Question - Should private fashion companies be allowed to use leather in an age where

technology offers cruelty-free alternatives?

Name - Cornelia Gower

Supervisor - Dave Hopley

Word count - 2924

 Gower 2
Introduction 3

Methodology 3

Leather throughout history 4

Personal tests on pleathers 5

Sustainability 8

Toxic production in hide to leather 9

Toxic production in PVC and PU production 10

The Ethics of Leather and Pleather production: Human costs 11

Human costs of leather production 12

Human costs of PU and PVC pleather production 12

The Product Life Cycle of Leather and Pleather 13

Alternative vegan ‘leathers’ 14

Conclusion 15

Citations 16
 Gower 3
Introduction

Leather is an age-old material used for clothing since the beginning. It was practical

and served a purpose that no other fabrics could, and, until recent years when science and

technology can offer faux alternatives, was the only durable and insulating product on the

market. As an Art BTEC student whose main interest is in textiles and fashion design and

as a vegan, I find the use of animal products in the fashion industry morally wrong as well

as believe them to be unsustainable and ethically unjustifiable. My personal bias is that

leather is an outdated material that is not necessary for a modern society where

technological advancements allow us to create alternatives that either equal or supersede

the original function. Genuine leather products in fashion are now classified as luxury

goods and are seen as status symbols instead of the necessity they used to be.

Methodology

To collect evidence I will be acquiring faux leather and testing its durability in

comparison to centuries of research on real leather that can be acquired online. I will not

be testing on real leather because I find it goes against my own ethical principles. Because

of my personal bias, I will not be able to partake in a fully comparative examination of the

materials due to my personal ethical stance on leather use. Though I personally refrain

from using leather myself, it is often seen as a by-product of the meat industry, as

generally cows are slaughtered for meat products, not leather. 1 Genuine leather is seen

as durable and protective, but its expense nowadays places it into the high end range of

1
This is not true for luxury leather goods made of calf suede, since demand for veal has fallen
whilst Asian demand for these luxury goods has rocketed.
 Gower 4
fashion, and it is often used as a fashion statement and a class symbol instead of the

basic survival tool it once was.

Leather throughout history

Leather is one of the oldest materials humanity has used for clothing and fashion.

Centuries of refining and research have led to a steady dependence on the products.

Leather is still commonly used nowadays. This is due to its use in protective wear. Leather

has a flashpoint of 200℃, only 10℃ lower than diesel. You can hold a lighter under it and it

will shrivel and curl, but it will barely catch fire. Because of this natural quality, it is easier to

make leather fire-resistant than other synthetic materials. Faux leather and leatherette do

not possess this quality. Whilst synthetic fire-resistant materials do exist, in comparison to

leather, they are very expensive. Aramids are one such alternative. Aramid fibres are

strong and heat-resistant synthetic fibres. They are used by aeronautical engineers and by

military personnel as an asbestos substitute, for combat body armour fabric marine hull

reinforcement. While a fitting replacement, it is not yet cost effective to supplant leather in

basic clothing using Aramids due to their high price.

I conducted my own research on Plethers and Leatherettes, testing durability, flame

resistance and chemical defence. Because of my personal bias, and lack of experience in

the material testing field, there are a plethora of variables that shape my experimental

records. One is that my results are observation based and not quantitatively calculated. My

data only takes into account what I can see on a surface level and not the changes that

happen within the chemical make up of the materials. I also only have access to

rudimentary, non-potent chemicals. There are also different ingrained properties in each
 Gower 5
fabric: leather treated and designed for welding equipment will be more fire resistant that

PVC leather designed for decorative fashion garments.

Personal tests

Materials Before Dry Wet abrasion Fire test Martindale rub test Turpentine Bleach test - two
abrasion test (600 grit) (nail and hammer, test (2 hours) hours)
test (60 scratch indent and
grit) punch)

Green PU

Slight Started to Change in the

Scratches roughed
Slight Significant corrode the finish, less shiny
abrasion but up the surface, no
scratches melting, top layer, more mate
no visible clean-cut, nails
and scuffs, burn stains leaving it
marks - made small holes
no major and shape shiny and less
waterproof but nothing clean,
damage manipulatio textured
nailheads did not
n make a full hole.

Brown
spotted PU

Rough scratches, Change in the

Deep Slight broken surface, Little to no
Significant finish, less shiny
scratches abrasion with nails made clean effect
melting, no more mate
and large some holes, nailhead
burn stains
marks of discolouration made lasting dents
discolourat - not
ion waterproof

Black
spotted PU

Clean scratches, Little to no Change in the

Slight Slight nails made small effect finish, less shiny
scratches discolouration holes, nail heads
more mate
and slight and rough didn't make big
surface - not Half the dents
discolourat sample
ion waterproof
melted,
significant
manipulatio
n of shape

White
flexible PU

Rough scratches Little to no

Major that break the top Little to no change
Slight ruching Extreme effect
damage layer and scuff it.
and abrasion - melting,
 Gower 6

and not waterproof burn stains Nails made small

chunks and holes, nail heads
missing, manipulatio didn't make bug
obvious n dents, only small
plastic imprints
coating
flaking off

White hard
PVC

Slight Scratches were Started to

Few abrasion -
The clean and not very corrode the Little to no change
scratches waterproof
smallest visible, nail holes top layer,
and
amount of are clean and hard leaving it
discolourat
burning, to see, nailheads shiny and less
ion, no
lots of left marks but no textured
major
smoke and deep indent
surface
damage burn stains

Black hard
PVC (black
backing)
Little
Clean scratches, to no change
Slight nails made perfect
discolouration Little to no
No round holes, nail effect
and abrasion - A large heads incented
obvious waterproof
scratching, amount of cleanly. Perfect
a few burning material for mock
discoloure and leatherwork
d patches manipulatio
but overall n
durable

Black hard
PVC (White
backing)

Large
amounts of Lots of Started to
Small Red scratches,
discolouration, charing, corrode the Little to no change
patches of deep and rough,
surface large top layer,
discolourat nails made messy
abrasion - amount of leaving it
ion, and holes, nail heads
waterproof manipulatio shiny and less
rough left small uneven
n, no burn textured
surface imprints
stains

Black soft
PU

Complete
Low amounts melting, Rough scratches, Little to no
Large scuff Little to no change
of abrasion - sample clean nail holes, effect
marks and
not waterproof split in half, nailhead indents
surface
complete were not clean or
 Gower 7

deteriorati manipulatio very visible.

on n

Pleathers come in two forms, polyurethane (PU) pleather, and polyvinyl chloride

(PVC) pleather. To be an effective replacement for leather pleathers need to demonstrate

durability under various stress test conditions. For clothing, these need to include Breaking

Strength, Tear Strength, Adhesion of Coating, Wet and Dry Crock Resistance, Abrasion,

Hydrolysis Resistance, Colorfastness to Light, Anti-Bacterial, Mildew Resistance,

Flammability, since clothing must meet industry standards. All the pleathers offcuts I have

tested will have already met industry standards for clothing manufacturing in Hong Kong.

The tests I was able to conduct were flammability and general wear and tear. For

flammability, all pleather samples either melted, produced copious noxious smoke and

some completely deteriorated within 15 seconds of exposure to a butane blow torch flame

touched to the fabric. For physical wear and tear, I conducted dry and wet abrasion tests,

and the Martindale rub test. The thicker PVC’s were more scratch resistant, but those PU

fabrics designed to mimic veal leather and suede were far more susceptible to damage.

For chemical wear and tear, the PVC and PU samples stood up to the bleach alkali and to

the turpentine corrosion test with minimal chemical abrasion.

The fact that PU and PVC based pleathers have already been adapted for clothing

manufacture corroborates my own test results. However, its poor performance under

heat/fire cannot make it suitable as a replacement for leather worn for protective purposes

in industry.

Sustainability
 Gower 8

As per Kirschner et al, to compare the sustainability of leather vs pleather is “fraught

with difficulties” since finding a useful metric of comparison is hard. The carbon footprint

and environmental impact of the origins of both leather and pleather are overlaid with the

problems of toxic pollution during their manufacture. The comparison is further

complicated by the fact that leather making and meat production are on a continuum.

Where do you decide to begin measuring the environmental impact of leather alone? For

the purpose of this project, I have followed Kirschner et al and chosen the rather subjective

metric for comparison of toxic pollution, and only during the manufacturing stage of the

product life cycle. This brings the comparison into more manageable parameters, although

it ignores the origin impacts of hide and petroleum.

 Gower 9
Toxic production in hide to leather

From fibre2fashion: Occupational Hazards Caused By Leather Processing Unit by Anshu Agarwal. Showing

the hide to leather process.

The process seen above includes the use of “around 250 chemicals”. “Chemicals

include alcohol, coal tar, sodium sulfate, sulfuric acid, chlorinated phenols (e.g.

3,5-dichlorophenol), chromium (trivalent and hexavalent), azo dyes, cadmium, cobalt,

copper, antimony, cyanide, barium, lead, selenium, mercury, zinc, polychlorinated

biphenyls (PCBs), nickel, formaldehyde and pesticide residues. At the same time, toxic

gases like ammonia, hydrogen sulfide, and carcinogenic arylamines are emitted into the

air. ” OEcotextiles. This shortened list of chemicals used shows just how toxic the tanning

process is. Tannery affluent also contains high amounts of dissolved organic and inorganic

solids that require oxygen, sucking it out of the river into which the affluent flows. Other

leather processing chemicals include sulfides, ammonia and other high volatile

compounds. Solid waste consists of skin trims, hair, flesh, buffing dust and keratin waste,
 Gower 10
all of which is protein pollution. All of this waste is so highly toxic in the short and long

term, that former leather-making sites in the United States are classified as “uncontrolled

hazardous waste sites.” Kirschner et al.

Toxic production in PVC and PU production

PVC or polyvinyl chloride is a plastic made from basic raw materials of salt and oil.

Sodium chloride is electrolysed to produce chlorine, which is then combined with ethylene

(from oil) producing ethylene dichloride. This is converted to a vinyl chloride monomer at

very high temperatures. These monomers are polymerized forming PVC. To this basic

PVC is added antioxidants, flame retardants, pigments, and plasticisers. From PVC to

pleather, the process involved several energy intensive processing steps as well as the

addition of the necessary stabilisers, flame retardants, dyes and thickeners required to

form a malleable and durable fabric. This manufacturing process creates huge quantities

of toxic chemical pollutants including dioxins, hydrochloric acid, phthalates, and vinyl

chloride. These chemicals are so damaging that Greenpeace has labeled PVC as “most

damaging plastic on the planet”. (OEcotextiles)

PU or polyurethane is also a plastic but is a linear polymer with a molecular

backbone containing carbamate groups. Highly versatile polymers used in athletic wear,

they are produced by a step reaction also known as condensation. This process can take

place at room temperature. The raw materials used to produce PU pleather are

diisocyanates, including toluene diisocyanate. Other chemical compounds required are

polyols (multiple alcohol groups). As with PVC, UV screeners are added, including

hydroxybenzotriazole, as are antioxidants and anti-mildew agents. However it is less toxic

 Gower 11
to the environment then PVC production since its production does not involve energy

intensive processing.

In sum, the production of both PU and PVC release toxic chemicals into the

environment, but according to Kirschner et al “its toxic pollution is dramatically less” than

that of leather production.

The Ethics of Leather and Pleather production: Human costs

The question of whether the fashion industry should use leather or pleather is

incomplete without a discussion of the human costs of the production of each fabric. Truly

ethical fashion takes into account not only the environmental impact, but also the social

and health consequences of its manufacture.

Human costs of leather production

The majority of leather is processed in less developed countries with “less stringent

environmental regulation and cheaper labour” These regions include Eastern Europe,

China, India and Brazil. Anshu Agarwal looked at the problems faced by workers caused

by the occupational hazards faced in leather processing units in Kanpur, known as one of

the worst cities in which to live in India due to its pollution. Her results are summarized in

the following table. Clearly, working in leather processing gives rise to a multitude of health

complaints. On top of Agarwal’s work, the known carcinogenic properties of trivalent

chromium, formaldehyde and glutaraldehyde make leather processing plants extremely

hazardous to the workforce.

 Gower 12

From fibre2fashion: Occupational Hazards Caused By Leather Processing Unit by Anshu Agarwal. Showing

problems faced by the workers owing to various occupational hazards.

Human costs of PU and PVC pleather production

PVC not only poses hazards to humans during its production, but also during the

course of its life cycle. During production, chemicals such as vinyl chloride are used. This

is a known carcinogen: it increases the likelihood of a rare form of liver cancer. The

plasticizer additives can leach out of PVC products during use; these phthalates pose

hazards to human development and reproduction, and the stabilizers include lead, which is

known to affect brain development in children.

PU pleather “avoids the chemical soup used in the leather tanning process” (C&EN)

and is less detrimental to human health than PVC. However, the manufacturing process

involves toluene diisocyanate which is “irritating to mucous membranes, skin, eyes, and

the respiratory tract.” If it is inhaled, this chemical leads to “euphoria, ataxia, mental

aberrations, vomiting, abdominal pain, bronchospasm, chemical bronchitis,

 Gower 13
hypersensitivity pneumonitis, and noncardiogenic pulmonary edema.” Despite these

frightening potential health side effects, PU production is considered to be relatively clean.

In sum, just a brief comparison of the overall costs of the material production of

pleather and leather (and this paper has only scratched the surface of the leather industry

in terms of its impact on the environment and on those involved in the leather process),

suggests that the leather industry is significantly more damaging to the environment and to

its human workforce than is the production of PU pleather.

The Product Life Cycle of Leather and Pleather

No discussion comparing the sustainability and ethics of leather versus pleather

would be complete without an analysis of the lifecycle of both fabrics within the context of

the fashion industry. This industry, with its emphasis on seasonal fashion “by definition is

unsustainable” (Jen Vuk; Sydney Morning Herald). The fashion industry thrives on short

product life and built in obsolescence. The question is what happens to a leather or

pleather product once it has been discarded by a fashion conscious consumer? It could be

argued that the durability of a leather product enables it to be reused as fashion trends

return. However, the same durability means modern leather doesn't naturally biodegrade.

Leather goods can last up to 100 years before they begin to disintegrate - an average

lifespan is 20-30 years. However these leather products made from genuine leather are

part of the luxury fashion industry. More typical of mass produced seasonal fashion, is

bonded leather (thin slithers of milled leftover hide, spray-glued onto a hard fiber surface)

This has very little durability, lasting only a few months before it starts peeling and

cracking.
 Gower 14
Plastic based pleather does not biodegrade, it simply breaks down into gradually

smaller pieces that enter and environment.

Alternative vegan ‘leathers’

Cruelty free plastic based pleathers clearly carry environmental and human costs,

which, whilst less than the costs associated with hide processing, still give ethical

consumers cause for concern. Fortunately, recent developments in fabric technology have

given rise to Mycelial leather (Mylo), and Pineapple leather (Piñatex).

Unlike hide leather production, the Mylo manufacturing process does not involve the

deaths of sentient animals, or any of the CO2 emissions or toxic wastes. “Mylo is made

using vegan inputs starting with mycelium – the underground structure of mushrooms that

can be grown in days vs. years, with less environmental impact.” (Bold Threads) Fashion

designers such as Stella McCartney and Chester Wallace have integrated Mylo into their

brands since 2018.

Pineapple leather is marketed as a cruelty free leather alternative and is the Dutch

fashion brand Mercer Amsterdam claim that it is sustainably made from discarded leaf

fibers after pineapple harvesting.

 Gower 15
Conclusion

In conclusion, the rise of alternative vegan leathers with their minimal

environmental, human and animal costs shows that fashion industry influencers (like Stella

McCartney) recognise the financial benefits of a more ethical production of fashion items.

It is not possible to disallow the use of leather since modern capitalist economies

place a premium on consumer choice, and many consumers are unaware of, or don't care

about, the ethical implication of their purchases. The current trend in America and the UK

towards the deregulation of polluting industries has created an imperative for affordable

and realistic alternatives to leather. Ultimately, and from a vegan perspective, it is to be

hoped that as consumers begin to make more environmentally conscious and ethically

motivated choices, industries will adapt towards the production of non plastic or hide

based ‘leathers’.
 Gower 16

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 Gower 17
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 Gower 18

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 Gower 19

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 Gower 20

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