstract books

and articles for a wide audience.

• It is supposed to sell your work

• Convice the reader / reviewer that it is interesting

FOR WHAT
PURPOSES?
• To persuade the reader to see the full text

• To help readers decide if the article is relevant for

their purposes

• To answer a call of paper in a conference

• To make it possible for your piece of research to

appear in online publication databases (indexing)
WHO READS
IT?
• Same-field professionals (e.g. linguists,
psychologists, biologists, scientists, engineers,
researchers) looking for further information

• Teachers having to evaluate students’ achievements

• Students charting research in a given area

DIFFERENT TYPES OF ABSTRACT

• Abstracts are genre-sensitive (i.e. components vary

according to discipline)
• an abstract of a social science or scientific work may
contain the scope, purpose, results, and contents of
the work.
• an abstract of a humanities work may contain the
thesis, background, and conclusion of the larger
work.
• An abstract is not a review, nor does it evaluate the
work being abstracted.
DIFFERENT TYPES OF ABSTRACT
(continued)
• Abstracts are usually divided into two main
categories:
• DESCRIPTIVE AND INFORMATIVE
• Descriptive abstracts describe:
• What the text is about
• The issues or problems explored
• The purpose and methodology of the research
• Informative abstracts describe:
• What the text is about
• The issues or problems explored
• The purpose and methodology of the research
• The results
• The conclusion and recommendations
• Descriptive abstracts are often written before a
project is completed;
• Emphasis is placed on the problem and method;
• They may be required for conference paper
proposals or for progress reports;
• Informative abstracts are written after a project has
been completed;
• Emphasis is placed on the results and conclusion of
the project.
• The format of your abstract will depend on the
work being abstracted;
• An abstract of a scientific research paper will
contain elements not found in an abstract of a
literature article, and vice versa;
• However, all abstracts share several mandatory
components.
WHAT TO
INCLUDE
• Reason for writing:

• What is the importance of the research?

• Why would a reader be interested in the larger work?

• Problem:

• What problem does this work attempt to solve?

• What is the scope of the project?
• What is the main argument/thesis/claim?
WHAT TO INCLUDE
(continued)
• Methodology:
• One or two sentences
• How did you go about solving the problem?
• Major techniques you used to find the results

• An abstract of a scientific work may include specific

models or approaches used in the larger study.

• Other abstracts may describe the types of

evidence used in the research (e.g. qualitative
interviews, book reviews, etc.)
• Results:

• An abstract of a scientific work may include specific

data that indicates the results of the project.
• Other abstracts may discuss the findings in a
more general way.

• Implications:

• What changes should be implemented as a result of

the findings of the work?
• How does this work add to the body of knowledge
on the topic?
• To put it simple:
• What the author did;
• How the author did it;
• What the author found;
• What the author concluded.
WHAT NOT TO
INCLUDE
• Information not contained in the original work;
• References to other work;
• Quotations from the original work or from
other works;
• Lengthy explanations of words and concepts;
• Unexplained acronyms or abbreviations;
• Tables and maps.
ANALYSIS OF AN
INFORMATIVE
ABSTRACT
1. Introducing purpose of paper – this part of the
abstract gives a precise indication of the
author’s intention or thesis.
2. Describing methodology – in this part of the
abstract the author gives information on data,
procedures or methods used
3. Summarizing results – in this part of the abstract
the author mentions his observations , and findings.
He can also suggest solutions if any.
4. Presenting conclusions –in this part of the
abstract the author interprets results and includes
implications and/or applications of the present
findings.
Why Abstracts Not
Accepted
Most common deficiencies encountered (in order of frequency):
• Poor presentation
• Weak discussion
• Lack of originality
• Poor methods
• Inappropriate statistical analysis
• Inadequate results
How to
Improve
• Writing is an art, you can learn
• Read published manuscript and abstract carefully in major journals
and focus on detail
• Practice; practice; practice
• Get help from your mentors and colleagues
• Attend classes in writing skills/read books
Some Writing
Tips
• Active voice is preferable to passive voice
• “We studied 15 patients with Cancer.” is much
better than “Fifteen patients with Cancer were
studied.”
• Always use the full term before you refer to it
by acronym [for example, Machine Learning
Algorithm(MLA)]
• Write only one thought per sentence
• Eliminate unnecessary words
• Ensure that verb tenses are consistent and correct
Conclusion

• Conclusions are often the most difficult part of an

essay to write, and many writers feel that they have
nothing left to say after having written the paper.
• A writer needs to keep in mind that the conclusion
is often what a reader remembers best.
• Your conclusion should be the best part of your
paper.
A conclusion should:
• stress the importance of the thesis statement, your
topic question!
• give the essay or paper a sense of completeness,
and
• leave a final impression on the reader
The Closing or Conclusion
• The closing paragraph is the second most important
paragraph in your essay.
• It is the paragraph that leaves the final impression
on your reader.
• It completes the circle of information and lets your
reader know you have concluded discussing the
points about your topic
• It is closely linked to the opening paragraph, but
different.
 WHAT DOES THE CONCLUSION
DO?
1. It summarizes the essay
2. It shows you proved the point you set out to make
3. It gives the reader a sense of completion
4. It leaves the reader remembering your main point
Wait, that sounds kind of like the abstract or introduction!

So, what is the difference between

the abstract/introductory paragraph & the concluding
paragraph?

The difference is in the approach to the topic.

Abstract/Introduction vs
Conclusion
Think of these two paragraphs as funnels, one leading
toward the body of your essay, while the other leads
the reader away from the body.

• The introduction begins with a general

approach to the topic and then moves
toward the more specific aspect(s) of it

• The conclusion begins with the more

specific aspect(s) and moves toward the
general topic of your essay
A conclusion has contents
• Four parts of an effective conclusion:
• REVIEW
• CONNECT
• EXTEND
• ECHO
Review

• Review your thesis by rewording your key point and

the conclusions that have been drawn.
• Highlight what you think is the most important,
convincing evidence or point in your paper--what
you want the reader to remember most.
• If you are writing about literature, this is a good
place to include the author and title.
Connect

• Considering all of your evidence and examples,

what common thread or theme do you notice about
your evidence?
• What is the greater significance of that common
thread or theme?
• What key conclusion or impression do you
most want your reader to leave with?
Extend

• How does this connection go beyond your topic and

extend to the real world?
• When writing about literature, consider discussing a
connection to a universal theme--some larger truth
about human experience which is revealed by the
work.
• In essence, what is the big picture you’re looking at
as you write your paper?
Echo

• This is the hook of the conclusion.

• The compelling thought or question you leave your
reader to ponder because the content of your essay
drew them to think deeply!
When to Write a Conclusion

• Students should always align their introduction

and conclusion paragraphs to create a unified,
purposeful essay.
• Reread the introduction paragraph and body
paragraphs
• Revisit Points in thesis (don’t simply rewrite them!)
• Write a separate sentence about each one making a
sincere conclusion about each Point
 CONCLUSION

What main point did you want to make

in your essay?

1. Did you make that point?

2. Summarize it in your conclusion.
3. Often you can use the abstract and introductory
paragraph as a guide.

This will help you come full circle and give your reader a
sense of completion.
 Perhaps you began your essay by saying:

"There are three classes at school that I absolutely can’t wait to go

to every day."

Then you might make this the first sentence

of your conclusion:

"Gym, Math, and Art are the three classes I look forward to the
most."
Do you see how the first is more general and the last is more specific?
 Other Ways to Summarize the Essay's Main
Points:
Refer briefly to the topic of each paragraph you wrote.

Leave readers with something to think about.

Suggest something readers can do about what they've

just read.
HOW TO STRUCTURE THE
FINAL PARAGRAPH
1. Topic sentence: repeat the ideas in your
thesis statement, but with deeper
understanding

2. Supporting sentences: summarize the main

points in the body of your essay

3. Closing sentence: connect back to the

introduction to "clinch" the ideas in the essay,
showing their importance
CONCLUSION

What if a new idea tries to sneak into that

final paragraph?

If it is really important, give it a paragraph of its

own in the body of the essay.

The concluding paragraph is not the place to

introduce new information or make more
points about the topic.
The "So What?" Tip
for Writing an Effective Conclusion
After writing your topic sentence, ask
yourself: "So what? Why is that important?"

Your next sentence should explain why.

Then ask yourself again:
"So what? Why is that important?"

And so on.
Example of the "So What?" Method
of Starting the Concluding Paragraph:
"Education is very important in society."

"So what? Why is it important?"

"It gives all citizens an equal start."

"So what? Why is that important?"

Can you write an answer?

HOW TO WRITE A GOOD CONCLUSION
Create a new meaning
• You don't have to give new information to
create a new meaning.
• By demonstrating how your ideas work
together, you can create a new picture.
• Often the sum of the paper is worth more
than its parts.
Synthesize, don't summarize

• Don't simply repeat things that were in your

paper.
• They have read it.
• Show them how the points you made and the
support and examples you used were not
random, but fit together.
Redirect your readers
• Give your reader something to think about,
perhaps a way to use your paper in the "real"
world.
• If your introduction went from general to specific,
make your conclusion go from specific to general.
• Think globally.
CONCLUSION
Strategies for Ending the Concluding
Paragraph:
1. Perhaps surprising insight from the materials
you researched.
2. Suggest some action to take or a solution to
an issue.
3. Bring up questions for further study.
4. Point out broader consequences of the
points you've made.
 What NOT to Include in the Concluding
Paragraph:

1. Overused phrases: "in conclusion," "in

summary," "in closing"

2. A new idea or subtopic

3. Supporting evidence or details (these should

be in the body of the essay)
A conclusion should stress the importance of the thesis
statement, give the paper a sense of completeness, and
leave a final impression on the reader.

Formulating and clarifying the

research topic
 Agenda

• Generate ideas that will help in the choice

of a suitable research topic
• Identify the quality of a good research topic
• Turn research ideas into a research question, aims
(s) and objectives
 What is research paper
A research paper analyzes a perspective or
argues a point

Your finished research paper should

present your own thinking backed up by
others' ideas and information
Research Topic may be:

Given to you, meaning already

determined

Or

You are given the freedom to choose

one
Formulating and clarifying your research
topic
The important steps

• Identifying the attributes of a good research topic

• Generating ideas that help you select a suitable

topic

• Turning ideas into clear research questions, aims

and objectives

• Writing your research proposal

 Stages of Formulating
Research Topics

Research Research Research

Research Question Aim(s) Objective
Ideas
 Characteristics of a good
research idea
• Interested to the researcher
• Capability to undertake the research (Access
to the data)
• Feasible
• The topic can be linked to the theory
• Clearly defining and relating
research questions and objectives
• Consider your career goals
 Techniques for generating
ideas
Rational Thinking Creative Thinking
Examining your own Keeping a notebook of
strengths and ideas
interests
Looking at past Exploring personal
project titles preferences using
past projects
Discussion Relevance trees
 Techniques for generating
Searching Brainstorming
the literature
 Keeping a notebook of ideas
• noting down any interesting research
ideas as you think of them and, of equal
importance.
 Exploring personal
preferences
using past projects
• Past project reports online if possible
• Select six projects that you like.
• For each of these six projects, note down
your first thoughts in response to three
questions:
– What appeals to you about the project?

– What is good about the project?

– Why is the project good?
• Select three projects that you do not like.
For each of these three projects, note
down your first thoughts in response to
three:
– What do you dislike about the project?
– What is bad about the project?
– Why is the project bad?
 Relevance Trees
• The use of relevance trees is similar to
that of mind mapping
• Example:
– Community Medicine
• Research Methods
– Study types
 Brainstorming

• A problem-solving technique that can

also be used to generate and refine
research ideas.
• It is best undertaken with a group of people.
• Define your problem
• Ask for suggestions
• Record all suggestions, observing the following rules:
– No suggestion should be criticized or evaluated in any way before
all ideas have been considered
– All suggestions, however wild, should be recorded and considered
– As many suggestions as possible should be recorded

• Review all the suggestions and explore

what is meant by each.
• Analyze the list of suggestions and decide which applied to
you most as research ideas and why?
Identifying a research problem
• Practitioners in the field may encounter
difficulties or problems in their daily work
that need to be researched
• Graduate students may have to search to
find a “problem” they can research for their
thesis or class project
• Whatever the situation, the identification
and selection of a research problem is the
first step in the research process.
 Problem
• A question raised for inquiry,
consideration or solution
• An intricate unsettled question
 What you do with problems
• Ignore them
• Talk about them
• Try to solve them
 The research area should serve
some goal

The primary goal of a research

per/ thesis is to get a research paper/ the

A proposition stated or put forward for consideration.

The importance of your decision
Of all the decisions you'll make as an emerging scientist, non
• The research you do as a graduate student will
set the stage for your later research

• While it is unlikely that your later research will be a

straightforward extension of your dissertation, it is
also unlikely that it will be completely outside your
field.

• The knowledge, expertise, and skills that you gain

early on will form the foundation for your later
investigations.
 Factors to consider
• Topic should be interesting to
– You
• Otherwise it will be difficult to stay focused,
motivated, and convincing other people that your
research is interesting
• By the time you are done, you may really be tired of the
topic
– Your advisor
– The research community
 Factors to Consider

• Feasibility of the project

• How much time do you have available
– Do you really want to do a longitudinal study
that will take 3/7 years to complete for a
MS/PhD thesis?
– How difficult is it.
– Are data available?
– How much will it cost?
 Attributes of a good research
topic
• Capability: is it feasible?
– Is the topic something you are really
interested in?
– Do you have, or can you develop the
necessary research skills?
– Is it achievable within the available time?
– Is it achievable within the financial resources?
– Can you access to the data?
 Attributes of a good research
topic
• Appropriateness: is it worthwhile?
– Is the topic meet the standards set by
the institution?
– Is the research topic contain issues that have
a clear link to theory?
– Able to state your research question
and objectives clearly?
– Will the proposed research be able to provide
a clear understanding of the topic?
 Where to get ideas from?
• You can gather topic ideas from a variety
of sources
• Supervisor’s Suggestions
– Your supervisor may have many suggestions
based on their own research in an area for
your research project
– Can provide detailed insight into the
nature of any problem they suggest
• Readings
– Preliminary reading in general
encyclopedias, newspapers, or magazines
– Books & Bibliographies in the back of books on your
topics
– Journals/Conferences – Electronic databases
• Internet
• Use this source with caution
• You must evaluate Internet sources for credibility
• What others are doing?
– What areas other research groups are working on?
• Visit their web pages
• Go through the list of MS/PhD theses

– Replicate Research with modifications

• Changing some of the settings of previous research often
leads to new and sometime unexpected results

– Apply an existing technique to a new domain

• This might be using a modified algorithm to manipulate
data in another field in order to achieve a new result
• What others are doing?
– Address Contradiction and Ambiguity
• Find results that contradict each other
• Contradictions may be reported by two or more
researchers exploring an existing problem
• Finding ways of explaining the contradictions
requires research

– Challenge Findings
• If you believe some one else’s result may be incorrect,
you may attempt to disprove their results formally as
your research effort.
 Refine your topic
• Refine Your Topic From Broad to Narrow Concepts

• You can narrow your topic by identifying ideas or concepts

included in a broader topic.

• For example, you would like to write a 2-page paper on

the topic of violence.
– But violence is such a large concept that it would be difficult to
write an all-encompassing paper.
– It would be best to narrow this topic down.

• Narrower topics for the subject violence would be

topics such as: violence in the media, domestic
 Refine your topic
violence, or gun control.
 Checklist
1. Can it be enthusiastically pursued?
– It is important that you pick a topic you
are enthusiastic about.
2. Can interest be sustained by it?
– The topic should interest you over the long run.
– Experiments won't go right; equipment will fail; data
from other sources won't arrive on time (or at all);
others will do work that competes with your
research.
 Checklist
– During these times you'll need courage and fortitude.
 Checklist
3. Is the problem solvable?
– The problem should be solvable in a reasonable period of time.

4. Is it worth doing?
– The research community should be interested in your results.

5. Will it lead to other research problems?

– The topic should not lead you to a dead end. There should be some
interesting future work.

6. Is it manageable in size?
– Your supervisor will help you determine how to make your
dissertation original and publishable, yet also
manageable
 Check list
7. What is the potential for making an original
contribution to the literature in the field?
– Potential Publications

8. If the problem is solved, will the results be

reviewed well by scholars in your field?
– Not only you should think that you topic is a good idea.

9. Are you, or will you become, competent to solve it?

– To solve the problem you'll also need to develop basic knowledge and
technical understanding, relevant skills and experimental expertise

10. Will the necessary research prepare you in an area of

demand or promise for the future?
– Not only look on your current goal, look a step further
 Stating the problem –
Famous first words
• The current study investigates the relationship between . . .
• The focus of this study will be on . . .
• The main purpose of this study is . . .
• The objective of this research is to determine . . .
• The present study is designed to examine . . .
• The primary goal of this study is . . .
• The primary concern of this research is . . .
• The principal objective of this study is . . .
• The purpose of this study is to address the problem of . . .
• The purpose of the present study is . . .
• The purpose of this study is to advance understanding of . .
• The purpose of this study is to evaluate . . .
• The purpose of this study is to explore the . . .
 Stating the problem –
Famous first words
• The purpose of this study is to examine and better understand
the effects of . . .
• The purpose of this study is twofold. First, this study will
assess the . . .
• This research concentrates on . . .
• The research problem for this study is to describe the . . .
• The specific objectives of the present study are . . .
• This study examines the relationships among . . .
• There are several reasons for inquiring into . . .
• This thesis explores the idea . . .
Evaluating the problem
statement
• Research statement is written clearly
• Problem stated in grammatically
complete sentences
• Problem has clearly stated limitations.
• Statement has potential for leading to
important results
• The statement will lead to the analysis of data.
• Problem has been reviewed by someone
else who provided feedback.
 Examples of research topics
• “Role of exercise ECG test in coronary
artery disease”.
• “Role of exercise ECG test in determining
the extent of coronary artery disease in
comparison to coronary angiography”.
Writing a research proposal
Think of a research problem and write your prob
 Writing research questions

Write research questions that are

• Consistent with expected standards

• Able to produce clear conclusions

• At the right level ( not too difficult )

• Not too descriptive

• Use the ‘Goldilocks Test’ Not too big, too small or too
hot

• Just right questions are those that are right for

investigation at this time, by this researcher in this
setting
 Turning ideas into research
questions
• Writing research questions (RQ):
• A research question:
– state the purpose of your research project
– guides you through the process of research.
• Reflects the aim (objectives)/ or the
purpose of the study.
 Writing research questions
Which of these questions cannot be easily or fully researched
Do the economies that result from a trash burning plant
outweigh or not outweigh its environmental impact
• It is researchable.

• You'd have to sift through a lot of information, both pro

and con, valid and invalid, in order to choose the best
information to answer the research question and
support your own point of view, but the point is that
there is at least enough information to sift through.
 Which of these questions cannot be easily or fully researched
Does McDonald's or KFC make a better burger?
It is not researchable as it is worded, since it has no concrete
meaning.
– What does "better" mean?
– Better in terms of nutrition?
– Better tasting?
– Better value?
– Fewer calories?
– Better for making your kids happy?
This question could become researchable only if you define
its terms.
 Select what you think is the best research question

A. What marketing strategies does the Coca-Cola company

currently apply?

B. What is the Coca-Cola company's future marketing plan?

C. What marketing strategies has the Coca-Cola

company used in the past?
A. Question "a" is the best research question. Your research
to answer this question may include observation of print,
television, and radio advertisements as well as research
into various current marketing theories and strategies.
Both types of research are "do-able," and the question is
focused enough to yield a fully-developed research
paper.

B. Question "b" is very broad as well as being

unresearchable--it's unlikely that Coca-Cola personnel
will reveal their marketing plan.

C. Question "c" may be too broad as well, since "the

past" covers a lot of time, especially since the Coca-
Cola company was incorporated in 1919
 Select what you think is the best research question

A. What impact has deregulation had on the airline industry?

B. What percentage of commercial airline crashes

were traced to negligent maintenance during the
10 years immediately preceding and following
deregulation?

C. What impact has deregulation had on commercial airline

safety
A. Question "a" is too broad, once you get into the
research, since deregulation may have had impact on
safety, costs, passenger fees, ability to comply with
government regulations, and many other areas of the
airline industry, too many to deal with in depth in one
research paper

B. Question "b" is too narrow. It can be answered with

simple percentages and cannot be developed into a
full research paper.

C. Question "c" is the best research question. You may

use statistics such as question "b" would uncover as
you answer question "c," which is focused enough to
allow you to research the question in some depth yet
broad enough to allow you to consider the various
effects of deregulation on airline safety.
 Turning ideas into research
projects
Research Ideas Research Questions
Health Education and Internet How does the use of health/ medical
websites affect education of people?
Ethics and Surgery How the informed consent is taken from
preoperative women undergo Caesarian
section?
Motivation and Uses of drugs What are the factors determine the use
of drugs made by (X) company?
Advertising and Share prices How does running a TV campaign design
to boost the company’s image and affect
share prices?
Job Recruitment via Internet How effective is recruiting for a new
staff via Internet in comparison with
traditional hiring methods?
 Turning ideas into research
projects

Useful techniques

• Start with a general focus question

• Use the ‘Russian Doll’ principle to reach the essence

of the question

• Discuss areas of interest with your instructor

 Turning Research questions
into Research Aim
• Research aims;
– Aim is to try to achieve something. (Oxford
Dictionary)
– Use your research question as a base from
which you write a set of research aim.
– Aims are more generally acceptable to the
research community as evidence of the
researcher’s purpose and direction
 Turning Research questions and Research Aim
into Research Objectives

• Research objectives:
– The aim is the overall driving force of the
research and the objectives are the means
by which you intend to achieve the aims.
– It is recommend that personal objectives
may be added to the list of research
objectives.
 Turning ideas into research projects

Writing clear research objectives

• Check your examining body’s preferences for

stated objectives

• Use a general focus question to achieve precise

objectives
 Include SMART Personal objectives

S pecific

M easurable

A chievable

R ealistic

T imely
 The importance of theory

• Asking for opinions and gathering facts – 'what' questions

(descriptive research)

• Using questions that go beyond description and

require analysis – 'why' questions
In order to:

Explain phenomena Analyse relationships

Predict outcomes Compare and generalise

 Research Question vs Research
Aim vs Research Objectives
Research Question Research Aim Research Objectives
How does the use of To determine the To measure the
health/ medical websites effectiveness of the use of proportion of doctors
affect education of health/ medical websites have internet access
doctors? on doctors’ health at home and/or
education levels in -- from office.
the period between-- & --.
Research Question Research Aim Research Objectives
How the informed To describe the process of To measure the frequency
consent is taken from preoperative informed of women who give
preoperative women consent among women informed consent .
undergo Caesarian undergo CS in – from– to To know the
section? --. demographic profile of
women undergo CS.
 Writing your research
proposal

Purposes of the research proposal

• To organise your ideas

• To convince your audience

• To contract with your client (your tutor)

• To meet ethical requirements

 Content of your research proposal ( ) 1

• Title - likely to change during the process

• Background - context within the literature

• Research questions and objectives - what you seek

to achieve
• Method - can be in two parts: research design and
data collection

• Timescale and Resources - (finance, data access,

equipment)

• References - include some key literature sources

 Evaluating research
proposals

• How the components of the proposal fit together

• Viability of the proposal

• Absence of preconceived ideas

 • Feasible: Adequate expertise and competency, affordable in time and
F money, manageable in scope

• Interesting: getting the answer intrigues the investigator, supervisor,

I policy maker ...

• Novel: generates new knowledge; confirms, refutes or extends

N previous findings

• Ethical: avoid plagiarism and issues considered unacceptable or

E immoral in a given society

• Relevant: addresses current top priority - technical, policy issues or is

R a stepping block to future research

FINER criteria for a good research question and objective

 Assignment
• Formulate your own research problem
according to the standards discussed in
today’s lecture.
• You will submit it in writing in the next class.
• Please keep a soft copy with you as this will
form a part of your complete research
proposal, which you will be asked to submit at
the end of this course and that will be your
final assignment.
 Summary

The best research topics

• Formulate and clarify the topic

• Meet the requirements of the examining body

• Use a variety of techniques when generating

research ideas

• Are focused on clear questions based on relevant

literature
 The best research topics

• Are theory dependent

• Have a proposal containing organised ideas

Tell the reader:

• What will be done and why

• How it will be achieved

Formulating and clarifying the
research topic
 Agenda

• Generate ideas that will help in the choice

of a suitable research topic
• Identify the quality of a good research topic
• Turn research ideas into a research question, aims
(s) and objectives
 What is research paper
A research paper analyzes a perspective or
argues a point

Your finished research paper should

present your own thinking backed up by
others' ideas and information
Research Topic may be:

Given to you, meaning already

determined

Or

You are given the freedom to choose

one
Formulating and clarifying your research
topic
The important steps

• Identifying the attributes of a good research topic

• Generating ideas that help you select a suitable

topic

• Turning ideas into clear research questions, aims

and objectives

• Writing your research proposal

 Stages of Formulating
Research Topics

Research Research Research

Research Question Aim(s) Objective
Ideas
 Characteristics of a good
research idea
• Interested to the researcher
• Capability to undertake the research (Access
to the data)
• Feasible
• The topic can be linked to the theory
• Clearly defining and relating
research questions and objectives
• Consider your career goals
 Techniques for generating
ideas
Rational Thinking Creative Thinking
Examining your own Keeping a notebook of
strengths and ideas
interests
Looking at past Exploring personal
project titles preferences using
past projects
Discussion Relevance trees
 Techniques for generating
Searching Brainstorming
the literature
 Keeping a notebook of ideas
• noting down any interesting research
ideas as you think of them and, of equal
importance.
 Exploring personal
preferences
using past projects
• Past project reports online if possible
• Select six projects that you like.
• For each of these six projects, note down
your first thoughts in response to three
questions:
– What appeals to you about the project?

– What is good about the project?

– Why is the project good?
• Select three projects that you do not like.
For each of these three projects, note
down your first thoughts in response to
three:
– What do you dislike about the project?
– What is bad about the project?
– Why is the project bad?
 Relevance Trees
• The use of relevance trees is similar to
that of mind mapping
• Example:
– Community Medicine
• Research Methods
– Study types
 Brainstorming

• A problem-solving technique that can

also be used to generate and refine
research ideas.
• It is best undertaken with a group of people.
• Define your problem
• Ask for suggestions
• Record all suggestions, observing the following rules:
– No suggestion should be criticized or evaluated in any way before
all ideas have been considered
– All suggestions, however wild, should be recorded and considered
– As many suggestions as possible should be recorded

• Review all the suggestions and explore

what is meant by each.
• Analyze the list of suggestions and decide which applied to
you most as research ideas and why?
Identifying a research problem
• Practitioners in the field may encounter
difficulties or problems in their daily work
that need to be researched
• Graduate students may have to search to
find a “problem” they can research for their
thesis or class project
• Whatever the situation, the identification
and selection of a research problem is the
first step in the research process.
 Problem
• A question raised for inquiry,
consideration or solution
• An intricate unsettled question
 What you do with problems
• Ignore them
• Talk about them
• Try to solve them
 The research area should serve
some goal

The primary goal of a research

per/ thesis is to get a research paper/ the

A proposition stated or put forward for consideration.

The importance of your decision
Of all the decisions you'll make as an emerging scientist, non
• The research you do as a graduate student will
set the stage for your later research

• While it is unlikely that your later research will be a

straightforward extension of your dissertation, it is
also unlikely that it will be completely outside your
field.

• The knowledge, expertise, and skills that you gain

early on will form the foundation for your later
investigations.
 Factors to consider
• Topic should be interesting to
– You
• Otherwise it will be difficult to stay focused,
motivated, and convincing other people that your
research is interesting
• By the time you are done, you may really be tired of the
topic
– Your advisor
– The research community
 Factors to Consider

• Feasibility of the project

• How much time do you have available
– Do you really want to do a longitudinal study
that will take 3/7 years to complete for a
MS/PhD thesis?
– How difficult is it.
– Are data available?
– How much will it cost?
 Attributes of a good research
topic
• Capability: is it feasible?
– Is the topic something you are really
interested in?
– Do you have, or can you develop the
necessary research skills?
– Is it achievable within the available time?
– Is it achievable within the financial resources?
– Can you access to the data?
 Attributes of a good research
topic
• Appropriateness: is it worthwhile?
– Is the topic meet the standards set by
the institution?
– Is the research topic contain issues that have
a clear link to theory?
– Able to state your research question
and objectives clearly?
– Will the proposed research be able to provide
a clear understanding of the topic?
 Where to get ideas from?
• You can gather topic ideas from a variety
of sources
• Supervisor’s Suggestions
– Your supervisor may have many suggestions
based on their own research in an area for
your research project
– Can provide detailed insight into the
nature of any problem they suggest
• Readings
– Preliminary reading in general
encyclopedias, newspapers, or magazines
– Books & Bibliographies in the back of books on your
topics
– Journals/Conferences – Electronic databases
• Internet
• Use this source with caution
• You must evaluate Internet sources for credibility
• What others are doing?
– What areas other research groups are working on?
• Visit their web pages
• Go through the list of MS/PhD theses

– Replicate Research with modifications

• Changing some of the settings of previous research often
leads to new and sometime unexpected results

– Apply an existing technique to a new domain

• This might be using a modified algorithm to manipulate
data in another field in order to achieve a new result
• What others are doing?
– Address Contradiction and Ambiguity
• Find results that contradict each other
• Contradictions may be reported by two or more
researchers exploring an existing problem
• Finding ways of explaining the contradictions
requires research

– Challenge Findings
• If you believe some one else’s result may be incorrect,
you may attempt to disprove their results formally as
your research effort.
 Refine your topic
• Refine Your Topic From Broad to Narrow Concepts

• You can narrow your topic by identifying ideas or concepts

included in a broader topic.

• For example, you would like to write a 2-page paper on

the topic of violence.
– But violence is such a large concept that it would be difficult to
write an all-encompassing paper.
– It would be best to narrow this topic down.

• Narrower topics for the subject violence would be

topics such as: violence in the media, domestic
 Refine your topic
violence, or gun control.
 Checklist
1. Can it be enthusiastically pursued?
– It is important that you pick a topic you
are enthusiastic about.
2. Can interest be sustained by it?
– The topic should interest you over the long run.
– Experiments won't go right; equipment will fail; data
from other sources won't arrive on time (or at all);
others will do work that competes with your
research.
 Checklist
– During these times you'll need courage and fortitude.
 Checklist
3. Is the problem solvable?
– The problem should be solvable in a reasonable period of time.

4. Is it worth doing?
– The research community should be interested in your results.

5. Will it lead to other research problems?

– The topic should not lead you to a dead end. There should be some
interesting future work.

6. Is it manageable in size?
– Your supervisor will help you determine how to make your
dissertation original and publishable, yet also
manageable
 Check list
7. What is the potential for making an original
contribution to the literature in the field?
– Potential Publications

8. If the problem is solved, will the results be

reviewed well by scholars in your field?
– Not only you should think that you topic is a good idea.

9. Are you, or will you become, competent to solve it?

– To solve the problem you'll also need to develop basic knowledge and
technical understanding, relevant skills and experimental expertise

10. Will the necessary research prepare you in an area of

demand or promise for the future?
– Not only look on your current goal, look a step further
 Stating the problem –
Famous first words
• The current study investigates the relationship between . . .
• The focus of this study will be on . . .
• The main purpose of this study is . . .
• The objective of this research is to determine . . .
• The present study is designed to examine . . .
• The primary goal of this study is . . .
• The primary concern of this research is . . .
• The principal objective of this study is . . .
• The purpose of this study is to address the problem of . . .
• The purpose of the present study is . . .
• The purpose of this study is to advance understanding of . .
• The purpose of this study is to evaluate . . .
• The purpose of this study is to explore the . . .
 Stating the problem –
Famous first words
• The purpose of this study is to examine and better understand
the effects of . . .
• The purpose of this study is twofold. First, this study will
assess the . . .
• This research concentrates on . . .
• The research problem for this study is to describe the . . .
• The specific objectives of the present study are . . .
• This study examines the relationships among . . .
• There are several reasons for inquiring into . . .
• This thesis explores the idea . . .
Evaluating the problem
statement
• Research statement is written clearly
• Problem stated in grammatically
complete sentences
• Problem has clearly stated limitations.
• Statement has potential for leading to
important results
• The statement will lead to the analysis of data.
• Problem has been reviewed by someone
else who provided feedback.
 Examples of research topics
• “Role of exercise ECG test in coronary
artery disease”.
• “Role of exercise ECG test in determining
the extent of coronary artery disease in
comparison to coronary angiography”.
Writing a research proposal
Think of a research problem and write your prob
 Writing research questions

Write research questions that are

• Consistent with expected standards

• Able to produce clear conclusions

• At the right level ( not too difficult )

• Not too descriptive

• Use the ‘Goldilocks Test’ Not too big, too small or too
hot

• Just right questions are those that are right for

investigation at this time, by this researcher in this
setting
 Turning ideas into research
questions
• Writing research questions (RQ):
• A research question:
– state the purpose of your research project
– guides you through the process of research.
• Reflects the aim (objectives)/ or the
purpose of the study.
 Writing research questions
Which of these questions cannot be easily or fully researched
Do the economies that result from a trash burning plant
outweigh or not outweigh its environmental impact
• It is researchable.

• You'd have to sift through a lot of information, both pro

and con, valid and invalid, in order to choose the best
information to answer the research question and
support your own point of view, but the point is that
there is at least enough information to sift through.
 Which of these questions cannot be easily or fully researched
Does McDonald's or KFC make a better burger?
It is not researchable as it is worded, since it has no concrete
meaning.
– What does "better" mean?
– Better in terms of nutrition?
– Better tasting?
– Better value?
– Fewer calories?
– Better for making your kids happy?
This question could become researchable only if you define
its terms.
 Select what you think is the best research question

A. What marketing strategies does the Coca-Cola company

currently apply?

B. What is the Coca-Cola company's future marketing plan?

C. What marketing strategies has the Coca-Cola

company used in the past?
A. Question "a" is the best research question. Your research
to answer this question may include observation of print,
television, and radio advertisements as well as research
into various current marketing theories and strategies.
Both types of research are "do-able," and the question is
focused enough to yield a fully-developed research
paper.

B. Question "b" is very broad as well as being

unresearchable--it's unlikely that Coca-Cola personnel
will reveal their marketing plan.

C. Question "c" may be too broad as well, since "the

past" covers a lot of time, especially since the Coca-
Cola company was incorporated in 1919
 Select what you think is the best research question

A. What impact has deregulation had on the airline industry?

B. What percentage of commercial airline crashes

were traced to negligent maintenance during the
10 years immediately preceding and following
deregulation?

C. What impact has deregulation had on commercial airline

safety
A. Question "a" is too broad, once you get into the
research, since deregulation may have had impact on
safety, costs, passenger fees, ability to comply with
government regulations, and many other areas of the
airline industry, too many to deal with in depth in one
research paper

B. Question "b" is too narrow. It can be answered with

simple percentages and cannot be developed into a
full research paper.

C. Question "c" is the best research question. You may

use statistics such as question "b" would uncover as
you answer question "c," which is focused enough to
allow you to research the question in some depth yet
broad enough to allow you to consider the various
effects of deregulation on airline safety.
 Turning ideas into research
projects
Research Ideas Research Questions
Health Education and Internet How does the use of health/ medical
websites affect education of people?
Ethics and Surgery How the informed consent is taken from
preoperative women undergo Caesarian
section?
Motivation and Uses of drugs What are the factors determine the use
of drugs made by (X) company?
Advertising and Share prices How does running a TV campaign design
to boost the company’s image and affect
share prices?
Job Recruitment via Internet How effective is recruiting for a new
staff via Internet in comparison with
traditional hiring methods?
 Turning ideas into research
projects

Useful techniques

• Start with a general focus question

• Use the ‘Russian Doll’ principle to reach the essence

of the question

• Discuss areas of interest with your instructor

 Turning Research questions
into Research Aim
• Research aims;
– Aim is to try to achieve something. (Oxford
Dictionary)
– Use your research question as a base from
which you write a set of research aim.
– Aims are more generally acceptable to the
research community as evidence of the
researcher’s purpose and direction
 Turning Research questions and Research Aim
into Research Objectives

• Research objectives:
– The aim is the overall driving force of the
research and the objectives are the means
by which you intend to achieve the aims.
– It is recommend that personal objectives
may be added to the list of research
objectives.
 Turning ideas into research projects

Writing clear research objectives

• Check your examining body’s preferences for

stated objectives

• Use a general focus question to achieve precise

objectives
 Include SMART Personal objectives

S pecific

M easurable

A chievable

R ealistic

T imely
 The importance of theory

• Asking for opinions and gathering facts – 'what' questions

(descriptive research)

• Using questions that go beyond description and

require analysis – 'why' questions
In order to:

Explain phenomena Analyse relationships

Predict outcomes Compare and generalise

 Research Question vs Research
Aim vs Research Objectives
Research Question Research Aim Research Objectives
How does the use of To determine the To measure the
health/ medical websites effectiveness of the use of proportion of doctors
affect education of health/ medical websites have internet access
doctors? on doctors’ health at home and/or
education levels in -- from office.
the period between-- & --.
Research Question Research Aim Research Objectives
How the informed To describe the process of To measure the frequency
consent is taken from preoperative informed of women who give
preoperative women consent among women informed consent .
undergo Caesarian undergo CS in – from– to To know the
section? --. demographic profile of
women undergo CS.
 Writing your research
proposal

Purposes of the research proposal

• To organise your ideas

• To convince your audience

• To contract with your client (your tutor)

• To meet ethical requirements

 Content of your research proposal ( ) 1

• Title - likely to change during the process

• Background - context within the literature

• Research questions and objectives - what you seek

to achieve
• Method - can be in two parts: research design and
data collection

• Timescale and Resources - (finance, data access,

equipment)

• References - include some key literature sources

 Evaluating research
proposals

• How the components of the proposal fit together

• Viability of the proposal

• Absence of preconceived ideas

 • Feasible: Adequate expertise and competency, affordable in time and
F money, manageable in scope

• Interesting: getting the answer intrigues the investigator, supervisor,

I policy maker ...

• Novel: generates new knowledge; confirms, refutes or extends

N previous findings

• Ethical: avoid plagiarism and issues considered unacceptable or

E immoral in a given society

• Relevant: addresses current top priority - technical, policy issues or is

R a stepping block to future research

FINER criteria for a good research question and objective

 Assignment
• Formulate your own research problem
according to the standards discussed in
today’s lecture.
• You will submit it in writing in the next class.
• Please keep a soft copy with you as this will
form a part of your complete research
proposal, which you will be asked to submit at
the end of this course and that will be your
final assignment.
 Summary

The best research topics

• Formulate and clarify the topic

• Meet the requirements of the examining body

• Use a variety of techniques when generating

research ideas

• Are focused on clear questions based on relevant

literature
 The best research topics

• Are theory dependent

• Have a proposal containing organised ideas

Tell the reader:

• What will be done and why

• How it will be achieved