-.=.1...

117 PRACTICAL
IC PROJECTS
YOU CAN BUILD
117 PRACTICAL
IC PROJECTS
YOU CAN BUILD
R.H. WARRING AND
DELTON T. HORN

TAB BOOKS Inc.

TAB Blue Ridge Summit, PA 17214
 Contents
List of Working Circuits

Introduction
FIRST EDITION
1 The Basics of Integrated Circuits
FIRST PRINTING Monolithic and Hybrid ICs-IC Components-The Shape of ICs
Copyright © 1986 by TAB BOOKS Inc. 2 General Purpose ICs (Arrays)
Printed in the United States of America Spare Components-Constant Current Circuit

Reproduction or publication of the content in any manner, without express 3 Op -Amps

permission of the publisher, is prohibited. No liability is assumed with respect to Op -Amp Parameters-Amplifier or Buffer-Adder-Differential
the use of the information herein. Amplifier-Adder/Subtractor-Multiplier-Integrator-
Differentiator-Log Amplifiers-Log Multipliers-Log Divider-
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Audio Amp-Mixer-Signal Splitter-Voltage-to-Current
Converter-Current-to-Voltage Converter-Current Source-
Warring, R. H. (Ronald Horace), 1920-1984 Multivibrator-Square Wave Generator-Variable Pulse Width
117 practical IC projects you can build. Generator-Sine Wave Oscillator-Schmitt Trigger-Capacitance
Booster-Filters
Rev. ed. of: 84 practical IC projects you can
build. c1979. 4 Audio Amplifiers 47
Includes index. Modifying Amplifier Performance-Short Circuit Protection-
1. Integrated circuits-Amateurs' manuals. Thermal Shut Down-Hi-Fi Stereo Amplifier-Stereo Preamp-
I. Horn, Delton T. II. Warring, R. H. (Ronald Horace),
High Power Amplifiers-Bridge Amplifiers-RIAA Amplifier-Tape
1920-1984. 84 practical IC projects you can build.
III. Title. IV. Title: One hundred seventeen practical
Player Amplifier
IC projects you can build. 5 Complete Radio Circuits 69
TK9966.W37 1986 621.38173 86-5975
ISBN 0-8306-0445-6 AM/FM Radio
ISBN 0-8306-2645-X (pbk.)
 6 Multivibrators 79
Timer Circuits-Programmable Timers
7 Voltage Regulators 96

8 Electric Motor Speed Controllers 102

9 Filters 106

10 Introducing Digital Circuits 117

Converting Decimal to Binary-Converting Binary to Decimal-
Logic-Gates-Practical Gates-Gate Demonstration Circuits-
Flip-Flops-Flip-Flop Demonstration Circuits-Fan-In and Fan-
Out-ROM-RAM-The Shape of Digital ICs
11 Electronic Organs 136
Master Oscillator-Gate Matrix-Sustain-Percussion-Top Oc-
tave Generator-Sound Effects Circuits List of Working Circuits
12 Miscellaneous Circuits 149
Hi-Fi Tone Controls-LED Display Brightness Control-LED Ra-
Number Figure
dio Tuning Scale-Car Thief Alarm-Intercom-Ice Warning
Indicator-Digital Voltmeter-Infra-Red Transmitter and Re- 1 1-4 IC Radio
ceiver-Electronic Rev Counter-Quartz Crystal Clock 2-2
2 Voltage Regulator
13 3 2-4 Voltage Regulator
Constructing Methods 170 4 2-5 Astable Multivibrator
Breadboarding-Permanent Construction Methods-Sockets- 5 2-6 High -Gain Amplifier
Heat Sinks 6 2-7 Constant Current Supply
7 2-8 Constant Voltage Supply
Index 180 8 3-2 Inverting Amplifier
9 3-3 Unity Gain Inverting Amplifier
10 3-4 Non -Inverting Amplifier
11 3-5 Non -Inverting Buffer
12 3-6 Op -Amp Adder
13 3-7 Non -Inverting Adder
14 3-8 Differential Amplifier
15 3-9 Adder/Subtracter
16 3-10 Multiplier
17 3-11 Variable Multiplier
18 3-12 Integrator
19 3-13 Differentiator
20 3-14 Log Amplifier
21 3-15 Log Multiplier
22 3-16 Log Divider
23 3-17 Audio Amplifier
24 3-18 Audio Mixer
25 3-19 Signal Splitter
3-20 Voltage -to -Current Converter
27 3-21 Current -to -Voltage Converter
28 3-22 Constant Current Source
29 3-23 Basic Multivibrator Circuits
30 3-24 Square Wave Generator

vii
 Number Figure 85 10-13 NOR Gate Demonstration Circuit
86 10-14 AND/OR Gate Demonstration Circuit
31 3-25 Variable Frequency Square Wave Generator
32 3-29 87 10-16 1 Bit Memory
Asymmetrical Rectangle Wave Generator 88 10-17 Flip -Flop Circuit
33 3-31 Sine Wave Oscillator
34 89 10-18 J -K Flip -Flop
3-32 Schmitt Trigger
35 90 10-19 D -Type Flip -Flop
3-34 Capacitance Booster 91 10-20 Divide -by -2 Circuit
36 3-35 Basic Filter Circuits
37 92 10-21 Simple Modulo -8 Counter
4-1 Single Stage Amplifier (gain 100)
38 93 10-22 1 -of -4 Sequencer
4-2 Single Stage Amplifier (gain 100-200)
39 4-3 94 11-1 Master Oscillator for Electronic Organ
Single Stage Amplifier (gain 80-120) 95 11-2 Basic Electronic Organ Circuit
40 4-4 Cascaded Amplifier (gain 7000)
41 96 11-3 Sustain Circuit for Organ
4-5 High Gain Cascaded Amplifier (gain 700,000)
42 4-6 97 11-4 Decay Control for Organ
Audio Amplifier 11-5 Organ Percussion Circuit
43 4-9 98
Audio Amplifier for 4 (2 Loudspeaker
44 99 11-6 Top Octave Generator Organ
4-10 10 Watt Amplifier Multi -Octave Top Octave Generator Organ
45 100 11-7
4-12 Stereo Amplifier
46 101 11-8 Chord Box
4-13 Simple 2 x 6 Watt Stereo Amplifier
47 4-14 102 11-9 Random Voltage Generator
Stereo Preamp 103 11-12 Sound Effect Generator
48 4-15 Magnetic Cartridge Preamp
49 4-16 104 12-1 Hi-Fi Tone Control
Powerful Bridge Amplifier 105 12-3 Simple Hi-Fi Tone Control
50 4-17 RIAA Amplifier
51 4-18 106 12-4 Treble and Bass Tone Control
Tape Deck Amplifier 107 12-5 Tone Control for Dual Supplies
52 5-1 Basic Working Radio
53 5-2 108 12-6 Automatic Brightness Control for LEDs
IC Radio with Transistor Amplifier
54 5-3 109 12-7 LED Tuning Indicator
Complete High -Quality IC Radio 110 12-8 Car Thief Alarm
55 5-4 AM/FM Receiver
56 5-5
111 12-10 Ice Warning Indicator
FM Receiver Front End
57 6-1
112 12-12 Infra -Red Transmitter
Square Wave Oscillator 12-13 Infra -Red Receiver
58 6-2 113
Pulse Generator Simpler Infra -Red Receiver
59 6-3 114 12-14
Audio Tone Generator
60 6-4 115 12-15 Electronic Rev Counter
Adjustable Multivibrator 116 12-16 Quartz Crystal Clock Circuit
61 6-5 Flashing Light Circuit
62 6-6 117 12-17 Alarm for Quartz Crystal Clock
LED One Second Flasher
63 6-7 Free -Running Pulse Generator
64 6-8 555 Monostable Timer
65 6-9 555 Astable Multivibrator
66 6-11 Programmable Monostable Multivibrator
67 6-12 Programmable Astable Multivibrator
68 7-1 Basic dc Supply with Regulation
69 7-2 Voltage Regulator
70 7-4 Adjustable Voltage Regulator
71 7-5 Voltage Regulator with Zener Diode
72 7-6 Voltage Regulator with Transistor
73 7-7 Regulated Split Supply
74 8-1 Electric Motor Speed Controller
75 8-2 Electric Motor Speed Controller
76 9-2 Low Pass Filter
77 9-3 High Pass Filter
78 9-5 Band Pass Filter
79 9-6 Notch Filter
80 9-7 High -Q Notch Filter
81 10-9 NAND Gate Demonstration Circuit
82 10-10 Inverter Demonstration Circuit
83 10-11 AND Gate Demonstration Circuit
84 10-12 OR Gate Demonstration Circuit
 In fact it is really a basic-and essentially practical-"course"
on understanding and using integrated circuits.

Introduction
Integrated Circuits (or ICs) are the building blocks from
which modern electronic circuits are assembled. They save a lot
of time in construction and give better performance than similar
circuits built from separate components and, above all, are incredi-
bly space saving. In these respects they are a big step ahead of
single transistors and have made it easier for amateur
constructors-as well as professionals-to build working circuits.
There are thousands of different types of ICs, each of which
may be adaptable to many different working circuits (although some
of the more complex ones are designed with a limited range of ap-
plication). This can be quite bewildering, especially knowing how
and where to start. However, from the point of view of using ICs
and putting them to work, there is no need at all to know the ac-
tual circuits they contain-merely what type of circuit they con-
tain and how their leads or pins are connected to other components
to complete a working circuit.
That is what this book is about. It explains and "classifies" in-
tegrated circuits in simple terms. It covers the various ways in
which the simplest ICs-op-amps-can be worked and describes
a whole range of working circuits based on selected-and inex-
pensive-integrated circuits.
In this revised edition, several new projects have been added,
some using recently developed ICs. All in all, this volume features
117 different working projects you can build.
x
xi
 Chapter 1

The Basics of Integrated Circuits

The transistor first appeared as a working device in 1947, since
which time it has been manufactured in hundreds of millions. It
took a little time to realize that the same techniques used for produc-
ing individual transistors could be applied to complete circuits and
sub -circuits containing both active components (e.g., diodes and
transistors) and passive components (e.g., resistors and capacitors),
with all necessary interconnections in a single unit familiarly known
as a "chip."
Apart from the obvious advantage of being able to produce com-
plete circuits and sub -circuits in this way, the cost of producing a
complex circuit by photo -etching techniques is little more than that
of producing individual transistors, and the bulk of the circuit can
be reduced substantially since transistors in integrated circuits do
not need encapsulation or canning, and resistors and capacitors do
not need "bodies." Another advantage is the potentially greater
reliability offered by integrated circuits, since all components are
fabricated simultaneously and there are no soldered joints. (Per-
formance can also be improved as more complex circuits can be
used where advantageous at little or no extra cost.
The next big step in integrated circuit construction was the de-
velopment of microelectronic technology or extreme miniaturiza-
tion of such components and integrated circuits. Photo -etching is
readily suited to this, the main problem being in checking individual
components for faults due to imperfections in the manufacturing
1
 process, and achieving a high yield of fault -free chips per "wafer" typical of small-scale integration (SSI). It is possible to achieve much
manufactured. Rejection rates are liable to rise with increasing com- higher component densities. With medium -scale integration (MSI),
plexity of the circuit, but modern processes now achieve a very high component density is greater than 100 components per chip; and
yield. with large-scale integration (LSI), component density may be as
Basically, an integrated circuit consists of a single chip of sili- high as 1000 or more components per chip. Both MSI and LSI are
con, typically about 1.25 mm square (0.050 inches square) in size. extensions of the original integrated circuit techniques using simi-
Each chip may contain 50 or more separate components, all inter- lar manufacturing methods. The only difference is in the matter
connected (although they may contain very many less for simpler of size and physical separation of the individual components and
circuits). The actual manufacturing process is concerned with the method of inter -connection.
producing wafers, each of which may contain several hundred chips.
These wafers are processed in batches, so one single batch produc- MONOLITHIC AND HYBRID ICs
tion may be capable of producing several thousand integrated cir- Integrated circuits where all the components and connections
cuit chips simultaneously, involving a total of tens of thousands of are formed in the substrate of the "chip" are known as monolithic
components. ICs. There is a further class of ICs where the individual compo-
It is this high production yield which is responsible for the rela- nents (transistors, diodes, resistors, etc.), or even complete sub -

-
circuits, are all attached to the same substrate but with intercon-
tively low price of integrated circuits-usually substantially less than
the cost of the equivalent individual components in a chip produced
separately, and in the case of some chips even less than that of a SECOND OUTPUT DYNAMIC
single transistor. The final selling price, however, is largely BIAS CIRCUIT INPUT STAGE STAGE ----
STAGE CURRENT SINK v..

governed by demand. The integrated circuit is a mass -production D1 II D7 I R13

0
item and the greater the demand for a particular chip, the lower 03 R9 020 15 k
02 500
the price at which it can be sold economically. I
I
08
III
R10
Figure 1-1 shows a typical-and fairly simple-IC produced as 04 1k
019 -vvv. R14
R12
a flat "package" encapsulated in plastic. The drawing is approxi- II
12k 20 k
07 R200
mately 1 1/2 times actual size (9.4 mm long by 6 mm wide). Figure 11
017 021
1-2 shows the complete circuit contained in this IC, comprising 16 R8
R
transistors, 8 diodes and 13 resistors. Figure 1-3 shows the physi- 8 0811 OUTPUT
cal appearance of the chip, much magnified, when it is part of the
D3 D4
018. 0
wafer. The actual size of this chip is approximately 2.5 mm by 2
L___
mm. INVERTING
D5
The actual component density or number of components per
unit area, may vary considerably in integrated circuits. The figure
INPUT

O
409 Q106 r
R3
C1
12 pF
NON - R5
of 50 components per chip has already been mentioned, which is INVERTING 500 0
500 0
101
0184
INPUT .1015 D6
011 012 013
R2 R6 R7

V 500 0
JL__
50 0 300
R4 )4 *0
500 0
OFFSET NULL

Fig. 1-2. Schematic diagram of one half of a CA3240 BiMOS operational am-
Fig. 1-1. Outline shape of a typical 8 -pin dual -in -line integrated circuit, about plifier showing components and interconnections all formed in the substrate
1 1/2 times actual size. of the chip.

2 3
 sistance values which can be produced by these methods. "Stripe"
resistors are limited to a minimum width of about 0.025 mm (0.001
in.) to achieve a tolerance of 10 percent. Practical values obtained
from diffused resistors range from about 10 n to 30 Kit, depend-
ing on the method of diffusion with tolerances of plus or minus 10
percent. Better performance can be achieved with thin-film resis-
tors with resistance values ranging from 20 II to 50 Ka
A method of getting round this problem when a high resistance
is required is to use a transistor biased almost to cut-off, instead
of a resistor, in an integrated circuit where a resistance value of
more than 50 Kg is required. This is quite economic in the case
of integrated circuit manufacture and is a method widely used in
practice.
Capacitors present more of a problem. Small values of capaci-
tance can be produced by suitable geometric spacing between cir-
cuit elements and utilizing the stray capacitance generated between
these elements. Where rather higher capacitance values are re-
quired, individual capacitors may be formed by a reversed-bias PN
junction; or as thin-film "plate" type using a tiny aluminum plate
and a MOS (metal -oxide -semiconductor) second plate. The former
method produces a polarized capacitor and the thin film method a
non -polarized capacitor. The main limitation in either case is the
Fig. 1-3. Much enlarged illustration of the CA3240 chip containing two com- relatively low limit to size and capacitance values which can be
plete circuits like Fig. 1-2. Actual dimensions of this chip are 2.5 by 2 millimeters. achieved-typically 0.2 pF per 0.025 mm (0.001 in.) square for a
Grid dimensions marked around the outside of the diagram are in thousandths junction capacitor and up to twice this figure with a thin film MOS
of an inch.
capacitor, both with fairly wide tolerances (plus or minus 20 per-
nections formed by wire bonding. These are known as hybrid ICs.
cent). Where anything more than moderate capacitor values are
needed in an integrated circuit it is usually the practice to omit the
In hybrid circuits, electrical isolation is provided by the physical
capacitor from the circuit and connect a suitable discrete compo-
separation of the components.
nent externally.
Both resistors and capacitors fabricated in ICs also suffer from
IC COMPONENTS high temperature coefficients (i.e., working values varying with
Transistors and diodes are formed directly on the surface of the temperature) and may also be sensitive to voltage variations in the
chip with their size and geometry governing their electrical charac- circuit.
teristics as well as density level, etc. Where a number of such com- Unlike printed circuits, it is not possible to fabricate inductors
ponents are involved in a complete integrated circuit their or transformers in integrated circuits at the present state-of-the-
performance is usually better than that of a circuit with discrete art. As far as possible, therefore, ICs are designed without the need
(separate) components because they are located close together and for such components; or where this is not possible, a separate con-
their electrical characteristics are closely matched. ventional component is connected externally to the integrated
Resistors can be formed by silicon resistance stripes etched in circuit.
the slice, or by using the bulk resistivity of one of the diffused areas. From the above it will be appreciated that integrated circuits
There are limits, however, to both the range and tolerance of re - are quite commonly used as "building blocks" in a complete cir-
4 5
 cuit, connected to other conventional components. A simple exam-
ple is shown in Fig. 1-4 using a ZN414 as a basic "building block"
in the construction of a miniature AM radio. Although it is
a high
gain device (typical power gain 72 dB), the integrated circuit needs
a following stage of transistor amplification to power a crystal ear-
piece; high value decoupling capacitors; and a standard coil and
tuning capacitor for the tuned circuit. The complete circuit is capa-
ble of providing an output of 500 millivolts across the
earpiece, with
a supply voltage of 1.3 and typical current drain of 0.3 milliamps.

THE SHAPE OF ICs

ICs come in various "package" shapes. Quite a number have
a)
the same shape (and size) as a typical transistor and are only read- C
0
ily identified as an IC because of the greater number of leads a.
emerg- E
ing from the bottom (a transistor usually has only three leads). 0

These shapes are defined by the standard coding adopted for tran-
sistor outlines, e.g., TO -5, TO -18, etc., which also identifies
the
individual pins by numbers (e.g., see Fig. 1-5D, E and F). To0
Other ICs come in the form of flat packages with leads
emerg-
ing from each side. These are three different
arrangements used a)
(see Fig. 1-5A, B, C, and G). C
C
0
Dual in -line, where the leads on each side are bent down to
form two separate rows to plug directly into a printed cir-
cuit panel or IC holder (A and B). -a
a)
Quad in -line, like dual in -line, except that the leads on each ,§
a)
side form two parallel rows (G). C
a)

Flat, where the leads emerge straight and from each side :t
of the package (C). zN
In all cases leading numbering normally runs around the rn
pack- C
age, starting from top left and ending at top right (again see Fig. r.7)

1-5). The number of leads may be anything from eight to sixteen 7

or even more.
Some types of holders designed to match standard pin .0
config-
urations or flat shape ICs are shown in Fig. 1-6. These holders have
pin configurations similar to the ICs they take. Their principal ad- a)
a)
vantage is that they can be soldered to a printed circuit or E
Veroboard, etc., with no risk of heat damage to the IC itself since 0
this is only plugged in after soldered connections are completed.
Most circuit constructors, however, prefer to solder ICs directly
to a printed circuit panel (or Veroboard).
6 7
 0.25 thk
&&&&& 7
17 78 max
0 25 106
EF 728-2-24
8,35
0.13 7,62 cvs
7.62 cfrs -
9 999 9 9 6 35, 0 13

19,56 ma
7 29 0.25

14
1.27
6 pitches
835
16 leads of 0.483, 0.076; , 0 13 EF723-2-14 EF 722-2-8
7
6_7 equal pttches of 0,127 0,025 C 0.3051 1 78 max
75"--%5
2.54 t 0 05
an _I
0.7610,13}a
6 89 6
' T 714 -It:,
1
9.14,0.250 9.14,0.250
8.12,0.13 0 8.120.130
7

C 4 31
tri

p,,

r 3
E

41 0,483 - 0.483 -

08 PCD

19.55 max
14 PIN 17.54t-------1".---
8.27 c 6.6 max 16 PIN 20mm

055
04" PITCH
25.5 max

0 7" lb PM
0.6" 14 PIN
Fig. 1-5. Examples of integrated circuit designs. A 16 -pin dual in -line. B 14 -pin
dual in -line. C flat (ceramic) package. D 3 -lead transistor "can" shape. E 6 -lead
"transistor" shape. F 8 -lead "transistor" shape. G 12 -pin quad in -line with
heat sink tabs.
Fig. 1-6. Examples of integrated circuit holders (Electrovalue).
8 9
 (1)

Chapter 2 0 CZ

CC
N
ta a
00
71)
'Co 1_

c:2

Z
o_
z
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s
c
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ci)

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ca) oo
((( C
TZ

O7
N; .-F3
Q.) C

"General Purpose" ICs (Arrays) O0

O u)
3 a>
U
The description "general purpose" is not accepted terminology but c Ca

it is used here to describe integrated circuit chips which comprise 'Fa-

-c"
a)

a number of individual components, usually transistors and possi-

o
2 aa.
bly also diodes, each component in the chip connecting to individual O
61

outlet leads. Thus by connecting to the appropriate leads an in- a>

dividual transistor (or diode) can be connected to an external cir-
(i
cuit. Other chips of this type may also include components 5
c\I

connected within the chip, e.g., transistors in Darlington pairs, but

3
N2 0)

the same principle of application applies. The technical descrip- -0

ty 03 (I)
tion of such a chip is an integrated circuit array. 76
2.) a
01
A simple example of such a chip is shown in Fig. 2-1. It con- O N o
sists of three transistors (two interconnected); two types of diodes; - oc
and a zener diode. This particular chip is used in the voltage regu-
C0
lator circuit described in Chapter 8 (Fig. 8-4), using two of the tran-
sistors, the SCR diode and the zener diode. °
< Co2
Oa- 0
This circuit design is shown in Fig. 2-2. The components to
be utilized which are contained in the IC are enclosed in the dashed ma)
8r) 43 3
outline, i.e., TR1, TR2, D2 and D3. The other components in the .73 Eo
chip (D1 and TR3) are not required. Resistors R1, R2, R3 and R4 115
Z 0
and a capacitor C, are all discrete components connected externally. E
O O
7i a
z(7;5..

Figure 2-3 re-examines the component disposition of the chip, -co

u) 7>
c a)
together with the necessary external connections. Note that the ar-
rangement of the leads or pin -out arrangement does not necessar- c<j c
0_
Z
ily follow the schematic diagram (Fig. 2-1) where the pins are in E a. c
10 11
 It only remains tor the eXICI lid'
completed. These are:

+VIN 0 Transistor
0
+ VOUT
R2 to lead (14) and lead (12).
Capacitor C to lead (6) and earth point. Lead (10) on the IC is
TR1
also the substrate or earthing point of the IC, so should also be con-
R1 R3 nected to the common earth line.
--/VV\ TR2
One end of the potentiometer R3 to the top (output) line.
transistor
The other end of the potentiometer R3 to R4.
The other end of R4 to the bottom common earth line.
R2
D1
'IF
-7-

_
diode SPARE COMPONENTS
A number of components in an array may not be used in a par-
D2
ticular circuit, but the cost of the single IC can often be less than
zener diode 1211
L ____ _J
R4 that of the equivalent transistors or diodes ordered separately and
VIN
0 CiT used individually to complete the same circuit. The circuit using
Gnd 0 the IC will also be more compact and generally easier to construct.
VOUT
/77 Gnd

R2
Fig. 2-2. Voltage regulator circuit. Components within the dashed outline are
in the CA3097E integrated
circuit. R1, IR2, R3, R4 and C1 are external com-
ponents. R1

random order to clarify connections to internal 0 Flq 14 5 16

components. The 17111
actual pin -out arrangement on ICs follows a logical order
around the chip. Schematic diagrams may or may not followreading in the
same order (usually not). IC
+ VOUT
Connections for completing the circuit of Fig. 2-3 are:
Leads 1, 2 and 3 are ignored as D1 is not used. 0-
+ VIN r
CA3097E
-o
t!1121 1_2_1111
Lead 4 connects one side of the zener diode to the
earth line and Lead 5 to Lead 13, connecting the
common 0 -0
- VOUT
zener diode to - VIN R3
the correct side of the SCR (diode).
Now to pick up the transistor connections. The base of TR1
(15) connects to the external resistor R1; and the collector lead
(14)
to the other side of R1, which is also the input point for the R4
circuit.
The emitter lead (16) connects to output.
TR2 and TR3 in the chip are interconnected, but
only one of
these transistors is required. Connecting lead (6) to (9) shorts out
TR2, which is not wanted. Connecting the emitter lead (8) of TR3
to 11-12 (already joined); the collector lead (9) to (6); and the base
Fig. 2-3. Completed voltage regulator circuit showing wiring connections made
lead (7) to the center tag of the external potentiometer R3 to the integrated circuit. Pins in this diagram are shown in the actual physical
connects
TR3 into the circuit. order they appear on the integrated circuit. Note. For clarity the integrated cir-
cuit is drawn much larger in proportion to the external components.
12
13
 than transis-
circuit to provide this input. Since diodes are cheaper
of using all the components in
tors, this is a more economic way
the original array. is sel-
IC The fact that popular ICs are quite cheap means that it
methods of trying to use all
CA3096E dom worth while going to elaborate
utilization is fairly
the components available in an array, unless such
obvious, as above. Using only part of an array can still show sav-
ings over the purchase of individual components for many circuits.
2V
The astable multivibrator circuit shown in Fig. 2-5, for exam-
+
D1 D2 +V circuits contained
ple, only uses one of the three complete switching
in the CA3600E array, associated with an OTA CA3080 integrated
R1 I Voltage resistors. On the other hand, Fig. 2-6 shows
Doubler circuit and four external
in the
TR2 Cl Circuit a high gain amplifier circuit using all the components
24 V CA3600E array with external resistors.

10 C2,, CONSTANT CURRENT CIRCUIT

11 A useful circuit employing the CA3018 integrated circuit ar-
TR4 I R1-10 KO
I R2- 1 KO
ray is shown in Fig. 2-7. This array comprises four transistors (two
Input 8
12
0 TR3 C1-2.5 ALF
R2
C2-2.5 µF
diodes D1 and D2 +V
0
-V R2
"\./V\/

Fig. 2-4. Schematic diagram of CA array (top) and voltage doubler circuit us-
14
ing TR2, TR3 and TR4 from the array together with external components.
The spare transistors in the array (TR1 and TR5) can be used instead of 13
separate diodes, connected for diode working by ignoring the collector leads. OUT
IC2 O

A little study sometimes shows where further savings are pos- C IC1

sible. Figure 2-4, for example, shows a voltage doubler circuit for R3
a 1 kHz square wave input signal, based on a CA3096E IC array
R4
which contains 5 transistors. Only three of these transistors are used
in this particular circuit, leaving two "spare." /77
The circuit calls for two diodes D1 and D2 (as well as three IC1-OTA CA3080
resistors and two capacitors) to be added as discrete components. IC2-CA3600E
Transistors can also be worked as diodes (by neglecting the col- R1-100 KO
lector lead), and so the functions of D1 and D2 could be performed R2- 5 KR
R3- 10 KU -V
by the two "spare" transistors in the array (thus using up all its R4- 10 KO
components). C-0.01 ALF
Alternatively, since the current needs a square wave input sig-
nal, the two "spare" transistors could be used in a multivibrator Fig. 2-5. Astable multivibrator circuit using one third of CA3600E array.
14 15
 5
ap R1-10 KS/ potentiometer R4
R2-470 12
R3-3.3 K11
R4 is the resistance of the
2 2 2 LL, load through which the
NN constant current is to flow.
C
I
I a)
I
C
EE & CcU cj
E
0 9 to
18 volts
C

a)
.c

a)

a)
C)
0

0
5
a)
Ca

a)
C
Fig. 2-7. Constant current circuit using components found in CA3018 array.
w
0
0
CD

a)
a)
a
E
0
a)
.0
C)
C
Co

0
0
a)

a
E
vvvy co

I C
co
rn
.0
a)

a0 co
C
Fig. 2-8. Circuit giving a constant 6 volts output from a 9 to 18 volts supply
0)
voltage, again using the CA3018 array.
16 17
 -........ ......1...... ...Ylaa Fall, 4114 LIJUI UltJUCS. i apping tne %el laid two a
super -alpha pair of transistors, a constant current source can be
produced, the magnitude of this current being set by adjustment
of the potentiometer R1 over a range of about 0.2 mA to 14 mA,
depending on the actual supply voltage.
The same integrated circuit can also be used as a constant volt-
age source-Fig. 2-8. In this case the constant voltage output is the
zener voltage of the transistor worked as a zener diode, which is
approximately 6 volts.

Op -Amps
Op -amps (operational amplifiers) are a particular class of integrated
circuit comprising a directly -coupled high -gain amplifier with overall
response characteristics controlled by feedback. The op -amp gets
its name from the fact that it can be made to perform numerous
mathematical operations. An op -amp is the basic building block in
many analog systems and is also known as a linear integrated cir-
cuit because of its response.
It has an extremely high gain (theoretically approaching in-
finity), the actual value of which can be set by the feedback. The
introduction of capacitors or inductors in the feedback network can
give gain varying with frequency and thus determine the operat-
ing condition of the whole integrated circuit.
The basic op -amp is a three -terminal device with two inputs
and one output-Fig. 3-1. The input terminals are described as "in-
verting" and "non -inverting." At the input there is a virtual "short
circuit," although the feedback keeps the voltage across these
points at zero so that no current flows across the "short." The sim-
ple circuit equivalent is also shown in Fig. 3-1, when the voltage
gain is given by a ratio of the impedances Z2/Z1.

OP -AMP PARAMETERS
The ideal op -amp is perfectly balanced so that if fed with equal
inputs, output is zero, i.e.
18 19
 AMPLIFIER OR BUFFER
Figure 3-2 shows the circuit for an inverting amplifier, or in-
verter. The gain is equal to:
Av = - R2/R1

Notice that if the two resistances are equal (i.e., R1 = R2), the
gain is negative one, meaning that the circuit works as a phase in-
Fig. 3-1. A basic op -amp is a three terminal device with the corresponding cir- verting voltage follower. The output will be the same as the input,
cuit as shown. except the polarity will be reversed.
In fact, for unity gain, the resistors can be eliminated and re-
VIN 1 = VIN 2 gives VOUT = 0 placed with direct connections, as illustrated in Fig. 3-3. This works
because in this circuit R1 = R2 = 0. R3 is usually eliminated in
In a practical op -amp the input is not perfectly balanced so that the inverting voltage follower circuit.
unequal bias currents flow through the input terminal. Thus an in- If R1 is smaller than R2, the input signal will be amplified at
put offset voltage must be applied between the two input termi- the output. For example, if R1 is 2.2 KO and R1 is 22 K12, the gain
nals to balance the amplifier output. will be:
The input bias current (IB) is one half the sum of the separate
currents entering the two input terminals when the output is Av = - 22,000/2,200 = -10
balanced, i.e., VOUT = 0. It is usually a small value, e.g., a typi-
cal value is 1B = 100 nA. The minus sign indicates phase inversion. The output polarity
The input offset current (Ii) is the difference between the sep- is reversed from the input.
arate currents entering the input terminals. Again it is usually of The same circuit can also attenuate (reduce the level of) the
a very small order, e.g., a typical value is Igo = 10 nA. input signal by making R1 larger than R2. For example, if R1 is
The input offset voltage (\Id is a voltage which must be applied 120 K(2, and R2 is 47 KO, the circuit gain will be approximately:
across the input terminal, to balance the amplifier. Typical value,
V. = 1 mV. Av = 47,000/120,000 = - 0.4
Both Igo and V. are subject to change with temperature, this
change being known as I o drift and V. drift, respectively.
The Power Supply Rejection Ratio (PSRR) is the ratio of the
change in input offset voltage to the corresponding change in one
power supply voltage. Typically this is of the order of 10 - 20 µV /V.
Other parameters which may be quoted for op -amps are:
Open -loop gain-usually designated Ad.
Common -mode rejection ratio-designated CMRR. This is the ratio
of the difference signal to the common -mode signal and represents
a figure of merit for a differential amplifier. This ratio is expressed
in decibels (dB).
Slew rate-or the rate of change of amplifier output voltage under
large -signal conditions. It is expressed in terms of V/As.
Some examples of the versatility of the op -amp are given in
the following simple circuits: Fig. 3-2. One of the most basic of op -amp circuits is the inverting amplifier.

20 21
 large. r Ur eictillpIC, a IN -1 av L.. asu
gain works out to:

Av = 1 + 470,000/10,000 =
VIN
1 + 47 =
VOUT
48

If, on the other hand, R1 is considerably larger than R2, the

gain will be just slightly greater than unity. For instance, if R1 =
100 Kil and R2 = 22 KO the gain will be:
Fig. 3-3. If the input and feedback resistors are eliminated, the gain of an in - Av = 1 + 22,000/100,000 =
vetting amplifier will be 1.
1 + 0.22 =
1.22
Once again, the output's polarity is the opposite of the input's
polarity.
The value of R3 is not terribly critical, but it should be approx- If the two resistances are equal (R1 = R2), the gain will al-
imately equal to the parallel combination of R1 and R2. That is: ways be 2. Try a few examples using the gain equation to prove
this to yourself.
R3 = (R1 x R2)/(R1 + R2) A special case is when both resistances are made equal to 0.
That is, the resistors are replaced by direct connections, as shown
To illustrate this, let's return to our earlier example, in which in Fig. 3-5. Here, the gain is exactly unity. This is in keeping with
R1 = 2.2 KO and R2 = 22 KO. In this case, the value of R3 should the gain formula:
be about:
Av = 1 + R2/R1 =
R3 = (2200 x 22000)/(2200 + 22000) = 1 + 0/0 =
48,400,000/24,200 = 1+0=
1
2000 12

Since the exact value is not critical, we can use the nearest The output is identical to the input. This non -inverting volt-
standard resistance value for R3. In this example, either a 1.8 KO age follower circuit is used for buffer, isolation, and impedance
or a 2.2 KSl resistor may be used. matching applications.
In some applications, the phase inversion produced by the cir-
cuit shown in Fig. 3-2 may be undesirable. To have the op-amp
work as a non -inverting amplifier (buffer), the connections are made
as shown in Fig. 3-4. In this circuit, the gain is defined as:

Av = 1 + R2/R1

The output is in phase (same polarity) with the input. Notice

that the gain must always be at least 1 (unity). The non -inverting
circuit can not be used for signal attenuation.
If R2 is considerably larger than R1, the gain will be relatively Fig. 3-4. An op -amp can also be used as a non -inverting amplifier.

22 23
 Fig. 3-5. A unity gain non -inverting amplifier can be used for buffer applications.

ADDER
An op -amp can be used to add multiple input voltages. Input
signals V1, V2, . Vn are applied to the op -amp through resistors
. .

R1, R2, . . Rn, as shown in Fig. 3-6. The output signal is then
.

a combination of these signals, giving the sum of the inputs.

The actual performance of the op -amp as an adder can be cal-
culated with this formula:
Fig. 3-7. Non -inverting adder circuit, i.e., the input and output have the same
polarity of signal and are thus in phase.
VOUT = - Ro ((V1/R1) + (V2/R2) . . . + (Vn/Rn))
inputs of the op -amp, as shown in Fig. 3-7, the circuit can be con-
Note the minus sign. This indicates that the output is inverted verted to a non -inverting adder.
(the polarity is reversed). That is, this circuit is an inverting adder. If all of the input resistors have equal values, the output equa-
By changing the connections to the inverting and non -inverting tion can be simplified to:

VOUT = - Ro ((V1 + V2 . . . + Vn)/R)

DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIER
A basic circuit for a differential amplifier is shown in Fig. 3-8.
Component values are chosen so that R1 = R2 and R3 = R4. Per-
formance is then given by:

VOUT = VIN 2 - VIN 1

Provided the op -amp used can accept the fact that the impedance
for input 1 and input 2 is different (impedance for input 1 = R1;
and impedance for input 2 = R1 + R3).

ADDER/SUBTRACTOR
Connections for an adder/subtractor circuit are shown in Fig.
Fig. 3-6. Adder circuit based on an op -amp. This inverts the output. 3-9. If R1 and R2 are the same value; and R3 and R4 are also made
24
25
 R4

Vow

Fig. 3-10. This circuit is used to perform simple multiplication with a constant
multiplier.

MULTIPLIER
Fig. 3-8. Basic differential amplifier circuit.
The circuit shown in Fig. 3-10 can be used to perform simple
multiplication. Note that this is the same circuit as Fig. 3-2. For
the same value as each other, then: accurate results, precision resistors of the specified values for R1
and R2 should be used to give a constant gain (and thus multiplica-
VOUT = V3 + V4 - V1 - V2 tion of input voltage in the ratio R2/R1). Note that this circuit in-
verts the phase of the output.
In other words, inputs to V3 and V4 give a summed output
The output voltage will be equal to:
(VouT = V3 + V4). Inputs V1 and V2 subtract from the output
voltage. VOUT = - (VIN x Av)
Values for R1, R2, and R3 and R4 are chosen to suit the op -
amp characteristics. R5 should be the same value as R3 and R4;
and R6 should be the same value as R1 and R2. where VOUT is the output voltage, VIN is the input voltage, and
Av is the gain as defined by R1 and R2.
If a variable resistance (potentiometer) is used for R2, as shown
in Fig. 3-11, the multiplication constant can be varied. A calibra-
tion dial with markings for various typical gains should be placed

Fig. 3-11. Using a potentiometer as the feedback resistor allows the circuit
Fig. 3-9. Adder/subtractor circuit. See text for calculation of component values.
to be used with a variable multiplier.
26 27
around the control shaft. This dial can be calibrated to read out
the multiplication constant directly.

INTEGRATOR
Theoretically, at least, an op -amp will work as an integrator with
the inverting input connected to the output via a capacitor. In prac-
tice, a resistor needs to be paralleled across this capacitor to pro-
vide de stability as shown in Fig. 3-12.
This circuit integrates input signal with the following relation-
ship applying:

1
VOUT - VIN dt
R1 * C J

The value of R2 should be chosen to match the op -amp charac- Fig. 3-13. Practical circuit for an op -amp differentiator.
teristics so that:
necting to the inverting input, and a resistor connecting this input
VOUT = R2 VIN
to output. Again this circuit has practical limitations, so a better
R1 configuration is to parallel the resistor with a capacitor as shown
in Fig. 3-13.
The performance of this circuit is given by:
DIFFERENTIATOR
The differentiator circuit has a capacitor in the input line con - dVIN
VOUT = - R2 Cl
dt

LOG AMPLIFIERS
The basic circuit (Fig. 3-14) uses an NPN transistor in conjunc-
tion with an op -amp to produce an output proportional to the log
of the input:
VIN
VOUT = -k logio
RI.

The lower diagram shows the "inverted" circuit, this time us-
ing a PNP transistor, to work as a basic anti -log amplifier.
The capacitor required is usually of small value (e.g., 20 pF).

LOG MULTIPLIERS
Logarithmic working of an op -amp is extended in Fig. 3-15 to
give a log multiplier. Input X to one log amplifier gives log X out-
Fig. 3-12. Op -amp integrator circuit. put; and input Y to the second log amplifier gives log Y output.

28 29
 C
(7)

o.

O
Ca

a
E
a)

E
Fig. 3-14. Basic log amplifier circuits using a transistor in conjunction with an
op -amp. a)
C.
0
These are fed as inputs to a third op -amp to give an output log X Y.
a)
If this output is fed to an anti -log amplifier, the output is the
inverted product of X and Y (i.e., X. Y). E
0
O
a)
LOG DIVIDER .o

>- ra
The circuit shown in Fig. 3-16 is just the opposite of the one C7)

in Fig. 3-15. Here log and anti -log amp stages are used to perform IO
division on the two input signals. The output is proportional to x/y. 17)

iv

AUDIO AMP
E
The op -amp is primarily a dc amplifier, but it can also be used C)
0
for ac applications. Figure 3-17 shows a simple audio amplifier. a)
More audio amplifier circuits will be presented in Chapter 4.

MIXER
This circuit (Fig. 3-18) is a variation on the audio amplifier. Note
the similarity to the adder circuit shown in Fig. 3-6. The various
30 31
 Fig. 3-17. Op -amps can be used for ac applications, as well as dc applications.

input signals are combined, or mixed. The level of each input sig-
nal can be adjusted via its input potentiometer. This allows the user
to control the relative proportions of the various input signals in
the output.

SIGNAL SPLITTER
The signal splitter circuit shown in Fig. 3-19 is just the reverse
X
Cr)
0
-J

O
U)
>

E
O

O.

O
cc)

c
co
0
a)

0
-J
(.6

0)
ii Fig. 3-18. This mixer circuit combines multiple audio inputs into a single output.

32 33
 R2

R1
10lJT
0
VIN
0 lOP°
Fig. 3-20. Voltage -to -current converter using an op -amp.

voltage is equal to IIN x R2. In other words, input current is con-

verted into a proportional output voltage. No current flows through
R2, the lower limit of current flow being established by the bias
circuit generated at the inverting input.
A capacitor may be added to this circuit, as shown in the dia-
gram, to reduce "noise."

CURRENT SOURCE
Use of an op -amp as a current source is shown in Fig. 3-22.
Resistor values are selected as follows:

R1 = R2
R3 = R4 + R5
Fig. 3-19. A signal splitter is just the opposite of a mixer.
Current output is given by:
of a mixer. A single output signal is split off into multiple identical
outputs to feed different inputs. This circuit is used to isolate the
R3 VIN
IOUT
various signal paths from each other. Each output line has its own R1 R5
individual potentiometer to set the desired level.

VOLTAGE -TO -CURRENT CONVERTER

The circuit configuration shown in Fig. 3-20 will result in the
same current flowing through R1 and the load impedance R2, the
value of this current being independent of the load and proportional
to the signal voltage, although it will be of relatively low value be-
cause of the high input resistance presented by the non -inverting
terminal. The value of this current is directly proportional to
VIN/R1.

CURRENT -TO -VOLTAGE CONVERTER

This configuration (Fig. 3-21) enables the input signal current
to flow directly through the feedback resistor R2 when the output Fig. 3-21. Current -to -voltage converter using an op -amp.

35
34
 R3 R1 R1- 1 Mt
R2-10 MO
R3- 2 K12
R4- 1 KO
diode-silicon diode
C1-475 pF
C2-0.1 µF
IC-CA741

Fig. 3-22. Circuit for using an op -amp as a current source. See text for corn
ponent values required.

MULTIVIBRATOR
An op -amp can be made to work as a multivibrator. Two basic
circuits are shown in Fig. 3-23. The one on the top left is a free
running (astable) multivibrator, the frequency of which is deter-
mined by: Fig. 3-23. Two basic circuits for a multivibrator, based on op -amps.

1
f-
2C R1 loge 2R3 + 1

R2

The lower right hand diagram shows a monostable multivibra-

tor circuit which can be triggered by a square wave pulse input.
Component values given are for a CA741 op -amp. See also sepa-
rate chapter on "Multivibrators."
SQUARE WAVE GENERATOR
A practical square wave generator circuit built around an op -
amp is shown in Fig. 3-24. This is perhaps the simplest possible
square wave generator circuit. Besides the op -amp itself, only three
external resistors and a single capacitor are required.
Resistor R1 and capacitor Cl are the primary components in
defining the time constant (output frequency) of the circuit. But
the output frequency is also affected by the positive feedback net - Fig. 3-24. This is perhaps the simplest possible square wave generator circuit.

36 37
worx maae up of xz ana KJ. 1 ne general equations are ratner com-
plex, but they can be simplified for specific R3/R2 ratios. For
instance:

If R3/R2 = 1.0 then F .--..- 0.5/(R1/C1)

or: VOUT

If R3/R2 . 10 then F . 5/(R1/C1)

For most applications, the most practical approach is to use

one of these standard ratios, and adjust the values of R1 and Cl
to generate the desired frequency. Standardized values can be used
for R2 and R3. For example, if R2 = 10K and R3 = 100K, the
R3/R2 ratio will be 10, so:

F = 5/(R1/C1) Fig. 3-25. The basic square wave generator can be adapted easily for variable
frequency output.

Generally, we will know the desired frequency and will need

sistance of R lb sets the range of output frequencies.
to select the appropriate component values. The easiest approach
is to first select a likely value for Cl, and then rearrange the equa-
tion to solve for the value of R1: VARIABLE PULSE WIDTH GENERATOR
A square wave is perfectly symmetrical. That is, it is in its high
R1 = 5/(FC1) state for exactly one half of each cycle, as illustrated in Fig. 3-26.
The ratio of the high level time to the total cycle time is called the
Let's try a typical example. We want to generate a 1200 Hz duty cycle of the signal. The duty cycle of a square wave is, by
square wave signal. If we use a 0.22 µF capacitor for Cl, the value definition, 1:2.
of R1 should be: Closely related to square waves are rectangle waves and pulse
waves. These waveforms also switch between a high and a low
R1 = 5/(1200 x 0.00000022) = 5/0.000264 = 18,940 it state, but have different duty cycles. The terms "rectangle wave"
and "pulse wave" are used somewhat interchangeably, although
For most applications, a standard 18K resistor could be used. usually, a pulse wave is considered to have a relatively short high
This circuit can be made even more useful and versatile by level time.
adding a potentiometer in series with R1, as shown in Fig. 3-25. Figure 3-27 shows a rectangle wave with a duty cycle of 1:3.
This allows the output frequency to be manually changed. The output level is high for one third of each cycle. The rectangle
The same equations are used for this circuit, except the value wave illustrated in Fig. 3-28 has a duty cycle of 1:4.
of R1 is equal to the series combination of fixed resistor Rla, and We can convert the square -wave generator described in the
the adjusted value of potentiometer Rib; preceding section into a rectangle wave generator by adding just
two components. The revised circuit is shown in Fig. 3-29.
RI = Rla + Rlb On negative half -cycles, diode DI blocks flow of current through
R4. The time constant is comprised of R1 and Cl:
The fixed resistor is included to prevent the value of RI from
ever becoming zero. The fixed value of Rla and the maximum re- T1 = 5/(2C1 RI)
38 39
 The length of the total cycle is simply the sum of the two half -
cycle time constants:

Tt = T1 + T2

The output frequency is the reciprocal of the total time con-

stant of the complete cycle:

Fig. 3-26. A square wave is symmetrical. It is high for one half of each com- F = 1/Tt
plete cycle.

Fig. 3-27. A rectangle wave with a 1:3 duty cycle is high for one third of each
complete cycle.

Fig. 3-28. A rectangle wave with a 1:4 duty cycle is high for one fourth of each
complete cycle.

On positive half -cycles, however, the diode conducts and the

time constant is defined by Cl and the parallel combination of RI
and R4:

T2 = 5/(201 ((R1 R4)/(R1 + R4)))

Fig. 3-29. This circuit generates asymmetrical rectangle waves
40
41
 The output frequency is determined by this formula:

F = 1/(6.28 R1 C2)
The twin -T feedback network is detuned slightly by adjusting
the value of R4. This will usually be a miniature trimmer poten-
tiometer. The potentiometer is set for its maximum resistance, then
slowly decreased, until the circuit just begins to break into oscilla-
tion. If the resistance is set low, the sine wave will be distorted
at the output.
Fig. 3-30. The sine wave is the simplest ac signal.
SCHMITT TRIGGER
Since the time constant will be different for the high and low A Schmitt trigger is known technically as a regenerative compa-
level portions of the cycle, the duty cycle will be something other
than 1:2. The output waveform becomes asymmetrical.
Either R1 or R4, or both, may be made variable, but bear in
mind that changing either of these resistances affects both the out-
put frequency and the duty cycle.

SINE WAVE OSCILLATOR

The simplest of all ac signals is the sine wave, which is illus-
trated in Fig. 3-30. This is a very pure signal with no harmonic con-
tent at all. A sine wave consists of only a single fundamental
frequency.
Actually, it is quite difficult to generate a truly pure, distor-
tion free, sine wave. Fortunately, we can come close to the ideal
with an oscillator circuit built around an op -amp.
A typical sine wave oscillator circuit using an op -amp is shown
in Fig. 3-31. The feedback network is a twin -T circuit, which func-
tions as a band -reject (or notch) Filter. Resistors R1 and R2 along
with capacitor Cl form one T. The other T is made up of C2, C3,
R3, and R4. It is upside down in the schematic.
For this circuit to function properly, the component values must
have the following relationships:

R2 = R1
R3 = R1/4
R4 = R1/2 (approximate)
Cl = 2C2
C3 = C2 Fig. 3-31. A fair sine wave can be produced with this oscillator circuit.

42 43
 +V

R2 R3

5
12 R6 Supply
6 voltage
6-15 volts

7 R7 1

Dc 4
10
input

v6 O -v
R1-2.2 KO
R2-3.3 KO o
Output
Fig. 3-32. Schmitt trigger which gives an output once a precise value of vary- R3-3.3 KO 4
ing input voltage is reached. An application of this circuit is a dc voltage level R4-470 0
senser. R5-5 KO potentiometer
R6-33 KO
parator. Its main use is to convert a slowly varying input voltage R7-22 KO
into an output signal at a precise value of input voltage. In other IC-CA 3018
words it acts as a voltage "trigger" with a "backlash" feature, called
hysteresis. Fig. 3-33. A more complicated Schmitt trigger circuit for general use.
The op -amp is a simple basis for a Schmitt trigger (see Fig.
3-32). The triggering or trip voltage is determined by:

VOUT R1
V trip -
R1 + R2
The hysteresis of such a circuit is twice the trip voltage.
Another Schmitt trigger circuit is shown in Fig. 3-33, the trig-
gering point being approximately one -fifth of the supply voltage,
i.e., there is a "triggered" output once the dc input reaches one -
fifth the value of the supply voltage. The supply voltage can range
from 6 to 15 volts, thus the trigger can be made to work at any-
thing from 1.2 to 3 volts, depending on the supply voltage used.
The actual triggering point can also be adjusted by using different
values for R4, if required.
Once triggered, the output will be equal to that of the supply
voltage. If output is connected to a filament bulb or LED (with bal-
last resistor in series), the bulb (or LED) will light once the input
voltage has risen to the triggering voltage and thus indicate that Fig. 3-34. Capacitance multiplier circuit. The effective capacitance Ce is equal
this specific voltage level has been reached at the input. to the value of Cl multiplied by R-1 /R2.
45
44
 Chapter 4

Audio Amplifiers
Quite a number of linear ICs are designed as audio amplifiers for
use in radio receivers, record players, etc. Again these are used
with external components, but physical layout and the length of
leads is relatively unimportant-unlike circuits carrying radio fre-
quencies. The "packaging" of such ICs can vary from cans (usually
TO -5 to TO -100 configuration) to dual -in -line and quad -in -line. In
all cases they will usually have 12 or 14 leads (but sometimes less).
Fig. 3-35. Two basic filter circuits using op -amps.
Not all these leads are necessarily used in a working circuit. They
are there to provide access to different parts of the integrated cir-
CAPACITANCE BOOSTER
cuit for different applications. Integrated circuits designed with
The circuit shown in Fig. 3-34 works as a multiplier for the ca- higher power ratings may also incorporate a tab or tabs to be con-
pacitor Cl, i.e., associated with a fixed value of Cl it gives an ef- nected to a heat sink; or a copper slug on top of the package for
fective capacitance Ce which can be many times greater. The actual a similar purpose.
multiplication ratio is R 1/R2 so that making R1 ten times greater A single chip can contain one, two, three or more amplifier
than R2, say, means that the effective capacitance of this circuit stages interconnected and following each other (technically referred
would be 10 x Cl. to as being in cascade). Pin -out connections provide "tapping" points
As far as utilization of such a multiplier is concerned, the cir- for using one or more stages separately or in cascade as required.
cuit now also contains resistance (R2) in series with the effective The (RCA) CA3035 integrated circuit is just one example. It
capacitance. consists of three separate amplifier stages connected in cascade
with a component count equivalent to 10 transistors, 1 diode and
FILTERS 15 resistors. Each amplifier stage has different characteristics. The
Op -amps are widely used as basic components in filter circuits. first stage, which can be selected by connections to pins 1, 2, 3,
Two basic circuits are shown in Fig. 3-35. (See also separate chap- 9 and 10 (see Fig. 4-1), is a wide band amplifier characterized by
ter on Filters.) high input resistance (i.e., ideally suited to connecting to a preced-

46 47
 +9 V
R1-100 KO Output
R2-100 KU
C1-10 µF C3
C2- 1µF
C3-10 AF
+V

C2

C1-10 p.F
9 volts
C2-10 µF
Input 10 supply

Fig. 4-2. Utilization of the second amplifier in CA3035 integrated circuit by tap-
ping pins 2, 4, 5, 9 and 10. This circuit gives a voltage gain of 100-120 with
an input resistance of 2 it and an output resistance of 170 O.
-V
R1/Av where Av is the amplifier open loop voltage gain. This is
accomplished without affecting the actual voltage gain. In the case
of cascaded amplifiers a capacitor C2 is needed in series with R1
Fig. 4-1. Utilization of the first amplifier in CA3035 integrated circuit by tap-
ping pins 1, 2, 3, 9 and 10. This circuit gives a voltage gain of 100-160 with to act as a block to dc (i.e., R1 only is needed for amplifier 1 part
an input resistance of 50 KO and an output resistance of 270 O.

ing transistor stage). The working circuit using this stage in Fig.
4-1. It has a gain of the order of 160 (44 dB).
The second amplifier in the CA3035 has a lower input resis-
tance (2 KO) and a low output resistance of 170 O. The gain is similar
to the first stage (about 45 dB). A working circuit with tapping
points is shown in Fig. 4-2.
The third amplifier is a wide band amplifier with a low input
resistance (670 1) and a high output resistance (5 KU). It offers a
voltage gain of 100 (40 dB). A working circuit is shown in Fig. 4-3.
Amplifiers 1 and 2 can be cascaded; or amplifiers 2 and 3; or
amplifiers 1, 2 and 3. Figure 4-4 shows the external connections
and components required to cascade amplifiers 1 and 2.
Using all three amplifiers in cascade results in a gain of ap-
proximately 110 dB. The circuit in this case is shown in Fig. 4-5.

MODIFYING AMPLIFIER PERFORMANCE

The output impedance of an amplifier stage can be modified Fig. 4-3. Utilization of the third amplifier in CA3035 integrated circuit by tap-
by connecting R1 to provide a negative feedback from output to ping pins 6, 7, 8, 9 and 10. This circuit gives a voltage gain of 80-120 with
an input resistance of 670 n and an output resistance of 5 KU.
input. This has the effect of reducing the working value of R1 and
49
48
01
0
R2 +9 V
0

C3
C2
C5

C4 Output
R1 CA 3035 I( 0
Input Cl 10
0 If
R1-220 KO
R2-1.2 KO
C1-10 ILF
C2-0.22 µF
C3-0.04 µF
C4-10 µF
/77 C5-50 µF

Fig. 4-4. Circuit for using first and second amplifiers contained in CA3035 in cascade. This circuit gives a voltage gain of about 700
with an input of 50 0 and an output resistance of 170 0.

C5

C2

Output
0
C1
Input
0 11 R1-220 KO C1-10 µF
R2-1.2 KO C2-0.04 µF
R3-680 0 C3-0.22 µF
R4-1 KO C4-0.05 µF
R5-4.7 KO C5-0.05 µF
C6-50 ALF
C7-10 µF

07 Fig. 4-5. This circuit shows all three amplifiers in CA3035 cascaded to give a voltage gain of about 200,000.
V1 vfl JVJJ, V1 11l..41.18 1.111.411l. 0, a 1.0.l"....1116 111 1.1110

Since amplifier 2 in this chip is directly coupled to amplifier 1 and

amplifier 2 is directly coupled to amplifier 3 the use of an im- +9 V
pedance -matching resistor applied to amplifier 2 (or amplifier 3)
will require the use of a blocking capacitor in series with the resistor.
The gain of the amplifier stage can be modified by the use of
a series resistor in the input (R1). This acts as a potential divider
in conjunction with the effective input resistance of the stage so
that only a proportion of the input signal is applied to the stage.
In this case:

actual voltage gain = R1

Ri + R1/Av
R1-22 KO
input resistance = Ri + R1/Av R2-30 f2
C1-50 µF/6 volt
where Ri is the input resistance of the IC C2-56 pF
Thus by suitable choice of R1 and Ri, both voltage gain and C3-150 pF
input resistance of an amplifier circuit can be modified to match C4-1 µF
specific requirements. It follows that if a number of different resis- C5-500 µF/12 volt
tors are used for Ri, the circuit can be given different response (sen- C6-100 µF/12 volt
sitivity) for a given input applied to each value of Ri by switching. loudspeaker -8 ohms M
This mode of working is useful for preamplifiers. Virtually the same
circuit is used for an audio mixer, separate input channels being
connected by separate series resistors (Ri) and thence commonly Fig. 4-6. Audio amplifier for radio receiver based on the TAA611 A55 integrat-
ed circuit. Pin numbers shown are for the can -shaped version of this IC.
connected to the input. In this case each channel has the same in-
put resistance with an overall gain of unity. as TAA611Al2.
Figure 4-6 shows a circuit for a low power (1.8 watt) audio am- Because of its higher power, the circuit based on the TA611C
plifier using a TA 611 monolithic integrated circuit. This particu- really requires the IC to be mounted with a heat sink although this
lar IC is available in two configurations, a TO -100 metal case and is not absolutely essential. The IC is, in fact, available with a spe-
in a quad -in -line plastic package. Lead positions are shown in Fig. cial mounting bar or spacer to which a heat sink can be attached.
4-7 for the two different configurations. The recommended method of mounting is shown in Fig. 4-8, the
This is a particularly attractive circuit for it needs a minimum heat sink itself being a piece of aluminum sheet cut to a suitable
number of external components and is capable of driving an 8 -ohm size and bent to the shape shown. The IC itself has a copper slug
loudspeaker directly with any supply voltage between 6 volts and on its top face on to which the heat sink sits (and is clamped down
12 volts. Also, it does not require a heat sink. by the mounting bolts). Better thermal contact between the IC and
Exactly the same circuit can be used with a number of other the heat sink can be achieved if the contact area is very lightly
integrated circuits in the same family, offering higher output coated with silicon grease.
powers. These are the TA611B and TA611C. The only difference There are other methods of fitting heat sinks to this IC (and
is the values required for the external components required. (See other types). The TA611C is also available with an external bar,
Table 4-1 for a comparison.) the ends of which can be soldered to copper "patches" on the
Lead arrangement for the TA611B and TA611C are the same printed circuit panel (also shown in Fig. 4-8). In this example the

52 53
Fig. 4-7. The two versions of the TAA611 integrated circuit. The TAA611 A55
is a 14 -pin dual -in -line package. The TAA611 A55 is a "can" shape package
in a metal case (TO -100). The circuits are identical so either can be used in
Fig. 4-1 with the same external components. Note, however, the different pin -
out arrangement for the TAA611 Al2 on the left.

Copper areas form the actual heat sink. A suitable area in this case
would be about 30 mm square for each copper patch. These cop-
per areas are, of course, merely used for heat dissipation and are
not part of the actual printed circuit as such, although it is normally
advisable-and necessary with some types of IC-to connect the

Table 4-1. Comparison of TA611B and TA611C.

TA611B TA611C
Supply Voltage 6-15 6-18
Max. Power Output 2.1 watts 3.3 watts
R1 22 K0 220 KO
R2 300 150 0
C1 50 µF 25 µF
C2 56 pF 82 pF
C3 150 pF 1.2 µF
C4 omit omit
C5 500 µF 500 1.4F
C6 100 µF 100 µF

54 55
heat sink area to the common earth of the circuit. It is just a con-
venient method of making heat sinks integral with the printed cir-
cuit panel.
A further audio amplifier based on a TBA641B integrated cir-
cuit is shown in Fig. 4-9. This is a little more complicated in terms
of the number of external components used, but has the advantage
of driving a 4-12 speaker (the more readily available value with larger
loudspeakers) and is suitable for direct coupling of the input. It will
operate on a supply voltage ranging from 6 volts to 16 volts and
give 4.5 watts output power at 14 volts. Again the IC needs mount- R1-100 Kg
ing with a heat sink of the type illustrated in Fig. 4-8. R2-56 (2
R3-100 12
R4-1 12
SHORT CIRCUIT PROTECTION C1-100 µF/3 volt
A feature of many audio amplifier circuits is that if the output C2-100 µF/15 volt
is shorted when the circuit is switched on (e.g., loudspeaker con - C3-4700 pF
C4-1 µF
C5-1000 pF
C6-100 µF/15 volts
C7-100 µF/25 volts
C8-0.1 µF
C9-2000 µF/16 volts

Fig. 4-10. 10 -watt amplifier circuit based on the TCA940 integrated circuit. The
TCA940 is a 12 -lead quad -in -line plastic package.

nections accidentally shorted), excessive current may be passed by

the output transistors sufficient to destroy them. It is possible to
provide short-circuit protection with additional circuitry limiting
the current which can flow through the output transistors. This can
readily be incorporated in an IC, an example being the TCA940
designed as a 10 watt class B amplifier. Other characteristics of
this particular IC are high output current (up to 3 amps) very low
harmonic and crossover distortion and a thermal shut down fea-
ture (See later).
The circuit is shown in Fig. 4-10. Supply voltage is up to 24
volts. Power rating depends both on the supply voltage used and
the resistance of the loudspeaker:

Supply voltage 4-S2 speaker 8-52 speaker

20 10 watts 6.5 watts
Fig. 4-9. Audio amplifier for 4 4 loudspeaker based on the TBA641B integrat- 18 9 watts 5 watts
ed circuit. Component values are shown on the diagram (SGS-Gates). 16 7 watts
56 57
 A feature of this circuit is that the bandwidth is controlled by of conventional appearance with 14 leads. Because of its high power
the values of R2 and C3 and C7. For a value of R2 = 56 Si with rating, it is intended to be used with a specially formed heat sink
C3 = 1000 pF and C7 = 5000 pF the bandwidth is 20 kHz. For mounted on a spacer designed to provide proper thermal contact
the same capacitor values the bandwidth can be reduced to 10 kHz between the IC itself and the heat sink when assembled on two
by making R2 = 20 Sl. For the original resistor value (R2 = 56 bolts-Fig. 4-11. The most negative supply voltage of the circuit
(2), the bandwidth can be reduced to 10 kHz by making C3 = 2000 is connected to the copper slug on the IC and hence also to the heat
pF and C7 = 10000 pF. sink.
Circuit assembly is straightforward, except that the IC needs The basic amplifier circuit is completed by the addition of four
a heat sink. It is provided with tabs which should be bolted to an external resistors and seven capacitors, plus a coupling capacitor
external aluminum sheet heat sink of generous area. to enable the circuit to be used with a split power supply. This pro-
vides direct drive for a 4-0 loudspeaker. Since the Hi-Fi circuits
are usually stereo, two ICs are used in this basic circuit configura-
THERMAL SHUT DOWN
tion, each IC powering its own loudspeaker. The complete circuit
The short-circuit protection built into this IC effectively works is shown in Fig. 4-12.
as a power -limiting device. It is only effective on a short -duration A simpler stereo audio amplifier circuit is shown in Fig. 4-13,
basis, i.e., to provide protection against temporary overload and based on the (Mullard) TDA1009 integrated circuit. This IC is a
short circuiting of the output. An additional circuit is included to low frequency Class B amplifier with no crossover distortion de-
ensure that regardless of how long a short circuit is present across signed for use with a minimum number of external components.
the output the junction temperature of the output transistors is kept It delivers 2 x 6 watts output power at 10 percent distortion into
within safe limits. speakers of 4-0 impedance with 8 to 16 volts supply; and can also
In other words, this additional piece of circuitry incorporated deliver the same power into speakers with 8-5E impedance using
in the IC provides complete protection against a shorted output. a 24 -volt supply. The IC incorporates short circuit protection for
It also has another advantage. The same protection is present if supply voltages up to 16 volts and also thermal protection. Input
there is another cause of overheating, e.g., the heat sink used is impedance is 45 KO.
not really large enough for the job it is intended to do. The ther- The addition of capacitors C9 and C10 (shown dotted) provides
mal shut -down circuitry simply reacts to the junction temperature "bootstrapping." This provides increased output power.
becoming too high by reducing the output current and power to
compensate. STEREO PREAMP
In many systems, a preamplifier stage is required to bring the
HI-FI STEREO AMPLIFIER input signal up to a sufficient level for proper operation for the main
The excellent performance and extremely good stability pos- power amplifier. A turntable with a magnetic cartridge produces
sible with integrated circuits makes them a logical choice for Hi- a very low level signal. A preamplifier is normally required.
Fi circuits. The TDA 2020 monolithic integrated operational am- In many stereo systems, the preamplifier stage also includes
plifier is an excellent up-to-date example of such a device, designed the volume and tone controls, and switching for selecting between
to be used as a Class B audio power amplifier for Hi-Fi circuits. the various input sources (turntable, FM receiver, tape deck, etc.).
It is capable of providing a 20 -watt power output into a 4-0 loud- A typical stereo preamp circuit is shown in Fig. 4-14. For sim-
speaker with a supply voltage of 18 volts, and with a guaranteed plicity, only the right channel is shown here. The left channel is
output power of 15 watts. It is also a device for providing high out- identical. The 381A contains two independent preamplifier circuits,
put current (up to 3.5 amps) and has a very low harmonic and cross- so a stereo (two channel) preamplifier can be constructed around
over distortion. It also incorporates short-circuit protection and ther- a single IC. The pin numbers in parentheses are for the left chan-
mal shut -down protection. nel. Pins 4 and 9 are the power supply connections, and are com-
The TDA2020 is in the form of a quad -in -line plastic package mon to both halves of the circuit.
59
58
 Heatsink Right
Rh 5 2 to 8° C/W input Spkr

Contact C9
+
(silicone grease) Left
R 5
0.5° CNV input
R6

Spacer

PC board
Ri-1 Kf2 C1-0.1 µF
R2-100 KO C2-0.1 µF
R3-1 f2 C3-68 pF
R4-100 Kit C4-0.1 µF
R5-47 KO C5-0.1 µF
R6-1 KU C6-47 ;IF
R7-100 Kfl C7-100 µF
R8-1 II C8-100 µF
R9-100 MI C9-47 µF
IC1-TDA2020 C10-0.1 µF
IC2-TDA2020 C11-68 pF
loudspeakers -4 C1 C12-0.1 µF

Fig. 4-12. Stereo amplifier circuit with split supply voltage ± 17 to ±24 volts.

Heatsink This circuit features independent volume controls and source

selection switching, but no tone controls. If you'd like to adapt the
Copper slug circuit to include tone controls, just bear in mind that a tone con-
Spacer
PC board trol is nothing more than a variable filter. Chapter 10 should give
you plenty of information for designing tone controls.
Chip Logarithmic taper potentiometers should be used for the vol-
ume controls.
Fig. 4-11. Heat sink for the TDA2020 integrated circuit. Another stereo preamplifier for magnetic phono cartridge in -

60 61
 Tuner Tape
right right
E in in
0 + 30 V
5 u-

E4. 4.
m 4_
ca.

L L I' LL LL LL I1LI* 0 .1 0
aa a ua- E E E
o0
(1-
4.
N..
.L.

a 0 I

h- .4- T a 3 :r
I" -8c..,
4 v. c9 m 8 8 8 8 8 -4.1..- to- = a
I Ill0, ,
cv,-.)
I

ccccoo0000^ 00E1
0 o 5 P 2 _o
I

.1, CO N. oL ,,
I

0
Phono
right
> c.)
> in
+
-____>
Out
right

IC -381A low noise dual preamp

R1-47
R2-51 KO
R3-150 KO
R4-2.5 Ktl, trimpot
R5-39.2 KO
R6, R7-47.5 KO
R8-100 KO potentiometer
C1-1 µF
C2-10 µF
.4-
C3-300 AF
C4-220 AF
C5-.066 µF
C6-.015 µF
C7-.1 AF

a Fig. 4-14. Stereo preamp.

E
channels are shown.
0 put is shown in Fig. 4-15. Both
This circuit is built around two sections of a 381 low noise dual
preamplifier IC. In addition to independent volume controls, this
each
co
circuit features independent bass and treble (tone) controls for
(o channel, and a balance control to set the relative levels of the two
x
channels.
a)
a
E HIGH POWER AMPLIFIERS
in
Most of the original IC audio amplifiers which appeared on the
4 market had a relatively limited power output and thus needed to
be associated with a further stage or stages of transistor amplifi-
63
62
 chips are now readily available with output powers from 1 to 5 watts
and substantially higher outputs are obtainable from later develop-
ments capable of handling even higher voltages and currents with
satisfactory thermal stability.

BRIDGE AMPLIFIERS
Even higher outputs are obtainable from bridge amplifier cir-
cuits. These can be used to increase power from output for a given
supply voltage, or maintain a high power output with a reduced
supply voltage. Bridge connection can give four times the output
power under a given load with the same supply voltage; or twice
the output power at a fixed peak current if the load impedance is
doubled (e.g., using 842 loudspeaker(s) instead of 44/ loud-
speaker(s)).
An example of this type of circuitry, again using the TDA2020
integrated circuit is shown in Fig. 4-16. It is capable of delivering
30 watts power output in an 842 loudspeaker with a supply voltage
of ± 17 volts.

RIAA AMPLIFIER
Theoretically, an amplifier's frequency response should be ab-
solutely flat. That is, all frequencies should be amplified by exactly
the same amount.
In some recording and transmission media, it may be neces-
be
sary to pre -emphasize certain frequency components that could
attenuated excessively by the recording/transmission process. Dur-
ing playback/reception these same frequency components need to
be de-emphasized to restore flat response.
Standard pre-emphasis/de-emphasis curves have been devised
for various media to ensure interchangeability between sources.
Virtually all phonograph records, for example, are recorded with
the RIAA standard curve. An amplifier in a record player should
include an RIAA de -emphasis network. A typical circuit for a ce-
ramic cartridge input is shown in Fig. 4-17.

TAPE PLAYER AMPLIFIER

The circuit shown in Fig. 4-18 is designed as a playback am-
plifier for a tape deck. The standard NAB equalization curve is
matched by the feedback network.
64 65
 IC -380 audio power amplifier integrated circuit
R1-2.5 Mf2 potentiometer
R2-1.5 Mf/ resistor
C1-0.002 µF capacitor
C2-220 pF capacitor +18 V
C3-500 /IF electrolytic capacitor 0
Spkr-8 g speaker 2
14
Ceramic R1
cartridge 6 C3
Spkr

C2
R2

Fig. 4-17. Amplifier circuit compensated for RIAA.

IC-CA 381
R1-240 K
R2-180 12
R3-2.2 Meg
R4-62 K
C1-1 µF
C2-20 µF
C3-1500 pF

Fig. 4-18. Playback amplifier for a tape deck.

66 67
 I iie lcIpC liedu sfiuulu oe SeleClea to generate about DUO µV at
1 kHz. The output is approximately 5 volts RMS. An external vol- Chapter 5
ume control potentiometer can be added to the output line.

(((( tj

Complete Radio Circuits

The development of radio circuits around a single IC with the same
physical size (and shape) as a single transistor is exemplified by
the following. The IC is the Ferranti ZN414 which contains the
equivalent of 10 transistors in a complete trf (tuned radio frequency)
circuit providing three stages of rf application, a detector and agc
(automatic gain control).
The ZN414 has three leads, identified as input, output and
ground. It provides a complete radio circuit in itself to be connected
to an external tuned circuit, an output decoupling capacitor, a feed-
back resistor and second decoupling capacitor, and an agc resis-
tor. As with any high gain rf device, certain requirements should
be observed to ensure stable and reliable operation. These are:

All leads connecting components to the ICs should be kept

as short as possible.
The output decoupling capacitor should be connected with
very short leads to the output and ground leads of the ZN414.
The tuned circuit should be kept as far away as possible from
the battery and from the loudspeaker and leads connecting
these components to the circuit.
The "earthy" sidc of the tuning capacitor (the moving part)
must be connected to the junction of the feedback resistor
and the second decoupling capacitor.

68 69
 A basic radio circuit using a minimum of components is shown E

in Fig. 5-1. Ll and Cl is a conventional tuned circuit, e.g., a high - co 15

>
ir)
Q proprietary coil on a ferrite rod with a matching value of tuning a) 76
c
capacitor. Alternatively, Ll can be made by winding approximately E
0 =
a) ;-. .2
80 turns of 0.3 mm diameter (30 swg) enamelled copper wire on C
co c -0 =
a ferrite rod 4 cm (1 1/2 in) to 7.5 cm (3 in) long. In this case a match- CO 6 a)
o
it ao a
ing value of Cl is 150 pF. a) a
E as
L.L. u_
c
a
yo cn r
',,. o 0 o
0 y o.
X
This circuit will provide sufficient output power for driving a u) a. .c 1- §
5 .56 ci O a
sensitive low impedance earpiece with an equivalent resistance of 0
approximately 500 12. To work a high impedance crystal earpiece
0 a) cFs
--C.

.3 ()NI
I
(11v).1)I

0 0 Cr CC CC
I I
04 I Inc:11)
CC CC CC
t-.Ni

0 a

an additional stage of amplification is needed. This modified cir- o

cuit is shown in Fig. 5-2, requiring four more resistors, a poten- c_)

.c 0
tiometer, another capacitor and a ZTX300 transistor (or equivalent).
The potentiometer R4 and resistor R5 provide volume control (by oct)

ci)
adjustment of R4). This can be omitted if the receiver is to be
--
brought down to minimum size, as the directional effects of the fer- .4- co

rite rod aerial will normally provide all the volume control neces- z
sary. In that case, replace R4 and R5 with a single 27042 resistor. cl)

-E. 5
a)
a)
E
+1.5 V cnct

-i a) a>

IT3

0--NV \e--
cco 7
1:3 0-
a) 5
Crystal ao
E
earpiece
(low impedance) co a
.0

8 0o
cO
o
4.)"

-
3>

7
-
1:5

L1 and C1-ferrite rod aerial coil and matching tuning capacitor 0

C0
R1-100 KR CD
ro

C2-0.01 i.LF
C3-0.1 ILF 5 Tn.
1:3 E
Sensitive (low impedance) crystal earpiece (500 R) or less 0 co a
(.1 c,
Fig. 5-1. The ZN414 integrated circuit consists of a preamplifier followed by .5 .
c,L,),

15_
three stages of rf amplification and finally a transistor detector. It is a "com-
plete" radio circuit requiring a minimum of external components to work. LL L2 8

70 71
 +9 V
25 p.F 3.3 KU 250T
56 KU KSO T0.1 AF
27 1-2 1 KO
Note: The earthy side ZTX 47A
of VC1 (moving section) 300 ZTX
must be connected 500
to C1/R16. 56 KU 680 t2 BFS60

R16
4.7 Kt/ 100 1.210 KU 1U
./
100 Kit
500
47 pF 220 1 [2
Lf E 1\/c1 = 150 pF µF
KU
ZTX LS1
C1 = 10 K 109
0.01 µF ZN414 to T to re) ZTX BFS97 0.01 -.-
25 K U Kit \--/ 109 µF 8n
0.22 4 µF 1
100 10 U
1 Kft
KU

Lf = approx. 55 t. on a 15 cm. fer ite rod.

Fig. 5-3. A high quality receiver circuit based

on the ZN414 integrated circuit. This is a design by Ferranti. Component values are given on
the circuit diagram. A 9 -volt battery is used for the supply voltage.

V,
(Fa I n1
apsratIon) CI3
T2
111
n n3opF PfP Ion
SW°
A. . TI

C/11
100nF ws-
253

O v,
C23
220 oF R14
3360
C4
2F1 jo
M P1001.110 12 n

11
I ll 6 6 ,, ,3 ,, o 9
Fig. 5-4. Circuit diagram of AM/FM
1137101:
lc,
11_ T us
sw 3 ..1_ I50 Cloodrokss receiver using the TDA1071 in-
RI 560
MAIC/71 cal
S6060 OF 5V0 1
2OpF
tegrated circuit (Mullard).
1 2 l t 5 6 7 II 0 0 -T/ Pr

4V T 2260
-11°
1 Ao0o
bwf -1-C22 ovlOW
3 34
RN) T 114
11160
saw I- 68 nF Rt.
1260

R1
22060 C2I A1°"F f"
AFC AFC Mn
iswitch TZSV
C2
000nF Scloolch wir
20060 RS
220113

MW Sontchin9 .al shown

low AM -FM Ssotchos shown A F M position
gan
 Table 5-2. Parts Tor me rm riviit
Table 5-1. Parts for the AM/FM Receiver Circuit.
Resistors Winding data
All resistors CR25 10% T1 Primary: 12 turns, 0.071
unless stated mm enamelled copper
R1 560 KO Secondary: 2 turns, Resistors Capacitors
R2 220 KO tapped at 1 turn, 0.071
R3 220 KO mm enamelled copper C1 18 pF
R4 8.2 KO Former: Toko 7P 0092 All resistors CR25 10%
1.2 KO C2 3.3 nF
R5 220 KO T2 12 turns, R1
Primary: C3 4.7 pF
R6 15K4 tapped at 1 turn, 0.071 R2 12 KO
R7 1 KO 27 K0 C4 3.3 nF
mm enamelled copper R3
R8 15 KO 27 KO C5 12 pF
Secondary: 3 turns, R4
R9 47 0 0.071 mm enamelled R5 12 KO C6 18 pF
R10 100 KO C7 3.3 nF
copper R6 1 K12
R11 22 KO Miniature carbon preset poten- Former Toko 7P 0092 C8 18 pF
R7 39
tiometer, Philips 2322 410 03309 13 Primary: 3 turns, 0.071 C9 12 pF*
R8 27 KO
R12 680 mm enamelled copper
R9 121<0
C10 3.3 nF
R13 2.2 KO Secondary: 120 turns, C11 2.7 pF
R10 100 0
R14 33 KO tapped at 5 turns, C12 5.6 pF
wound over primary, R11 10
R 1- C13 3.3 nF
0.071 mm enamelled C14 56 pF
copper 2 1 kit
R 1- C15 3.3 nF
Former: Toko 7P 0089
T4 39
C16 22 nF
Primary: 9 turns, tapped 3
at 5 turns, 0.071 mm
enamelled copper
Secondary: 86 turns.
wound over primary,
0.071 mm enamelled Winding data
Capacitors copper T1 Primary: 2 turns, 0.031 mm enamelled
Former Toko 0089 copper
Secondary: 2 turns, 0.031 mm
C1 68 pF T5: M.W.-
C2 100 nF
Primary: 78 turns, enamelled copper
C3 27 pF
wound in a single layer, Former: Neosid 5 mm with ferrite core
C4 68 pF 3 x 3 x 3 x 0.063mm
N5 68 nF T2 Primary: 4 turns, spaced one diameter
litz 0.71 mm enamelled copper
C6 100 nF
Secondary: turns,
4
C7 68 nF
wound over the earthy Secondary: 1 turn, interwound with
C8 270 pF end of the primary 3 x the primary 0.71 mm enamelled
C9 120 pF copper
3 x 3 x 0.063 mm litz
C10 100 nF Former: Neosid 5 mm with ferrite core
L.W.-
C11 560 pF
Primary: 210 turns, L1 3 turns, spaced one diameter and Transistors
C12 22 pF 1/2 turns, 0.71 mm
wavewound, 9 x 0.063 tapped at 1
TR1, TR2, TR3 BF195
C13 270 pF mm litz
C14 130 pF enamelled copper
Secondary: 12 turns, Former: Neosid 5 mm with ferrite core Diode
C15 22 pF
22 nF
wound under the pri- BB110
C16 D1
C17 100 µF, 4V mary, 9 x 0.063 mm
C18 68 nF litz
C19 100 nF For T5 the coils are
mounted on a ferrite "These components form part
C20 68 nF of the ganged tuning capacitor
C21 10 ALF, 25 V rod, 178 mm in length,
C22 3.3 nF diameter 9.5 mm.
C23 230 nF LI 8turns, 0.071 mm
C24 22 nF enamelled copper.
C25 150 pF Former Toko 7P 0092 Fig. 5-3 shows the circuit extended to give a performance com-
driv-
C26 18 pF Switch parable to that of most domestic portable transistor receivers,
C27 3.3 pF SW1 to SW4 4 -pole 2 -way switch This circuit
ing an 8-0 loudspeaker and powered by a 9 -volt battery.
These components form part Integrated circuit
of the ganged tuning capacitor IC1 TDA1071 does use six additional transistors and a number of other compo-
75
74
a") 510 !of m
C15
T
1000 }-~do
g TR1 BFI95
Aar Ial .npul OF.95
mi.. Cl
It rn) 8pF

0- .ZC8 mfiLC9 R13 R9 Rn 512 _L CI6

7- 18pF 7- 12pF 27k0 12k0 100 IkCI 22rF
R1 C2 R2 Ct. R3
1.240 33rIF 12k0 33nF 27141 /
T /
ic,0
3 3nF

R7 RI<
I I ()Vs
390 loon 1 Tn operabon)
CII ji
1 7pF
C3
/
7pF 1

BFI95
.Z5 C .:6 C
LI
77- .2 7- le
pF pF
DI
BB110 54 R5 C14 R6 513
27k0 3 3nF I2k0 T 56pF IkI) 390

m11. 11"C
i C71 11 .* AFC

Fig. 5-5. Front-end circuit for FM operation of the receiver given in Fig. 5-4 (Mullard).

Fig. 5-6. Printed

circuit layout and
component posi-
tions for con-
structing the
circuits of Figs.
5-4 and 5-5.
nents, but the component count (and cost) is still substantially less
than that of an all -transistor receiver of comparable quality (it is
cnapter
the equivalent of a 16 transistor set).

AM/FM RADIOS
A design for a high performance AM/FM radio receiver is
shown in Figs. 5-4 and 5-5. These circuits are by Mullard and are
based on their TDA 1071 integrated circuit which incorporates an
AM oscillator, an AM mixer with agc, a four -stage differential am-
plifier and limiter and a four -quadrant multiplier. Both AM and FM
functions are combined in the multiplier, giving symmetrical
demodulation on AM and quadrative detection with squelch on FM.
Figure 5-4 shows the AM circuit, working from a ferrite rod
aerial. Figure 5-5 shows the circuit for the additional front-end re-
quired for FM working, connected to an FM aerial. These circuits
will work on any battery voltage from 4.5 volts to 9 volts. For FM
operation, the AM -FM switch (SW4) moved to the FM position
Multivibrators
switches off the AM mixer and oscillator and brings the FM front- in
The simplest form of IC multivibrator merely uses an op -amp
end circuit into operation. The squelch circuit is separately con- a basic oscillator circuit such as that shown
in Fig. 6-1. Oscillation
trolled by SW1, the threshold of squelch operation being set by the frequency will depend on the IC parameter and the values of the
potentiometer R11 in Fig. 5-4. external resistors. The components shown give an output frequency
Component values are given on the two circuit diagrams. A of 1 kHz in the form of a square wave.
complete list is also given in Tables 5-1 and 5-2. The addition of a diode to this circuit, as in Fig. 6-2, provides
Figure 5-6 shows a printed circuit layout for the complete cir- can be ad-
a simple pulse generator circuit where the pulse width resistor R3
cuits of Figs. 5-4 and 5-5, using the components specified. Compo- justed by using different values for R2. The value of
nents with the subscript F are those in the front end circuit (Fig.
governs the actual pulse duration.
5-5). One additional component is also shown-a 300 pF capacitor An alternative form of multivibrator is to use two op -amps con-
adjacent to the medium wave/long wave AM aerial switch, which 6-3.
nected as cross -coupled inverting amplifiers, as shown in Fig.
does not appear on the relevant circuit diagram (Fig. 5-4). RC
Here the frequency is established by the time constants of the
Note also that this circuit is complete only up to the audio out- combinations R1 -C1 and R2 -C2. R1 and R2 should be the same
put stage-i.e., it needs to be followed by an audio amplifier and and C2 should
value, and can be anything from 1 KO to 10 KO. Cl
speaker(s)-see Chapter 4 for possible circuits to use. used.
also be similar values, and anything from 0.01 to 10 µF can be
The basic rules governing adjustment and oscillation frequency are
the value of
that for any particular value of R1 and R2, increasing
Cl and C2 will decrease the oscillation frequency, and vice versa.
the value
Similarly, for any particular value of Cl and C2 decreasing
of R1 and R2 will increase the frequency, and vice versa. KO
With the component values shown, i.e., R1 = R2 = 8.2
and Cl = C2 = 0.2 µF, the oscillation frequency will be 1 kHz.
Decreasing the value of R1 and R2 to 1 KO should result in an os-
cillation frequency of 10 kHz.
79
78
 C
R1-10 MS2
R2- 3 MO a
R3-30 KO
0 0 0 0 cs)
0
R4-10 MO a)

C-0.01 µF
O C
c a)
L c) C.)
cr
-o a)
C

(-\) .c
C
-
a
Cr)

T1'
(ti
E
a
rn 0 c.
O
0)
Fig. 6-1. Simple multivibrator (or square wave oscillator) circuit based on the 0 C
CK3401 op -amp. Component values may be chosen to give any specific out- 0
a)
put frequency required, within limits. These component values give a 1 kHz E) co
co C
square wave output. LL C.)
o
cr)

A rather more versatile multivibrator circuit is shown in Fig. O

a
6-4, which has independent controls of "on" and "off" periods. The C ci)
a a
frequency range is adjustable by choice of capacitor Cl which
co
governs the duration of the square wave pulse generated, viz: Cr)

1E
Value of Cl pulse period frequency 'V \A/
1 µF 4 min to 1 sec 3
250-1 Hz cc
0.1 µF 0.4 min to 100 min 2500-600 Hz 0
0
0.01 AF 4 min to 10 min 1500-6000 Hz C)

a
0.00 µF 4 sec to 1 min 15000 kHz -60 kHz N
0.;
CD Cr
:E
ro
,77; cj
(...)

a)

c
Oo
17 U)
a)
(t)
E
ernc
58
a)
(-)
-E
05 2-^
.c)

cp
C
Fig. 6-2. An almost identical circuit, with the addition of a diode, can be used C:0:3
as a pulse generator. Here the value of R3 determines the pulse duration and cn
zi5E-

the value of R2 determines the "off" period. ii v

80 81
 Adjustment of "on" and "off" times of oscillation within these
ranges is governed by the potentiometers R4 and R5.
Another multivibrator circuit is shown in Fig. 6-5, which is par-
ticularly notable for its stable performance. The frequency of os-
cillation is maintained to within plus or minus 2 percent on any
supply voltage from 6 to 15 volts and is independent of the actual R1
voltage. It uses a CA3094 op -amp IC with external resistors and
one capacitor. The circuit also includes a lamp which flashes on
and off at a rate of one flash per second with the component values
given. Filament bulb
Flashing rate can be adjusted by altering the values of R1 and or LED with
R2 and/or C. To adjust values to give any required flashing rate ballast resistor

(frequency), the following formula applies:

frequency
1

2RC1n (2R1/R2 + 1)
111111
R2
3 MO
Ri-2- 12 MO
R
R3-18 MO
R4-4.3 MO
R5-1.2 MO
C-0.45 AF
IC-CA3094
Filament bulb -6 or 12 volts
R1-100 KU
R2-100 KR
R3-100 Kit
R4-1 MU potentiometer Fig. 6-5. Astable multivibrator with low frequency of duration to work a flash-
R5-1 MO potentiometer ing light. Component values given provide a flashing rate of about 1 per se-
cond working off a 6 to 15 volt battery.
R6-2 KO
R7-2 Kft
+ V2 R8-2 KO potentiometer R1 R2
C1 -see text
where R =
R1 + R2
C2-0.01 µF
IC-CA3130
Supply voltage 15 volts In a variation on this circuit shown in Fig. 6-6, the introduc-
tion of a potentiometer R2 enables the pulse length to be varied
while maintaining a constant frequency (pulse repetition rate).
Ri Again this circuit can be used to flash a filament lamp, or a light
emitting diode. In the latter case, a ballast resistor is needed in se-
ries with the LED.
R2
Another straightforward free -running multivibrator is shown
in Fig. 6-7, using a CA3094 integrated circuit. The frequency is
Output controlled by the value selected for R3, and so using a potentiome-
ter for this component enables the frequency to be adjusted. The
frequency is also dependent on the supply voltage, which can be
- V2 anything from 3 volts up to 12 volts.
Designing a multivibrator circuit to work at an audio frequency,
while retaining adjustment of frequency, forms the basis of a metro-
Fig. 6-4. Multivibrator circuit with adjustable "on" and "off" periods. nome. The only additional circuitry required is a simple low -power
82 83
audio amplifier of the kind described in Chapter 4, connecting to
a loudspeaker. (4 to 10 volts)
+V
O R3 R4
TIMER CIRCUITS
A number of ICs have been developed specifically for mul-
tivibrator applications. These are called timer ICs. They make the
design of monostable (one shot) and astable (free running) mul-
tivibrator circuits quite easy.
Without a doubt, the most popular timer IC is the 555. This Diodes
C1
easy to use 8 pin chip is extremely versatile.
R1

R1-27 KO
/f/ 0 Output

R2-50 KU potentiometer
R3-27 KU
R4-100 KO R2 /77
R5-100 KO ¶C2
R6-300 Ku R1-2.7 Mu
R7-ballast resistor to suit LED used R2-330 KO
IC-CA309A R3-100 Ku
C-560 pF R4-5 K or 10 M1
LED-light emitting diode potentiometer
C-0.01 11F
diodes-any silicon diodes
IC-CA3094

Fig. 6-7. Free running multivibrator (or pule generator) circuit, the frequency
of which can be varied by adjustment of the potentiometer R4.

The basic 555 monostable multivibrator circuit is illustrated

in Fig. 6-8. Notice how simple this circuit is - just three external
components (two capacitors and a resistor).
Capacitor C2 helps stabilize the circuit. It is not needed in all
cases, but it doesn't hurt to include it. A small disc capacitor (0.001
/IF to 0.01 p.F) will do the job just fine, and will not add apprecia-
bly to the component cost.
The length of the output pulse is determined by R1 and Cl.
When a trigger pulse is received, the output goes high for a time
equal to;

T = 1.1R1C1
Fig. 6-6. Adjustable multivibrator circuit, potentiometer R2 varying the pulse
width, or "on" time of the LED indicator. Flashing rate is approximately 1 per
second. Supply voltage required for this circuit is 22 to 30 volts. where T is the time in seconds, R1 is in [2, and Cl is in farads.

84 85
 The basic 555 timer astable multivibrator circuit is quite simi-
lar. It is shown in Fig. 6-9. The primary differences are that there
ad-
is no trigger input, and a second timing resistor (R2) has been
ded to the circuit.
The time the output is in its high state is determined by both
resistors, and capacitor Cl;
Th = 0.693(R1 + R2)C1

while, the output low time is controlled by just R2 and Cl;

T1 = 0.693R2C1

Notice that the output high time must always be at least slightly

Fig. 6-8. The 555 timer IC is the heart of many simple monostable multivibra
tor circuits.

For example, if R1 is 220k, and Cl is 0.1µF, the length of the

output pulse will be;

T = 1.1 x 220000 x 0.0000001 =

0.0242 second

For practical designs, we will generally need to know the com-

ponent values for a specific time period. In most cases it is easiest
to select a likely value for Cl, and then rearrange the equation to
solve for R1;

R1 = T/1.1C1

As an example, let's say we need an output pulse of 0.5 sec-

ond. If we use a 0.5 µF capacitor for Cl, we need a resistance of;

R1 = 0.5/(1.1 x 0.0000005) =
0.5/0.00000055 =
909,091 II
Fig. 6-9. The 555 timer IC can also be used for astable operation.
A 910 K resistor could be used.
87
86
 The total output cycle time is simply the sum of the high and nent values;
low times;
R1 = 10K
Tt = Th + Tl R2 = 100K
Cl = 50 µF
If we combine the equations, we get;
This time, the high time equals;
Tt = 0.693(R1 + 2R2)C1
Th = 0.693(10000 + 100000) x 0.00005 =
Before moving on, let's look at a couple of practical examples. 0.693 x 110000 x 0.00005 =
For our first example, let's assume the following component 3.8115 seconds
values;
And the low time is;
R1 = 10K
R2 = 10K Tl = 0.693 x 100000 x 0.00005 =
C1 = 1µF 3.465 seconds

So the total cycle time works out to;

In this case, the output high time works out to;
Tt = 3.8115 + 3.465 =
Th = 0.693(10000 + 10000) x 0.000001 = 7.2765 seconds
0.0693 x 20000 x 0.000001 =
0.01386 second These examples clearly indicate that the 555 can be used for
a wide range of time periods.
The output low time is; In most practical astable applications, we are more concerned
with the output frequency than cycle time. The frequency is sim-
T1 = 0.693 x 10000 x 0.000001 = ply the reciprocal of the total cycle time;
0.00693 second
F = 1/Tt
The total cycle time is simply the sum of these two values;

Tt = 0.01386 + 0.00693 = For our two examples, we get frequencies of;

0.02079 second
F = 1/0.02079 =
Or, using the combined equation; 48 Hz. (appx.)

Tt = 0.693(10000 + (2 x 10000)) x 0.000001 = and;

0.693(10000 + 20000) x 0.000001 =
0.693 x 30000 x 0.000001 = F = 1/72.765 =
0.02079 second 0.0137 Hz. (appx.)

Notice that we get the same results in both cases. Notice that larger cycle times result in lower frequencies.
89
88
 Now, we just plug the values into tne rear' iiiigeu Li Cliucia,y
We can calculate the frequency directly by using this formula;
equation;
F = 1.44/((R1 + 2R2)C1) Cl = 1.44/((10000 + (2 x 22000)) x 100) =
1.44/((10000 + 44000) x 100) =
As an example, let's consider the following component values; 1.44/(54000 x 100) =
1.44/5400000 =
R1 = 22K 0.00000027 farad =
R2 = 33K 0.27 µF
Cl = 0.01 µFs
A 0.25 µF, or a 0.3 µF capacitor would probably do, but in some
Here, the output frequency works out to approximately; applications you will need some rather oddball capacitance values.
You can usually make do with series and/or parallel combinations
F = 1.44/((22000 + (2 x 33000)) x 0.00000001) = of standard capacitance values.
1.44/((22000 + 66000) x 0.00000001) = The other method of solving for component values is to select
which
1.44/(88000 x 0.00000001) = a likely value for Cl, then solve for the lumped resistance R,
1.44/0.00088 = is equal to (R1 + 2R2). This time the equation looks like this;
1636 Hz.
R = 1.44/(C1 x
In most practical applications, we will need to find the compo-
nent values that will provide the desired output frequency. There Again we will assume we need a 100 Hz output with a 1:3 duty
are two approaches you could take. cycle. For the time being, we will ignore the duty cycle, and just
The first approach would be to select the resistor values first solve for R.
for the desired duty cycle, then rearrange the equation to solve for A 0.1 µF capacitor would be a reasonable choice, so;
Cl;
R = 1.44/(0.0000001 x 100) =
Cl = 1.44/((R1 + 2R2) x F) 1.44/0.00001 =
144,000 fl
For example, let's say we need a 100 Hz signal with a 1:3 duty
cycle. The duty cycle ratio is; Now we know that;
R = 144,000 = R1 + 2R2
R2 : R1 + R2

R2, by definition, is equal to 1 in the ratio. We simply select

The next step is to factor the duty cycle as described above.
a likely value - say, 10K, then factor the duty cycle ratio; For a 1:3 duty cycle, R1 should be twice the value of R2, so we
can easily find the value of R2;
1 :3 R = 144000 = R1 + 2R2 =
lr : Xr + lr 2R2 + 2R2 =
4R2
In this example, R1 should be twice the value of R2, or 20K. R2 = 144000/4 =
If we assume our application is not overly critical, we can simply 36000 SI
use the nearest standard resistance value, which is 22K.
91
90
 K1 is simply twice the value of R2, so;

R1 = 2R2 =
6
2 x 36000 =
72000 52

These aren't standard resistance values. You could use paral- 15 I Regulator output

lel/series combinations of standard resistance values, or you could

use trimpots for R1 and R2.
If your application is not too critical you could round the values 14 Time base output
off. For example, you could use a 33K resistor for R2 and a 68K
resistor for R1. The actual output frequency would work out to;
13 Timing R/C
F = 1.44/((68000 + (2 x 33000)) x 0.0000001) =
1.444(68000 + 66000) x 0.0000001) = Binary
counter
1.44/(134000 x 0.0000001) = outputs
12 Modulation
1.44/0.0134 = 16 5
I
107 Hz.

That's pretty close to the desired frequency of 100 Hz. Com- 32

11 I Trigger

ponent tolerances could create that much error, so the rounding

off effect is minimal, except in very critical applications using low
tolerance components. 0
64 1 'Reset
PROGRAMMABLE TIMERS
555 timer circuits are ideal for many monostable and astable
128
timing applications in which fixed timing periods are required. How- !Ground
ever, they aren't so suitable for applications in which the timing
XR-2240
period must be changed, or when multiple time periods are simul-
taneously required.
The timing resistor in a monostable circuit could be replaced Fig. 6-10. The XR-2240 is a programmable timer integrated circuit.
with a potentiometer. Also, several timing capacitors could be
selected via a switch to set the operating range. The basic timing period is determined by a single resistor and
Variable frequency astable circuits have additional problems. capacitor. The formula is as simple as it can possibly be - even
One or both of the timing resistors could be replaced with poten- simpler than the one for the 555 timer;
tiometers, but unless both resistances are changed in exact unison,
the duty cycle will vary as the frequency is changed. Switch selec- T = RC
table timing capacitors could be used, but this is still a bit awkward.
The solution is a programmable timer, such as the XR-2240. A timing pulse equal to T is available at pin #1. A timing pulse
The pin -out diagram for this powerful and versatile IC is shown twice the basic timing period (2T) is brought out to pin #2. The
in Fig. 6-10. This chip has eight outputs in a binary weighted output at pin #3 has twice the timing period of pin #2 (4T). This
scheme. pattern is continued to pin #8, with each pin outputting a timing
92 93
 period twice that of its predecessor;
+V
0
pin #1
pin #2 2T i--R A/-40-1(
pin #3 4T
pin #4 8T
pin #5 16T
10 KO
pin #6 32T
pin #7 64T
pin #8 128T 16 13
1

2 22 KO
If an intermediate value is required, two or more pins can be
tied together. For example, if we need a timing pulse of 21T, we
-0-- 3 15

would tie the following pins together;

-0- 4 XR2240
-0-- 5 14
-0- 6
-0-- 7
+V
0
-0- 11 1
12

R C Output

0 01 tiF
Trigger 0
(optional)
10 KO Reset 0 /77 /77
(optional)

circuit built
16 13 Fig. 6-12. This is the basic programmable astable multivibrator
around the XR-2240.
O -0--- 2 22 KO
0 3 15 --A.AA0-- 16T
pin #5
0 4T
O -0- 4
5
XR2240
14
pin #3
pin #1 1T
-0- 6
O -0- 7 total 21T
0-- 8 12
10 9 11 The basic monostable circuit built around the XR-2240 is shown
Programming
dampers in Fig. 6-11.
or switches The astable circuit, shown in Fig. 6-12, is quite similar.
In either circuit, a string of 8 DIP switches can be used to se-
0.01 µF
Output O --
/77 lect any time value from 1T to 255T.
Trigger 0
input /77

Fig. 6-11. This is the basic programmable monostable multivibrator circuit built
around the XR2240.

94 95
 Chapter 7
ac
input

smooth. ng Capacitors
trans ormer

circuit for stepping down an ac voltage via a transformer and

Fig. 7-1. Typical
rectifying it to produce a lower dc output.
is shown in
nents required into the complete circuit. An exampleconstant volt-
Fig. 7-4, which is a regulator to provide an adjustable
thus possibly variable) 20
age dc output from an unregulated (and
volt dc input. It uses the transistors, diode and zener diode con-
external resis-
tained in the CA 3097E chip with a potentiometer and
can be
Voltage Regulators tor to complete the circuit. The actual output voltage
adjusted from 9.5 to 15 volts by the setting of the potentiometer,
Where a semiconductor circuit operating on low voltage dc is the value
with an output current ranging up to 40 mA, depending on
powered from the mains supply via a step-down transformer, volt- of the output load. A
age regulation is highly desirable in many circuits in order to en- Other simple voltage regulators can be based on op -amps.
is set by
sure constant dc supply voltage. This can be provided by using basic circuit is shown in Fig. 7-5. The reference voltage
zener diodes in associated circuitry. Exactly the same function can the zener diode, the value of R1 being chosen to provide optimum
be performed by a single IC. A particular advantage is that such The (regulated) out -
zener current for the input voltage concerned.
an IC can also incorporate internal overload and short-circuit pro-
tection which would call for numerous extra components in a cir-
cuit using discrete components. input output Max. output
IC type no. current
A typical circuit is shown in Fig. 7-1, giving a rectified, posi- voltage voltage
20 8.5 200 mA
tive dc voltage output from the center tapped secondary of the trans- TBA 435 200 mA
20 5
TBA 625A
former. The same components can be used in mirror -image TBA 625B 27 12 200 mA
15 200 mA
configuration to give a negative output voltage from the center tap TBA 625C 27
(in which case the polarity of the two electrolytic capacitors must
be reversed). Output
Performance characteristics of a family of ICs designed as volt-
age regulators are given in Fig. 7-2. They are quite small devices
in a TO -39 metal case with three leads-input, output and earth.
The earth or ground lead is internally connected to the case.
A circuit similar to that in Fig. 7-1, which uses the TBA435
k7mm .§.141- 12. 5mm --4.1
chip is shown in Fig. 7-3.
There are numerous other simple voltage regulators which can
be built from integrated circuit arrays (see Chapter 2) simply by circuit is enclosed in a TO -39 metal can shape
Fig. 7-2. TBA435 integrated
"tapping" the appropriate leads to connect the individual compo- and looks like a transistor because it only has three leads.
97
96
 VIN Vou-r
VOUT
V re7

R1-680 0 11111111111161.111111111t
R2-0-150 S2 potentiometer Zener CA741
C-10 µF diode
IC-TBA435

Note. Other IC voltage regulators can be used and/or different input voltages,
in which case different values of R1 and R2 may apply. As a general rule
R2 needs to be about one-third to one-half the value of R1. R3

Fig. 7-3. Adjustable output voltage regulator circuit. The potential divider formed
by R1 and R2 following the IC enables the output voltage to be adjusted via
R2; otherwise the circuit is the same as Fig. 7-1. Alternatively this circuit can
be applied to a dc input:
circuit using an op -amp and a zener diode
Fig. 7-5. Simple voltage regulator
The values of resistors R2 and R3 determine the
Vour = (1 + -R2+ 1GR2 to set the regulated voltage.
R1 output voltage (see text).

Component values for this circuit with an input voltage of 18 volts are given (V ref) and the
in the figure. put voltage is determined by the reference voltage
values of R2 and R3:
I R2 + R3
VOUT = V ref
VIN \ R3
Output
20 volts 9.5 to 15 volts
0-; R1
regulated A circuit which provides a small difference between volts
it needs
in
14--0 and volts out is shown in Fig. 7-6. Using a PNP transistor
R2 current

5
15 lire only about 1 volt to saturate the transistor, while adequate
is available for the regulating circuit using an
same circuit would need about 4 volts difference
NPN transistor.
between input
The
and
R3 output to maintain regulation.
R1-2 Ki2 With the circuit shown in Fig. 8-6,
R2-2 KS2
R4
R3-2.5 KO potentiometer (R1 + R2)
VOUT = 1.6
R4-1.5 KO R1

Another very useful circuit is shown in Fig. 7-7, which provides

words it halves
Fig. 7-4. Voltage regulator using the CA3097E integrated circuit array. This a split supply from a single battery source. In other
provides 9.5 to 15 volts regulated output from a 20 volts dc input, the actual a good degree of regulation
output voltage being determined by the setting of R3. the input voltage while also producing
99
98
 None ui Lumpy-
of the two (plus and minus) voltage outputs.
o 0 is critical but R1 and R2 should be of close -tolerance
V IN v OUT nent values
from 6 to 36 volts,
type of equal value. Input voltage can range between output +
Th--° when one half of the input voltage will appear
and 0, and the other between 0 and output - .

C2
R1-
R2- }see text
R3-10 KO C1
- R1

R4-5 KO potentiometer /77

C -CA3085 /77
transistor -40362 (or equivalen )
D1,D2-silicon diodes
C1-2
C2-0.01 µF
Fig. 7-6. Voltage regulator circuit incorporating a PNP transistor which gives
a difference between VIN and VOUT of about 1 volt (i.e., the voltage necessary
to saturate the transistor).

VOUT
VIN 0 0
TR1
1/2 VIN

I+C2 /)7 I

T1/2 VIN

0
- VOUT

R1-180 KO (close tolerance) TR1-ZN1711 (or equivalent)

R2-180 KO (close tolerance) TR2-40362 (or equivalent)
C1-25 IC-CA741
C2-25 µF
Fig. 7-7. This circuit gives a regulated split supply from any input voltage from
5 to 36 volts.
1 01
1 00
 Chapter 8

Electric Motor Speed Controllers Rs -1 KO

Rt-280 ci
C1-10 mF to 2 µF
A variety of ICs are designed as speed regulators for small de mo-
C2 (if used) -25 µF
tors such as those used in portable cassette players, movie cameras,
models and toys. The object is to "govern" the motor so that it
runs at a constant speed, independent of variations in battery sup- Fig. 8-1. Use of the TDA1151 linear integrated circuit as a speed regulator for
ply voltage and load on the motor. The TDA1151 is selected for a small dc electric motor.
the following circuits, having a maximum rating of 20 volts (which
covers most model and other small dc motors), with an output cur-
rent of up to 800 milliamps. It is a flat rectangular plastic package
with three leads emerging from one end, and comprises 18 tran-
sistors, 4 diodes and 7 resistors in a linear integrated circuit.
In its simplest application it is used with a potentiometer (Rs)
acting as a speed regulation resistance (and by which the actual
motor speed is adjusted); and a torque control resistor (Rdwhich
provides automatic regulation against load on the motor. Both these
resistors are bridged by capacitors, although C2 can be omitted-
see Fig. 8-1. Component values shown are suitable for a 6 to 12 volt
supply.
A slightly different circuit is shown in Fig. 8-2, using a
TCA600/900 or TCA610/910 integrated circuit. These have maxi-
mum voltage ratings of 14 and 20 volts respectively; and maximum
current ratings of 400 milliamps for starting, but only 140 milliamps
for continuous running. Fig. 8-2. Application circuit for the TCA600/610 or TCA900/910 motor speed
Devices of this type work on the principle of providing a con- regulators. R is the speed regulation resistor (variable). R is the torque con-
trol resistor. A suitable value for C1 is 0.1 F. A diode canoe added in line 3
stant output voltage to the motor independent of variations of sup - to provide temperature compensation as well.
102 103
 ply voltage, the value of this voltage being set by adjustment of
R0. At the same time the device can generate a negative output
resistance to compensate speed fluctuations due to variations in
torque. This negative output resistance is equal to RT/K, where
K is a constant, depending on the parameters of the device, viz:

IC K (typical) Vref I°
TDA1151 20 1.2 1.7 mA
TCA600/900 8.5 2.6 2.6 mA
TCA610/910 8.5 2.6 2.6 mA

The above also shows the reference voltage (Vref) and quies-
cent current drain (Id of the three ICs mentioned.
The following relationships then apply for calculating suitable
component values for these circuits:

Fig. 8-4. Although small devices, these integrated circuits for motor speed con
0cr) trol are based on the complicated circuitry shown here.
0
1-1

6.4±0.2 12.7 min

R=KRM
x
ft
x
co
1014

I
:
E E where RM is the typical motor resistance.
cc)
aa)
C-0051 Vref RT
Minimum value of Rs =
Eg - (Vref - loRT)
2 7 max 78 max
where Eg = back emf of motor at required or rated speed,
and I° = quiescent current drain of the device.
-3 ° Eg Actual voltage developed across the motor is given by:

Volts (at motor) = RM IM + Eg

E
IIIJI
where IM is the current drain by the motor at required or rated
tD
Lc)
1
I I
2E
r1ri.9.8 max 1.2 2.2
speed.
0.0054 The physical appearance of these chips can be seen in Fig. 8-3,
0.5
while Fig. 8-4 shows the complex internal circuitry within one of
4.4
these chips.

Fig. 8-3. Physical appearance of the TCA600/610 in a TO -39 metal can and
the TCA900/910 in a flat plastic package.

104 105
 Chapter 9
Volts
out

Frequency

Low -Pass filter

- 1

Filters 2 7r RC

A basic filter circuit consists of a combination of a resistor and a VOUT

Volts
VIN
out
capacitor. This combination of R and C has a time constant which
defines the cut-off frequency of the filter; but the actual mode of
working also depends on the configuration of the two components
(see Fig. 9-1.)
With R in series and C across the circuit, frequencies lower than
the cut-off frequency are passed without attenuation. Frequencies Frequency
at above the cut-off frequency are then sharply attenuated. This
is called a low-pass filter. High -Pass filter
With C in series and R across the circuit, frequencies above the
cut-off frequency are passed without attenuations. Frequencies be- Fig. 9-1. Basic filters are provided by a combination of resistor (R) and capaci
low the cut-off frequency are then sharply attenuated. This is called tor (C). A low pass filter attenuates frequencies above the critical frequency
a high-pass filter. Practical circuits for these two types of filter are (f0). A high pass filter attenuates frequencies below fc.
shown in Fig. 9-2.
The amount of attenuation provided by a filter is expressed calculated from these formulas:
by the ratio volts out/volts in, or voltage ratio. This is quoted in
decibels (dB)-a 3dB drop being equivalent to a voltage ratio drop C1 - R1 + R2
from 1.0 to 0.707, or a power loss of 50 percent. 1.414R1R2f,
Op -amps can be used as practical filters associated with an ex-
ternal capacitor, with the advantage that the more sophisticated 1.414
circuitry involved can provide superior performance to straightfor- C2 -
ward RC combinations. (RI + R2) fc
Two filter circuits based on the CA301 op -amp are shown in
Fig. 9-2. In the case of the low-pass filter component values are where fc is the effective cut-off point.
106 107
 In the case of the high-pass filter circuit:

Cl
R1 + R2
1.732R1R2 fc

1.732
C2 =
(R1 + R2) fc
Bandpass filters or bandwidth filters can be produced by com-
bining a low-pass filter in series with a high-pass filter. If the band -

Fig. 9-3. A low-pass filter in series with a high-pass filter passes frequencies
only within the bandwidth fcfH. A low-pass filter in parallel with a high-pass
filter rejects all frequencies within the bandwidth fL-fH.

width is from fL to fH, then the cut-off frequency for the low-pass
filter is made fH and that of the high-pass filter fL-Fig. 9-3 (top).
This filter combination will pass frequencies from 1L to 1H, i.e., in
the desired band.
To produce a band -reject filter, a low-pass filter is used in par-
allel with a high-pass filter, as in the second diagram. This combi-
nation will reject all frequencies within the band fL to fH.
Bandpass and band -reject filters are essentially functional mir-
ror images of each other, as illustrated in the frequency response
graphs of Fig. 9-4. For convenience, we will confine our discus-
sion to the bandpass filter.
This type of filter has two cut-off frequencies-the upper cut-
off and the lower cut-off. The action of the filter can not be de-
scribed with a single specification as the low-pass and high-pass
filters can.
Usually the cut-off frequencies are not identified specifically
in describing bandpass filters. Instead, we identify the mid -point
Fig. 9-2. Basic low-pass and high-pass filter circuits incorporating an op -amp between the two cut-off frequencies. This is called the center fre-
for better performance. quency, for obvious reasons.
108 109
 ao
O

cr)

-T0
AM"

Y Y
o 0 O
Y c0
o
Fig. 9-4. Band pass and band -reject filters are functional mirror images of each
CL
M a.)
co - Y
+I. N
cc =\ 1) 0
1

C7)
other. ii

. , ., ,
c

1
1 . 1CC CCC: 1.
00
2(
But we still need another specification to indicate how far apart cce,EN cc

the cut-off frequencies are. This specification is generally given in

one of two forms. The most direct is the bandwidth specification.

110
This is simply the frequency distance from the lower cut-off to the
upper cut-off.
This can all be made clearer with an example. Let's say the
lower cut-off frequency is 3000 Hz, and the upper cut-off frequency
is 5000 Hz. The center frequency is 4000 Hz, and the bandwidth
is the difference between the cut-offs (5000 - 3000 = 2000 Hz).
More commonly, the bandwidth specification is given in terms
of Q, or the Quality factor. The lower the Q, the wider the band-
width. Q is defined as the center frequency divided by the
bandwidth:

Fc
Q-
BW

or, for our example:

Output
0

IC-CA3035 R1-18 Kf2

C1-10 µF R2-18 Kf2
C2-0.001 µF R3-150 KS/
C3-0.001 µF IR4-150 K12
C4-0.001 µF R5-56 Ku
C5-10 µF R6-50 Kfl potentiometer

Fig. 9-6. A notch filter rejects input signals at a specific center frequency but
passes all other frequencies. This is a working circuit, the center frequency
being determined by the value of components in the two networks R3 -R4 -R5 -R6:
and C2 -C3 -C4. The actual "sharpness" of rejection or notch width is adjusta-
ble via potentiometer R6. Component values for a 1 kHz center frequency are
given in the figure.

112
 Bandpass Low -Pass
out out

+15 V
0 C1
R3
4
R4
6
R1 IC1A R7
IC1B
Input 5
11 ICIC
10
/77 - 15 V
R8
R6
R2 WV

IC1-LF347 quad op -amp IC R9

R10
R1,R5,R6,R9-100 KO
MA,
R2,R3,R8,R10-10 Kt/ 14
R4,R7-20 Kit 0
Band -Reject
C1-0.001 µF High Pass out
out

Fig. 9-8. A state variable filter features multiple filtering outputs.

Bandpass
High -Pass out
out
Low -Pass
R3
out
Band -Reject
R2 C2 out
C3
+12 V
2 4 C4
R5
6
R8 9
R1
IC1A R10
C1 R4 IC1B 13
5 R7 ICIC 14
10 IC1D
11
12
196

R9
IC1-µA4136 quad op -amp IC
MVO.
R1,R2,
R3,R6, 100 Kf2
R9,R10 R12
12 V
R11,R12
R4,R7-500 K0 potentiometer
R11
R5,R8-39 KO
C1-0.01 µF
C2,C3-0.001 µF
C4-0.1 µF
C5-10 µF 25 V electrolytic capacitor

ol Fig. 9-9. Another state variable filter circuit.

 Q
4000
=2 unapter iu
2000
A typical bandpass filter circuit is shown in Fig. 9-5. Using the
component values specified, the center frequency will be about 1000
Hz.
Some practical band -reject (or notch) filter circuits are shown
in Figs. 9-6 and 9-7.
There is one final type of filter of interest which we should look
at before moving on. The state variable filter has multiple outputs
for the various filter types described in the last few pages. A fairly
typical state variable filter circuit is shown in Fig. 9-8. For the com-
ponent values shown the Q is 3.4, and the cut-off frequencies for
the low-pass and high-pass sections is 3000 Hz. This is also the cen-
ter frequency for the bandpass section. The notch frequency is 9,500

Introducing Digital Circuits

Hz.
Figure 9-9 shows another state variable filter circuit. In this
one the high-pass and low-pass cut-off frequencies are adjustable
is based on
from 300 Hz to 3000 Hz. The potentiometers should have a reverse The digital system (also known as the binary system) "bits") -0
log type taper. counting in 1's. Thus it has only two digits (known as
electroni-
(zero) and 1 (one)-which are very easy to manipulate to count
cally. It only needs a simple on -off switch, for example, far as
in this manner. The switch is either "off" (showing zero as
of 1). It can
the circuit is concerned) or "on" (representing a count
in associa-
continue to count in l's, or even multiply, divide, etc,
of switches. The fast -as -light speed
tion with other simple types
devices can count makes the digital system very
at which electronic few
suitable for building computer circuits, particularly as only a
basic operations have to be performed. The fact that these opera-
combinations,
tions, using simple logic circuits or gates in suitable
may have to be repeated very many times is no problem either.
The decimal system expresses a number in powers of 10. In
other words individual digits, depending on their
order represent
the digit value x 10°, digit value x 10', digit value x 102, etc,
round, and
reading from right to left. Putting this the correct way
taking an actual number-say 124:

124 = 1 x 102 + 2 x 10' + 4 x 10"

= 100 + 20 + 4

The binary system expresses a number in powers of 2 using

117
116
 Example
only the two digits 1 and 0. down five stages
Binary number 10101, which has 5 digits, so write
to left.
Thus 1011 = 1 x 23 + 0 x 22 + 0 x 2' + 1 x 2° of powers of 2 starting with 2° and reading from right
= 8+0+2+1 Powers of two 24 23 22 2' 2°
= 11 0 1 0 1
Write down binary number 1
0 1
16 0 4
Convert to decimal
Thus a binary number is longer, written down, than its corre-
Add
16 +4 + 1 = 21
sponding decimal number, and can get very long indeed with large
decimal numbers (e.g., 10,000 = 1010100010000) but this does not
matter at all as far as electronics "counting" is concerned. It only LOGIC
number process, com-
makes it difficult for people to convert decimal numbers to binary Logic systems also work on the binary dc voltage levels. If
numbers, and vice versa. Here are two basic rules. monly based on the difference between two
employs posi-
the more positive voltage signifies 1, then the system
then the system
CONVERTING DECIMAL TO BINARY tive logic. If the more negative voltage signifies 1,
in both cases, al-
Write the decimal number on the right-hand side, divide by two employs negative logic. It should be noted that signifies 0, this is
though the lower or higher voltage respectively
and write down the result, placing the remainder (0 or 1) under- values have
not necessarily a zero voltage level, so the actual voltage
neath this number. Divide the number obtained in the top line by
2 and carry the remainder (0 or 1) down to make a next step to no real significance. where a "bit"
There is another system, known as pulse -logic,
the left. Repeat this operation, progressing further to the left each (positive pulse
is recognized by the presence or absence of a pulsepulse in the case
time, until you are left with a 0 in the top line. For example, con-
in the case of a positive -logic system and negative
vert the decimal number 19 to binary.
of a negative -logic system).
19/2 = 9, remainder 1
9/2 = 4, remainder 1 GATES
The three basic
4/2 = 2, remainder 0 Logic functions are performed by logic gates.
AND and NOT. All are designed to accept
2/2 = 1, remainder 0 logic functions are OR,
lead. The pres-
1/2 = 0, remainder 1 two or more input signals and have a single output
the absence of a signal by 0.
ence of a signal is signalled by 1 and
Written as described above, we have: The four possible states of an OR gate with two inputs (A and
whenever there
B) are shown in Fig. 10-1. There is an output signal
B (and also with in-
decimal numbers: 0 1 2 4 9 19 is an input signal applied to input A OR input regardless of the ac-
remainders: 1 0 0 1 1 put at A and B simultaneously). This applies
The behavior
tual number of inputs the gate is designed to accept.
is expressed by
and the remainders put together gives us the number 19 converted of an OR gate (again written for only two inputs)
to binary, 10011. the following truth table:

A B output(Y)
CONVERTING BINARY TO DECIMAL
0 0 0
Write down progressively from right to left as many powers 0 1 1
of 2 as there are digits in the binary number. Write the binary num- 1 0 1
be underneath. Determine the powers of 2 in each column where 1 1 1
a 1 appears under the heading and then add all these up.
119
118
 Truth Table
A0
A Y
0
0
0

Fig. 10-1. The four states of an OR gate.

truth table.
Fig. 10-3. A NOT gate and corresponding
It can also be expressed in terms of Boolean algebra, calling
the output Y Its Boolean equation is:
Y=
Y=A+B+...+N (Y equals NOT A)
where N is the number of gates
Inverting the output of an AND gate gives 10-4. us a NAND (Not
The important thing to remember is that in Boolean algebra It is just the
the sign + does not mean "plus" but OR. AND) gate. A NAND gate is illustrated in Fig.
of a NAND gate is 0 if, and
The AND gate again has two or more inputs and one output, opposite of an AND gate. The output
but this time the output is 1 only if all the inputs are also 1. The only if, both of the inputs are 1's. in a NOR
truth table in this case is quite different-Fig. 10-2. The correspond- Similarly, inverting the output of an OR gate results
ing equation of an AND gate is: gate, as shown in Fig. 10-5.
XOR (eXclusive OR)
Another variation on the OR gate is the
The output is a 1 when only
Y=AB...N gate, which is illustrated in Fig. 10.6.
also be considered a logical
orY=AxB...xN one of the inputs is a 1. This gate could the output is 0. If
difference detector. If the two inputs are equal,
will be a 1.
This time the or x sign does not mean "multiplied by" as the inputs are at different logic levels, the output AND gate are
in conventional arithmetic, but AND. Diode -logic (DL) circuits for an OR gate andlogic
an
and are iden-
shown in Fig. 10-7. Both are shown for negative
The NOT gate has a single input and a single output-Fig. 10-3, positive -logic
with output always opposite to the input, i.e., if A = 1, Y = 0 and tical except for the polarity of the diodes. In fact, aand a positive -
if A = 0, Y = 1. In other words it inverts the sense of the output DL or OR gate becomes a negative -logic AND gate;
with respect to the input and is thus commonly called an inverter. logic AND gate a negative -logic OR gate.

A Truth Table

A
Truth Table B AND) >y_
NOT
A B Y
A 0 0
0
Inputs AND o 0 0 0 0
0
Output 0 0
0
B 1
0

Br
0 0
1
1

1 1
ILD-)--/E3
NAND

creates a NAND gate.

Fig. 10-2. An AND gate and corresponding truth table. Fig. 10-4. Inverting the output of an AND gate
121
120
 Truth Table
A B
NOT
0 0
0 0
0 0 NPN
transistor
AB
1->2L 0

NOR

Fig. 10-5. Inverting the output of an OR gate creates a NOR gate.

Truth Table
A B Y

El)-11- 0 0 0
XOR 0
0
0
PNP
transistor

Fig. 10-6. A variation on the basic OR gate is the XOR (eXclusive OR) gate.

and a TL
Fig. 10-8. Transistor Logic (TL) positive logic inverter circuit (top)
negative logic NOT circuit (bottom).

PRACTICAL GATES
cir-
Most logic gates are produced in the form of integrated
NAND and
cuits, from which various "family" names are derived.
NOR gates, for example, are a combination of AND or OR gates,
respectively, with a NOT gate inverter. From the basic circuits just
Fig. 10-7. A Diode Logic (DL) negative logic OR circuit (left) and a DL negative
logic AND gate (right). described, such functions can be performed by diode -transistor logic
or DTL gates.
The simple NOT gate or inverter shown in Fig. 10-8 is based Faster and better performance can be realized with transistor -
the early 1970's DTL and TTL
on a transistor logic-an NPN transistor for positive -logic and a PNP transistor -logic gates (TTL). During
transistor for negative -logic. The capacitor across the input resis- represented the bulk of the IC digital productions, but since then
tance is added to improve the transient response. various other IC families have appeared, each offering specific ad -

123
122
vantages and more functions for particular applications. These are:
RTL (resistor -transistor logic) which can be made very small-
even by microelectronic standards-and is capable of performing
a large number of functions.
DCTL (direct -coupled -transistor logic), which employs the same
type of circuit as RTL but with the base resistors omitted. This
gate, which can perform NOR or NAND functions, has the advan-
tage of needing only one low voltage supply and has low -power clas-
sification.
HTL (high threshold logic) is based on diode -transistor logic
similar to DTL but also incorporates a zener diode to stabilize the
circuit and provide high immunity to "noise." It is usually chosen
for applications where this feature is important. of a NAND gate.
Fig. 10-9. This simple circuit demonstrates the operation
MOS (metal oxide semiconductor logic), based entirely on field
effect transistors (FETs) to the complete exclusion of diodes, resis- Inverting the output of a NAND gate produces an AND gate.
tors and capacitors, yielding NAND and NOR gates. This can be done with two NAND gate stages, as illustrated in Fig.
CMOS (complementary metal -oxide -semiconductor logic) us- 10-11.
simu-
ing complementary enhancement devices on the same IC chip, On the other hand, inverting the inputs of a NAND gate
reducing the power dissipation to very low levels. The basic CMOS demonstration circuit for this is shown in Fig.
lates an OR gate. A
circuit is a NOT gate (inverter), but more complicated NAND and 10-12.
NOR gates and also flip-flops can be formed from combinations of Simply adding a fourth stage (as an inverter) creates a NOR
smaller circuits (again in a single chip). gate, as illustrated in Fig. 10-13.
ECL (emitter -coupled logic) also known as CML (current -mode A number of non-standard gating schemes can also be created.
logic). This family is based on a differential amplifier which is ba- For example, the circuit shown in Fig. 10-14 is a combined AND/OR
sically an analog device. Nevertheless it has important application l's or C and D are l's.
gate. The output is a logic 1 if A and B are
in digital logic and is the fastest of all the logic families with delay If all four inputs are l's, the output will also be a 1.
times as low as 1 nanosecond per gate.

GATE DEMONSTRATION CIRCUITS

To give you a better understanding of how digital gates work,
we will present several demonstration circuits built around the
CD4011 quad NAND gate. Any digital gate can be constructed from
NAND gates.
In Fig. 10-9 we have the basic NAND circuit. The LED will
be lit (logic 1) if one or both inputs (A or B) are grounded (logic
0). If both of the switches is moved to the + V line (logic 1), the
LED will be dark (logic 0).
By shorting the two inputs together into a single input line, as
shown in Fig. 10-10 we have a simple inverter demonstrator. If the
input is logic 1 (V + ), the output will be logic 0 (LED dark). If the
input is logic 0 (ground), then the output will be logic 1 (LED lit). inverter.
Fig. 10-10. Tying the inputs of a NAND gate together creates an

124 125
 +V Inputs Output
A B

0 0 1

14 0
0 1

1 0 0
1 1 0
1/4
CD4011
12 ///
6

1/4
4
so.
13
1/4
11

1K
LED
1/4 CD4011 CD4011
CD4011
10

Fig. 10-11. An AND gate can be built from two NAND gate stages.

Digital gates can be used for more than simple logic switching inverter stage to the OR gate circuit of Fig. 10-12 turns
applications. The circuit in Fig. 10-15 is a simple low frequency Fig. 10-13. Adding an
it into a NOR gate.
square wave oscillator. When the input is a logic 1 (connected to
V + ), the circuit will oscillate. The LED will blink on and off once (grounded) disables the
or twice a second. A logic 0 at the input
oscillator. frequencies. If
Try different capacitor values to create other
to distinguish
the frequency is too high, the eye will not be able
to stay continu-
between the separate blinks. The LED will appear
ously lit when the oscillator is enabled. when using a smaller
Try routing the output to a small speaker You will
capacitor. (A 0.1 µF capacitor would be a good choice.)
enabled.
hear a tone from the speaker when the oscillator is

FLIP-FLOPS
element
A flip-flop is a bistable circuit and another important
bit of information
in digital logic. Since it is capable of storing onethis information is
it is functionally a 1 -bit memory unit. Because
locked or "latched" in place, a flip-flop is also known as a latch.
-bit word, such a
A combination of n flip-flops can thus store an n
unit being referred to as a register. two NOT
A basic flip-flop circuit is formed by cross -coupling
connected back to the input
gates, the output of each gate being
of the other gate. The NOT gates can be created from NAND gates
Fig. 10-12. This circuit demonstrates how an OR gate can be created from circuit will look like Fig. 10-16.
three NAND gates. as described earlier, and the final
127
126
However, to be able to preset or clear the state of the flip-flop, two
NAND gates are necessary, each preceded by a NOT gate, or a +v
NAND gate with its inputs joined. See Fig. 10-17.
When the flip-flop is used in a pulsed or clocked system the
preceding gates are known as the steering gates with the cross -
coupled two -input gates forming the latch. This particular config-

Inputs Output
A BCD
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 0
0 0 1 0 0
0 0 than just simple switching cir-
Fig. 10-15. Digital gates can be used for more
1 1 1

0 1 0 0 0 cuits. This is a gated digital square wave oscillator.

0 1 0 1 0
0 1 1 0 0
0 1 1 1 1

1 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 1 0
1 0 1 0 0
1 0 1 1 1

1 1 0 0 1

1 1 0 1 1

1 1 1 0 1

1 1 1 1 1

-coupling two
Fig. 10-16. A 1 bit memory or latch circuit is obtained by cross
NOT gates, or two NAND gates with their inputs shorted.

AN I.

Nf O7
R

Fig. 10-14. This circuit demonstrates how basic gates can be combined into NOT gates.
non-standard gating arrangements. Fig. 10-17. Flip-flop circuit with preset using four
129
128
 IC1-555 timer
Preset (Pr) IC2-CD4013 dual D -type flip-flop
LED1, LED2-LEDs
R1-1.8 KO
Pr R2-27 KO
J Q
Ck
R3,R4-1
K
C1-50 µF
if)
Cr C2-0.01 t4F

Fig. 10-18. J -K flip-flop circuit with corresponding symbol.

uration is also known as a S -R or R -S flip-flop. Two other varia-

tions of the flip-flop are also produced as integrated circuits:
PK flip-flop-which is an S -R flip-flop preceded by two AND gates.
This configuration removes any ambiguity in the truth table. It can
be used as a T -type flip-flop by connecting the J and K inputs to- R4
2 1
gether (see Fig. 10-18 for connections). IC2
D -type flip-flop-which is a J -K flip-flop modified by the addition LED2
of an inverter (see Fig. 10-19). It functions as a 1 -bit delay device.

FLIP-FLOP DEMONSTRATION CIRCUITS

One of the most common applications for a flip-flop is frequency
division. The frequency at the output of a flip-flop stage will be
one half the frequency of a square wave input signal. flip-flop can be used for frequen-
Figure 10-20 shows a simple demonstration circuit for this type Fig. 10-20. This circuit demonstrates how a
cy division.
of application. It consists of two stages. The first stage (IC1 and
its associated components) is a simple 555 astable multivibrator (see listed, it will produce a near
Chapter 7). With the component values
1 Hz. The second stage (IC2)
square wave with a frequency of about (CD4013). The frequency is
is one half a dual D type flip-flop IC
divided by two in this stage. second, while
LED1 will blink on and off approximately once a
other time LED1 (the in-
LED2 (the output) will blink once every
put) blinks. together. By look-
Any number of flip-flop stages can be strungbe created. A sim-
ing at each stage output, a binary counter can 10-21. This circuit
ple modulo -8 counter circuit is shown in Fig. back to 0 and start
will count from 0 (0000) to 8 (1000), then cycle
Fig. 10-19. A D -type flip-flop circuit is provided by a J -K flip-flop allied with an over. That is:
inverter.
131
130
 given moment.
uuuu 10-22. Here only one LED will be lit (logic 1) at any
repeatedly, activat-
0001 The circuit will step through the four outputs
0010 is sometimes called a 1 -of -4
ing one at a time. This type of circuit
0011 include as many output stages
sequencer. It can be extended to
0100 as desired.
0101
0110
FAN -IN AND FAN-OUT
0111 IC logic devices.
1000 The terms fan -in and fan -out are used with
to a logic gate. Fan -
0000 Fan -in refers to the number of separate inputs
accommodate, or
0001 out is the number of circuit loads the output can provided. Fan -out
0010 in other words the number of separate outputs
is commonly 10, meaning that the output of the Each gate can be con-
and so forth. separate in-
nected to 10 standard inputs on matching gates.
the number of separate loads the
+5 to+ 15 V put represents a load, the higher fan -out needs to
RI
o higher the current output of the device providing
each input, i.e., passing
be in order to provide the standard load on
4 the design figure.
enough current to drop each input voltage to
7
with tran-
It is possible to increase fan -out by replacingmeans
diode(s)
R2
a maximum
IC1 14 sistor(s) in the device concerned, so 10 is by no
R3 number.
11

IC2 LED ROM

C2 of con-
1; ROM stands for Read -Only Memory, a system capable
known application is to con-
13
verting one code into another. The best
such as an electronic
I6I7r 6I,0t vert the reading of a digital instrument emitting di-
calculator into a numerical read-out via an LED (light
R4 advantage of a ROM is that it is programmable
ode) display. The
systems. It does not fol-
and thus adaptable to different read-outnumber
LED of components to
1 1
14 12 5
low, however, that it uses the minimum designed for a
3 match a particular application. Special IC chips
in this respect, but not
11 3_,vsAs_R5
LED
specific application may be more economic demand for that
IC3 117 necessarily in cost, unless there is a very large
AP in point where a spe-
IC1-555 timer
R6 particular IC. The calculator market is a case
13
cial chip can offer advantages over a ROM.
IC2,1C3-CD4013 dual D -type
LED
flip-flop 41
LEDs (4)
6181101 RAM
R1-1.8 K a col-
R2-27 K RAM stands for Random-Access Memory and is basically
of memorizing infor-
R3 -R6-1 K lection of flip-flops or similar devices capable -in or read out
C1-50 IS Information can be written
C2-0.01 ALF
mation in binary form.
in a random manner.
Fig. 10-21. Flip-flop stages can be combined to create binary counters. 133
132
 CONNECTION DIAGRAM LOGIC DIAGRAM
22 'SS
'OS
1111
(AV ADDRESS SPOT
ODRESS ,.030 2

20 (AT) ADDRESS 'Om

ADORE SS ,,SPU1 (A101(
(AS) ADDRESS ,SPOT
ADDRESS t.oeuT 1)1, Ti
AS
"00
CMrP SELECT

DATA SPOT
(CS) (

(Di) ( 6 (CV COCA (MAW /

AS

al
C
DATA OUTPUT DT(To 3
ADORES% INPUT
00RESS ,PPuT (0) (AS)

(AA) ADDRESS 00uT

ADDRESS SPOT 031) CE WE
CS
(AT) ADDRESS 406.0
ADDRESS SPOT 121 10 re

(WE; WRITE ERMA

"CC

*AI Af SM ADDRESS AO AS

integrated circuit with con

Fig. 10-23. Example of a Random Access Memory
nection diagram.

THE SHAPE OF DIGITAL ICs

other dual
In physical appearance, most digital ICs look like any
ceramic flat pack-
in -line (or sometimes quad in -line) IC package, or
ICs, therefore, (ex-
ages. They are not readily identified as digital
although their function is quite specific. The
cept by type number)
more complicated digital ICs may, however, have considerably
to give pin dia-
more pins than usual. It is also common practice
also their specific
grams which not only define the pin positions but
function (Fig. 10-23).

135
134
 insLeau 01 a
unapter 11 be provided by using a top octave synthesizer t 1
series of master oscillators to derive the twelve top octave frequen-
cies required for a "full" organ. A TOS must be associated with
"least common
a master oscillator capable of generating a suitable
multiple" frequency, with the TOS following it, then providing the
twelve highest notes. Used with a suitable gating matrix, further
sub -multiples of these notes are obtained, e.g., in the case of the
TDA1008 the following output frequencies are available from the
five keys, where f is the actual input frequency:

key 1 key 2 key 3 key 4 key 5

f/4 f/8 f/16
output 1 f f/2
f/8 f/16 f/32
output 2 f/2 f/4
f/16 f/32 f/64
output 3 f/4 f/8
f/128
output 4 f/8 f/16 f/32 f/64
f/32 f/64 f/128 f/256
output 5 f/16
Electronic Organs
This, in effect gives nine different notes available from each
One of the major problems in the design of electronic organs is the of twelve available input frequencies from the TOS, or 96 differ-
large number of mechanical contacts called for using conventional ent notes. Further, operating two or more keys simultaneously will
(discrete component) circuitry. With two manuals of four octaves give the sum signal of these frequencies.
each, for example, 98 mechanical contacts are needed. This not
only complicates construction but could also be a source of trouble MASTER OSCILLATOR
in operation. There is often the limitation that each key is only able oscillator is about 4.5 MHz.
A suitable frequency for the master
to play one note. It is desirable for electronic organs to be able to
A variety of circuits can be used providing they have suitable sta-
play more than one octave -related note per key, increasing the num-
bility and the necessary amplitude and slew rate for driving the
ber of mechanical contacts required by that factor, e.g., 5 x 98 TOS properly. If the master oscillator is a sine wave generator,
= 490 contacts for the example quoted to be able to play five octave -
then it will be necessary to follow this with a Schmitt trigger to
related notes per key. obtain the required slew rate. This is not necessary with a square -
A number of integrated circuits have been developed, usually
wave generator and a very simple circuit of this latter type based
based on digital logic, to overcome such limitations. Many also pro-
on the NAND gates contained in the CD4011 integrated circuit is
vide additional features which may be desirable. An example is the
shown in Fig. 11-1. This requires a stabilized 12 -volt supply, as does
(Mullard) TDA1008 which consists of a matrix of gate circuits with
the TDA1008, so the same supply can be used for both the master
eight divide -by -two gates in each circuit. It is a 16 -lead dual -in -line
oscillator and TDA1008.
plastic package (SOT -38).
The master oscillator output connects to the Top Octave Syn-
One drive input only is required for delivering nine octave -
thesizer, the tone outputs of which form the input to the TDA1008.
related notes and, by actuating a key input, five successive signals
out of the nine can be selected and transferred to the output. Five They can be directly connected since the input signal pin of the
TDA1008 has an impedance of at least 28 KO.
key inputs are available, each selecting a different combination.
Other features which are available are "sustain" and "percussion"
of the output signals; and also "decay" of modulations. GATE MATRIX
Further simplification of an electronic organ circuit can also Connections to the TDA1008 integrated circuit are shown in
136 137
 7 +6Vo

R1-3 KO
R2-1 KU
C-27 pF
IC-CD4011
TOS-AYEO214
Input 0

12 11 10 9
16 15 14 13
Fig. 11-1. Master (square -wave) oscillator circuit to feed top octave Synthesizer.

Fig. 11-2. The different levels of supply voltage required are 6 volts, TDA1008
9 volts and 12 volts, as shown. The five keys can be directly con-
nected, although current -limiting resistors can be used in each key
4 5 6 7
2
line if necessary. 1

Five different output frequencies are available at each output +12 V0

Ql, Q2, Q3, Q4, Q5, depending on which key is activated (see table
above). To avoid sub -harmonics being generated it is advisable to
connect any not -required Q outputs to the + 6 volt supply line. R1

SUSTAIN
To actuate sustain and percussion effects, a time -delay circuit +9 V0
can be added associated with each key, as shown in Fig. 11-3. This
circuit will sustain the tone(s) for a period after release of the key,
2
but with the resistor also providing a certain delay time. The addi-
tion of a series resistor (RS) will delay the build-up of notes, de-
pending on the RC time constant of this resistor and the associated 0
capacitor in the circuit. Component values given are selected for 01 Q2 03 04 Q5
Outputs
good tonal response, but this is also a matter of personal prefer-
ence and so some adjustment of values may be preferred. It is also five keys. Resistors R1 are al
Fig. 11-2. Basic electronic organ circuit using and 05 are the tone out
possible to shorten the decay time of the sustain by adjusting the 1 KO. Resistors R2 are all 100 KO. 01, 02, Q3, 04
voltage applied to pin 7. A circuit for doing this is shown in Fig. puts to feed an audio amplifier circuit with loudspeaker.
11-4.
11-4.
The decay time is also adjustable via the circuit shown in Fig.
11-5 should
PERCUSSION To retain sustain as well, the circuit shown in Fig.
is closed and switch S2
If percussion is required this can be arranged by connecting be used. If sustain is wanted, switch S1 the note as long as a
a capacitor to pin 8 to discharge during keying, associated with a opened. Cl then remains charged to sustain
the note will decay at
series resistor to give a suitable time constant. Using a 0.47 F ca- key is held down. Once the key is released
the decay circuit connected to pin 7. To oper-
pacitor, a suitable series resistor value can be found by experiment. the rate established by
139
138
ate percussion, switch S1 is open and switch S2 closed.

TOP OCTAVE GENERATOR

A readily available, easy -to -use top octave generator in IC form
is the MK50240. A high speed clock signal is fed to the input, and
puts out twelve equally tempered tones (one full octave) plus one
extra note. The pitch can be varied by changing the clock frequency.
One nice feature of any circuit built around the MK50240 is that
any such instrument will always be in tune with itself.
The basic organ circuit using this chip is shown in Fig. 11-6.
The range can easily be extended with flip-flop stages, as shown

R1-100 12 potentiometer
R2-100

T -1:-LR27 Diode 1-BZX75 C2V1

Diode 2-BOW62

Fig. 11-4. Adjustable voltage to pin 7 for decay control.

/77 _I

16 15 14 13 12 11 10

TDA1008

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Rs

R1-10 KO
Resistors -2.2 MO R2-2 MO
To pin 13
Capacitors -0.5 µF C1-0.47 µF
Re-Series resistors, if required C2-0.47 /IF

Fig. 11-3. "Sustain" added to the circuit of Fig. 12-2. Other components are
8.
connected as before. Fig. 11-5. Percussion circuit with sustain, connecting to pin
141
140
 00000000000 oo

V 0 r. 0

CC0

a) in Fig. 11-6 can be extended

0 C
a)
Fig. 11-7. The range of the organ circuit shown
a) with flip-flop frequency dividers.
CV -- a)
0 (C

drops it
in Fig. 11-7. Each flip-flop divides the signal by two, or
0
O
a
0 exactly one octave. The
0 More than a single note can be produced at a time. 11-8
O MK50240 is fully polyphonic. It is capable of chords. Fig.
for one switch oper-
2 shows how chords can be hard -wired to allow
a)
.c ations. source.
D The MK50240 can also be used as a random voltage
C few hundred Hz,
2 This is done by lowering the clock frequency to a 11-9.
circuit is shown in Fig.
or less. A random voltage generator
a u_
ci a
I0
u, 9 0 SOUND EFFECTS CIRCUITS
7 7 >, described so
cl
Cr 0 0 0 0
C CO Simple electronic organs, like the ones we have
waves). This gives
C)
C
far, generate square waves (or other rectanglelimited. Some tonal
a cC
0 a pleasing, musical tone, but it is undeniably
circuits. But in some
C variety can be achieved with various filtering
of sounds.
applications, you may want to create other types
a) C)
E 0
C ICs have been developed in the last
a)
a A number of sound effects
00 0 E few years. These devices are essentially a complete (albeit simple)
o a SN94281 is a typi-
0 0 co a
Cv
electronic sound synthesizer in a single chip. The 11-10. A block
cal complex sound generator IC. It is shown in Fig.11-11. The sub -
cc
cc"

00E diagram of its internal circuitry is shown in Fig.

2 handful of exter-
circuits can be connected in various ways with a
143
142
 01
01
0
O

-n mm 0

V V %..1 V V Vt./ V

CD
V V v .. V

4.4

IC1-CD4001
IC2-MK50240
R1-10 K12
C3
R2-4.7 KU
R3-10 K12 pot
It R4 -R7-27 K11
C2 / R8-3.3 KO
14 R4 C1-47 µF
C2-0.01 µF.
R5 C3-10 p.F
C4-33 µF
IC2 R6
12
R7 Output
15

R8 C4

4=, voltage source.

cn Fig. 11-9. The MK50240 can also be used as a random
 or;

CI = 0.1
Noise capacitor EMixer A Rl = 100K
R2 = 220K
Noise resistor E Mixer B C2 = 0.05 p.F

Volume EMixer C

V r :76 VCO select

Audio in 12 SLF capacitor

External
Super low
VCO
Vcc E 11 SLF resistor frequency
oscillator control

Audio out E EVCO resistor

Ground 8 VCO capacitor

Noise
filter

Fig. 11-10. The SN94281 is used to generate many different sound effects.

nal resistors and capacitors to produce literally thousands of differ- Noise

Mixer
ent sounds. Some sounds will be quite musical, and others will be generator
unquestionably non-musical.
A simple circuit built around the SN94281 is shown in Fig.
11-12. With the following component values, the sounds produced Noise
will be like a space laser gun out of a science fiction movie; Envelope clock
generator/
modulator
Cl = 10 ILF
R1 = 1K
R2 = 1.5K
C2 = 0.1 AF
14 15 16

Other very different effects can be achieved with the same cir-
cuit, simply by changing the component values. Try these com-
ponents;

Cl = 0.1 AF
RI = 1 Meg in a single
sound synthesizer system
R2 = Fig. 11-11. The SN94281 is a complete
470K
IC chip.
C2 = 0.001 µF 147
146
 +9 V Chapter 12
F

- 1 0 µF

SN94281
100 p.F
Spkr

Miscellaneous Circuits
of
This chapter covers many IC circuits that do not fall into any
the previous categories. These projects range from LED displays
and
for radio tuning, to intercoms, to infrared transmitters
Fig. 11-12. This circuit can be used to generate many different sound effects
by changing the component values. Some examples are described in the text. receivers.
After this final chapter of projects, there is a chapter on con-
struction methods which will help you build all of these projects
or almost anything else. Some of the effects are difficult to sur- bet-
with good, solid techniques that will make your projects work
vive, but they are fascinating to experiment with.
ter, and will make your building more enjoyable.

HI-FI TONE CONTROLS

Tone controls fitted to domestic radios and equivalent circuits
for AM
are seldom of high quality. This does not usually matter
reception (which can never be Hi-Fi); but can degrade the perfor-
mance on FM reception. Similar remarks apply to the tone con-
recorders.
trols fitted to lower priced record players and tape cir-
High quality tone controls generally demand quite complex
to
cuits. ICs enable the number of discrete components required
be substantially reduced and, at the same time, offer other advan-
tages such as a high input impedance which matches a typical high
with audio
impedance source. Tone control can also be combined
amplification in IC circuits.
Figure 12-1 shows a complete circuit based around a TCA8305
integrated circuit incorporating a feedback network which attenu-

149
148
 CA3140 BiMOS op -amp. The tone control circuit is conventional
R1-47 KO log pot C1-47 nF to com-
and only a few additional discrete components are required
R2-10 KO C2-820 pF circuit around the IC. This circuit is capable of
R3-1.8 KO C3-100 µF plete the amplifier
at 100 Hz and 10 kHz
R4-100 KO log pot C4-0.1 µF + 15 decibels bass and treble boost and cut
R5-100 0 C5-100 µF respectively. similar
R6-15 0
R7-470 0
C6-250 µF An alternative circuit using the same IC and giving a
C7-100 µF in Fig. 12-4. Both of these circuits require
VIN
R8-470 0 C8-100 pF performance is shown
12-5 shows the same cir-
R5 R9-25 KO log pot C9-0.33 µF a supply voltage of 30-32 volts. Figure
R10-1 0 C10-0.22 µF cuit modified for dual supplies.
IC-TCA8305 C11-0.1 µF
C12-1000 µF
C11 R10 LED DISPLAY BRIGHTNESS CONTROL
How well an LED shows up is dependent on the ambient light

+ Ve

Fig. 12-1. Hi-Fi tone control circuit suitable for receivers, record players and
tape recorders and characterized by a high input impedance. Potentiometer
R1 is the treble control. Potentiometer R9 is the bass control. Potentiometer
R4 is the volume control.

ates the low frequencies and boosts the high frequencies. At the R1-100 Kit log pot C1-0.1 µF
same time high frequencies can be attenuated by the treble con- R2-100 ft C2-100 µF
trol potentiometer at the input. The volume control, also on the R3-180 C3-100 AF
R4-180 11 C4-500 µF
input side, provides "loudness control" at both high and low fre- C5-100 µF
R5-27 0
quencies to compensate for the loss of sensitivity of the human ear R6-1 it C6-82 pF
to such frequencies (i.e., both high and low frequencies tend to R7-10 KO log pot C7-1000 ALF
sound "less loud" to the ear). R8-150 St C8-0.1 iLF
R9-330 0 C9-0.15 µF
A simpler circuit, using the same IC, is shown in Fig. 12-2. This
R10-10 KO log pot C10-2 ALF
has a single tone control potentiometer. The circuit provides flat R11-15 0 C11-1 µF
response at middle frequencies (i.e., around 1 kHz), with marked IC-TCA8305 C12-2.2 µF
boost and cut of up to ± 10 decibels at 110 Hz and 10 kHz respec-
tively in the extreme position of the potentiometer. high and low fre
Fig. 12-2. Alternative Hi-Fi tone control circuit with separate
A (Baxandall) Hi-Fi tone control circuit associated with another Potentiometer R1 is the volume control. Potentiometer R7
quency feedback. R10 the bass control.
type of op -amp is shown in Fig. 12-3. The IC in this case is the is the treble control and potentiometer
151
150
 .V R1-5.1 MO
C5 R2-2.2 MO
C1-0.1 µF
r-
C2-0.01 µF R3-18 KO
R1 R2 R3
C3-100 pF R4-200 KO linear pot
C4-100 pF R5-10 KO
C5-0.001 µF R6-1 Mil log pot
C6-2 µF R7-100 KO
C7-0.002 ;IF IC-CA3140
C8-0.005 µF IC-CA3140
6 o
Output
Output

R1-240 KU IC-CA3140
R4 IR5 R6
R2-5 MO log pot C1-750 pF
L_ -I R3-240 Kit C2-750 pF
Tone control network R4-51 KO C3-20 pF
R5-5 MO linear pot C4-0.1 µF
R6-51 KO C5-0.1 µF
R7-2.2 MO Coupling Capacitor
R8-2.2 Mit (C8)-0.047 µF
R9-2.2 MO
R6
Fig. 12-3. Simple Hi-Fi tone control circuit. Component values are determined
for a supply voltage of 32 volts. Potentiometer R2 is the bass control. Poten-
tiometer R5 is the treble control. Components within the dashed outline com-
prise the tone control network.
R4 is the treble con
Fig. 12-4. Another Hi-Fi tone control circuit. Potentiometer
is 30 volts.
falling on it. In dim light the display is usually quite bright. In di- trot. Potentiometer R6 is the bass control. Supply voltage
rect sunlight it may be difficult to see at all. The circuit shown in
Fig. 12-6 provides an automatic brightness control of a (single) LED
by using a silicon photodiode to sense the amount of ambient light
and feed a proportional signal to the TCA315 op -amp integrated C1-0.047 µF
circuit. As the intensity of light increases the output current from C2-0.1 µF
C3-0.1 µF
the op -amp increases in proportion, and vice versa, thus automati-
IC-CA3140
cally compensating the brightness of the LED for artificial light.
The brighter the ambient light, the brighter the LED glows, and VIN C
vice versa.
The potentiometer (R6) is used for setting up the circuit ini-
tially. With a 2.5 volt supply, and with the photodiode in complete
darkness, R6 should be adjusted to give a current reading of about
100 µA (0.1 milliamps), using a meter in one battery lead to check.
With this adjustment, and the type of photodiode specified, the LED
will then receive an impressed current of 5 mA per 1000 lux illu-
mination of the photodiode. Fig. 12-5. Tone control for dual supplies.
153
152
 is
LED RADIO TUNING SCALE The complete circuit is shown in Fig. 12-7. The UAA17U
controlled via the voltage divider formed by R1 and R2 supplying
This simple circuit displays the tuned frequency of a radio in in the IC.
the tuning voltage for the AM tuning diode incorporated
terms of spots of light instead of (or in addition to) the usual pointer
Since this diode has non-linear characteristics, stations on the left
moving over a scale. An array of 16 LEDs should be sufficient to closely con-
indicate station positions with suitable accuracy over a typical (lower frequency) end of the tuning scale will be more band.
centrated, consistent with station spacing on this broadcast
medium frequency waveband (i.e., 520 kHz to 1600 kHz). The dis- The circuit will work on most normal transistor radio supply
play is driven by a Siemens UAA170 integrated circuit. A pho- for
voltages (i.e., Vs = 10 to 18 volts), and with an input voltage
totransistor is also used to match the brightness of the display (Siemens)
frequency indication of Vs = 1.2 to 27 volts using two R1 and
automatically to ambient light intensity, i.e., dimming the display LD468 LED -arrays. Voltage at the divider point between
in dull light and brightening the display to make it clearly visible
R2 should be between 0.06 and 1.16 volts and can be adjusted by
in sunlight. R1 if necessary. The actual brightness of the display is automati-
and is also adjusta-
cally controlled by the phototransistor BP101/1,
ble via the 1 K12 potentiometer.
Integrated circuit TCA315 op -amp
Photodiode BPW32
CAR THIEF ALARM
LED LD30 (or equivalent)
Resistors: R1-47 KS/ This is another circuit originated by Siemens and based around
of this de-
R2-47 Kft their TDB0556A dual timer IC. The first timing circuit
multivibrator with the circuit activated
R3-220 0 vice is used as a bistable
the voltage ap-
R4-47 12 by switch S1. Output level remains at zero, set by
+ V (2.5 volts) R5-10 MO plied to the threshold input pin 2 until one of the alarm contact
R6-250 KO potentiometer switches is closed, causing Cl to discharge.
"Press -for -off" alarm switches can be fitted to the doors, bon-
net and boot lid, so arranged that opening of a door or lid completes
held for
that switch contact. This will produce an output signal
of about
about 8 seconds, pulling in the relay after an initial delay
contacts so
4 seconds. The horn circuit is completed by the relay
the horn will sound for 8 seconds. After this the relay will drop
This
out (shutting off the horn) until capacitor Cl charges up again.
will take about 3 seconds, when the relay will pull in once more
seconds horn
and the horn will sound again. This varying signal of 8
until switch S1 is turned
on, 3 seconds horn off, will be repeated
off (or the battery is flattened). This type of alarm signal commands
alarm such as can be
more attention than a continuous sounding
given by straightforward on -off electrical switching.
The complete circuit is shown in Fig. 12-8 with suitable com-
car electrical
Photodiode ponent values, wired in to appropriate points on a
system.

INTERCOM
which
Fig. 12-6. Circuit for automatic control of brightness of an LED using a pho-
todiode to sense the level of illumination.
The TCA830S is a powerful, inexpensive op -amp IC
ti
155
154
cn
cy)
R5 R6
VAA170
two LD468 displays
-10
11 8
12 7
13 6
R3

14 4
R2 15 3
16
Phototransistor R1-330 KO
R2-1 KO pot
R3-6.8 KO
R1
R7
R4-2.7 KO
R8 R5-10 KO pot
R6-470 O
ICA-UAA170
Phototransistor-BP101/1
/1/ LED-two LD468 displays

Fig. 12-7. Sixteen LED display to replace or augment the usual pointer and scale indication of tuned frequency on an AM radio receiver.

85 15v
0. Vs
39
1-- 51
horn
TOB
25 GO W
0556 A 87k Rel
100 00 k 561( 22n
Nt 880
bonnet or 13

1N ZS
trunk lid 11
2
contacts BAY 61 4001
BAY 61
3 11
270 k

1010k 10
1

T
lamp of
5 9
bonne' or interim
Dunk lid fight `push button to the ton
1s 5w BAY 6
0,
BAY 61
00k

I"T = 47U
on o oft

door contacts
0
synching May. type K V 23033 - C 1001 - A 402

011
Fi g. 12-8. Circuit design by Siemens for a car theft alarm.
 cross-6Ct-LIVII S.11
makes it a particularly attractive choice tor intercoms since the cir- s.w.g.) and 300 turns of 0.06 mm (46 s.w.g.) enamelled copper
wire.
cuit can be built with a minimum number of components. Many is to enable standard 4 to 16-0
The purpose of the transformer
other op -amps do not produce the power required for loudspeaker These
loudspeakers to be used both as microphones and speakers.
operation without the addition of a further stage of transistor am-
speakers can be of any size, bearing in mind that the maximum
plification. The basic circuit is contained at the "main" station while of 2 watts on a 12 -volt
the "distant" station merely comprises a loudspeaker and a "call- power output of the circuit is of the order voltage down
supply. The intercom circuit will work on any battery
ing" switch. The two stations are connected by a 3 -wire flex.
to 6 volts, 9 or 12 volts being recommended for general operation.
The circuit is shown in Fig. 12-9. The TCA830S requires a heat
sink and is fitted with tabs. A printed circuit is recommended, in-
corporating two 1 in. (25 mm) squares of copper to which the IC ICE WARNING INDICATOR
tabs can be soldered for the heat sink. Component positioning is This very simple circuit usesthermistor
a as a temperature sen-
and a minimum of ex-
not critical since the circuit handles only audio frequencies. sor together with three CA3401E op -amps is set by the
The transformer (T) has a 50:1 turns ratio and is used as a step- ternal components. The operating point of the circuit
down transformer between the IC and speaker(s)-also working as potentiometer (R2) so that, at an ambient air temperature approach-
starts to flash.
a step-up transformer between speaker(s) and IC for working in ing freezing point, the light emitting diode (LED) until the
the reverse mode. In other words the transformer coil with the As the temperature falls, the rate of flashing increases Accurate
larger number of turns is connected to pin 8 on the IC. Instead of LED glows continuously once freezing point is reached. of a
purchasing this transformer ready-made it can be wound on a stack calibration can be carried out in the freezer compartment
with a ther-
of standard transformer core laminates 0.35 mm thick, giving a core domestic refrigerator with the door open, in conjunction
mometer. IC2 and IC3
+9 to 12 V
The complete circuit is shown in Fig. 12-10. IC1,
circuits contained in the IC. Thus pins 1 and
3 wire cable are separate op -amp 11 and 12
joining 6 are the input to IC1 and pin 5 the output of IC1; pins2 and 3 the
stations the input to IC2 and pin 10 the output of 1C2; and pins
-1 input to IC3 and pin 4 the output of IC3. Pins 8,
9 and 13 are ig-
S2 nored. Pin 7 connects to the earth side of the circuit; and pin 14
to battery plus side. leads
Layout of this circuit is not critical but all component
and the LED located some dis-
should be kept as short as possible
r_ tance away from the integrated circuit. This circuit is powered by
(SGS-ATES) TCA88305
integrated circuit a 12 volt battery.
I R1-20 KO Remote station
R2-29 0
C1-100 µF electrolytic 3 V DIGITAL VOLTMETER
: C2-0.1 µF
A digital voltmeter (known as DVM)
a has several advantages
L C3-1000 µF electrolytic 12 V
Transformer (T)-50:1 turns ratio, over a conventional pointer -and -needle meter, for example:
Main station
power rating 5 W.
Loudspeakers -4 0 (preferred)
Switches-St press break/make Easier reading with direct presentation of reading in digits.
S2: press make/break
Greater accuracy and high speed of reading.
Fig. 12-9. Intercom circuit using the TCA830S integrated circuit. This IC is Higher sensitivity.
powerful enough to operate fairly large loudspeakers. Component values are Greater resolution.
given in the text.
159
158
 +12 V
O

R1

Thermistor
R3
R2

1
FL I2
4- -rts-
R8
IVVV-
R6
TCA 671
I I
10
IC2
er
R9

R1-33 KO
4-7 R2-20 KO pot R8-10 MO
R3-150 KO R9-10 MO
R4-3 MO 1C1,1C2,IC3-CA3401E
oo:,
R5-3 Mil LED-light emitting diode 8' F,

R6-30 KO Thermistor-Mullard
R7-3 MO VA1066S (or equivalent)

Fig. 12-10. Circuit for an ice -warning indicator. Adjustment of potentiometer

R2 can set the circuit to flash the LED as air temperature approaches freez- CNI

ing point, with LED staying permanently alight once freezing temperature is (0
reached.
a
Unfortunately, the circuitry required for a DVM is quite com-
plicated, making it much more expensive than its simple analog
counterpart in the form of a moving coil instrument. However, by
using ICs the necessary circuitry for a DVM can be simplified and wrl

miniaturized and is within the scope of the amateur to build. The

following design by Siemens avoids the use of expensive compo- CD .1 La
nents and its performance is comparable with that of ready-made
DVMs in the medium -price range (well over $100). It has a basic
range of up to 9.9 volts with an accuracy of better than 99 percent.
The complete circuit is shown in Fig. 12-11. The input voltage
is converted to a proportional frequency by the op -amp TBA221
connected as an integrating amplifier and the following monosta-
161
160
U1C ILIUM V 1U1 cILU1 1 111-1,1JUIA kll,G). 1 De reSUILITIg OUTUL pulse (at U1C pianAJuiuu,. 11L1l,A1 was
pin 5 of IC2) is determined by the time constant of R4 and C4 and with other remote control systems the basic units involved are a
is of the order of 1.5 As. This pulse turns transistor T1 "on" and transmitter and receiver.
"off," the multivibrator thus supplying pulses to the clock input Single -Channel Infrared Transmitter
of the counter SAJ341 with a repetition frequency proportional to
This circuit uses the Siemens LD27 improved light-emitting
the input voltage.
These pulses are counted during a measuring interval defined diode LD27 in a pulse modulated transmitter circuit involving the
by the other half of the astable multivibrator TDB556A (IC1) with use of two oscillators, a sub -carrier frequency of 50 kHz modulated
a duty cycle of < 0.5. Its output directly controls the blocking in- by a frequency of 10 Hz, the second oscillator having a duty cycle
put of the counter (SAJ341). At the beginning of each measuring of 250:1. These circuits are based around four CMOS NAND -gates
interval, 5AJ341 is reset to QA, QB, Qc, QD = L (corresponding to (available in a single IC). The LED is square -wave modulated by
decimal 0) by a short L -pulse applied to the reset input IR. This a Darlington pair of NPN transistors.
reset pulse is produced by the measuring -interval generator, the The complete transmitter circuit is shown in Fig. 12-12 and
inverting transistor T2 and the following differentiation circuit. is quite straightforward. Despite drawing a peak current of 1 amp,
The display, which can be extended to four digits, operates on the average current drain is only 2 mA with a 6 -volt battery sup-
a time -multiplex basis using a level converter (TCA671), decoder ply, the peak current actually being supplied from the 470 µF ca-
(FLL121V) and display driving transistors BC307 and BC327. pacitor. This is possible since the 5 kHz output pulse train has a
The circuit is set up using a known input voltage (preferably duration of only 400 is in a repetition period of 100 ms.
between 2 and 3 volts). Potentiometer R1 is then adjusted to show
the correct reading on the display. If this is not possible, then the Single -Channel Infrared Receiver
value of resistor R2 should be changed for the next nearest value By comparison, the receiver circuit is more complex since it
up or down, i.e., 270 or 180 kilohms as found appropriate (one value employs six discrete transistors plus a Darlington pair in addition
will make matters worse, the other better). to three NAND -gates. (See Fig. 12-13.) The detector is a BPW34
The circuit needs two separate power supplies of + 5 volts at photodiode matched to an input impedance of 80 KO at 50 kHz.
300 milliamps and - 12 volts at 200 milliamps. For accurate work- Signals are received in the form of an infrared pulse train from the
ing of the meter both supply voltages should be regulated. transmitter. The receiver circuit following the photodiode ampli-
fies, clips, and rectifies the pulse train signal and applies it to a
monostable multivibrator which covers the space between two pulse
INFRARED TRANSMITTER AND RECEIVER trains. This means that a dc voltage is available at the output of
There are three practical possibilities for remote control sig- the receiver as long as the transmitter signal is held on. This re-
nalling: radio (as in model radio control systems); ultrasonics; and ceiver output can be used to operate a relay, simple escapement
light transmission. The latter is the simplest in terms of compo- or a signalling light (e.g., a filament bulb or LED).
nents and circuitry, especially where simple on/off command only Since ambient light will introduce a "noise" voltage or inter-
is required. It can be extended to more channels, but at the expense ference in the diode, the circuit is intended for narrow band work-
of more complicated circuitry. ing which operates by placing an infrared filter in front of the
Using infrared light transmission it is possible to achieve a photodiode. This can be an infrared photographic filter, or a sec-
range of 100 feet (30 meters) or more quite readily in normal am- tion of unexposed but developed color film (e.g., Agfa CT18). The
bient light. Even greater range is possible if the transmitter light transmitter -receiver combination should then work satisfactorily
beam is focused by a simple lens system. Such infrared remote con- in ambient light intensities up to 10,000 lux with fluorescent light,
trol systems have become highly practical with the appearance of 4000 in sunlight, or 500 lux maximum in the case of filament
high -efficiency LEDs with a high infrared transmission and suita- lighting.

163
162
a)
IC

R7

R1-330 f2 C1-470 ALF

R2-15 f2 C2-580 pF
R3-47 Kfl C3-0.22 iLF
R4-25 KO pot 01-BC238/25
R5-500 Kft pot 02-6C238/25
R6-1 Kf2 pot LED -Siemens LD27
R7-1 MO D1-BAY61
R8-220 KO IC -4 CMOS NAND gates
(Siemens HEF4011P)

Fig. 12-12. Design for an infrared transmitter by Siemens.

550k

01y

HEF 4011

Ch Fig. 12-13. Design for a matching infrared receiver by Siemens.

ol
 A simpler receiver circuit is shown in Fig. 12-14 but will only
be suitable for working in dull ambient light (less than 500 lux).

ELECTRONIC REV COUNTER

The (Mullard) SAK140 is an integrated circuit designed as a
revolution counter for car engines, etc. Connected to the contact cn
breaker, it is fed by input pulses at "engine speed" rate and con- 0
A
verts these pulses into output current pulses of constant duration
and amplitude. The output pulse duration is determined by an ex-
IH
03
ternal resistor-capacitor network. By suitable choice of R and C, CD se

the pulse "count" can be indicated on any milliammeter. The cir-

L.)
cuit will also work on any supply voltage between 10 and 18 volts
(e.g., from a car's 12 -volt battery) and performance is independent
of actual supply voltage (or variation in supply voltage).
The complete circuit is shown in Fig. 12-15. Resistor R1 is
02
selected so that the input current does not exceed 10 mA (a suita- M
N
ble value for 12 -volts supply is 15 K(2, when typical input current
will be 5 mA). The diode acts as a voltage regulator to prevent over-
loading by large input pulses.
The peak output current is determined by the value of R2 plus
R3. This should be at least 50 12, the actual value being chosen to
suit the range of the milliammeter used. If R2 is made 50 fl, then
R3 can be made 1 K(1, say, and adjusted to suit the range of the
milliammeter.
The output pulse duration is determined by the combination
of R4 and C2. Suitable values can be found by experiment, the sug- a
gested starting point being:

R4-270 K12
C2-10 nF
a
QUARTZ CRYSTAL CLOCK
The (Mullard) SAA1114 is a C-MOS integrated circuit designed
to work as the "heart" of a crystal controlled clock powered by
a single battery. It comprises a master 4 MHz oscillator, a 22 -stage
0-
frequency divider and a driver for a unipolar stepper motor. With CD

a crystal frequency of 4, 1943 MHz, the output is in the form of

a 1 Hz (1 second) pulse of 31.25 milliseconds duration.
A complete clock circuit is shown in 12-16 and requires only
a few external components. The quartz crystal is a critical compo-
nent and is associated with a trimmer capacitor Cl for time adjust-
167
 R1-15 KO
R2-50
R3-1 Kit
R4- *
R5-27
IC-SAKI 40
C1-220 nF
C2 R4 C2-'
C3-100 nF
'see text

Milliammeter
Fig. 12-17. Additional alarm facility provided in ICSAA1114:Z via pins 5 and 6.
To
contact
breaker ment. Maximum supply voltage is 3 volts, the circuit drawing a
current of about 50 A and supplying a motor output current of about
50 mA.
Another version of this particular IC is also available which in-
corporates an alarm circuit triggered by an alarm switch operated
by the clock hand movement. Output of this alarm from pins 5 to
6 is a 250 Hz tone signal operating for 4 seconds when the alarm
is triggered. External connections for this alarm circuit are shown
Fig. 12-15. Electronic rev counter circuit using the SAK140IC.
in Fig. 12-17, the clock motor circuit being as in Fig. 12-16.
C2
Stepping motor driving
clock hands _ II
Cl

Xtal C3
+ ve

1.5 or 3 volt SAA1114

battery 5 6 7
i

- ye 0
/
C1-22 pF trimmer capacitor (type 2222 808 32409)
C2-22 pF
C3-22 pF
Xtal-4, 1943 MHz (type no. 4322 143 03111)
1C-SAA1114

Fig. 12-16. Crystal controlled clock circuit.

169
168
 Chapter 13
( ) ( )
( ) CID 0)
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
Construction Methods
( \ ( )
Many circuits have been presented throughout this book, and there
are probably several you would like to build and/or experiment with.
( ) ( )
( )
Two or more circuits may be combined to create your own custom
projects. This final chapter will give you a few tips on construct-
ing electronic projects. ( 0)
BREADBOARDING
If you are experimenting with a circuit, you want to be able ( ) ( )
) ( )
to make solderless connections that can easily be altered. You may
have to try several combinations of component values before get-
ting the exact results you want. Soldering, unsoldering and re - (
soldering can be tedious at best. Mistakes can be disastrous.
Repeated solderings increase the chances of cold solder joints and
unreliable connections. Even more importantly, some components
(especially semiconductors like integrated circuits) can be ruined
( )
by excessive heat.
Fortunately, there is a much more practical way to set up tem- of circuits.
porary circuits-the breadboard. In its simplest form, this is merely Fig. 13-1. A solderless socket is used for temporary construction
a solderless socket that the various component leads and wires can shown
quickly be plugged into or pulled out of. The various holes in this own customized solderless socket with Fahrnstock clips, as
in Fig. 13-2. Interconnections are made between the clips with or-
type of socket are electrically interconnected. The most commonly be
used interconnection pattern is illustrated in Fig. 13-1. dinary hook-up wire. This type of home-brew breadboard may
which won't
While solderless sockets of this type are inexpensive and readily necessary when large or unusually shaped components,
fit in a standard solderless socket, are used.
available, there may be times when you will prefer to create your
171
170
 it SUInerleSS socket can make experimentation and circuit de-
sign much easier, but it is even more useful as part of a complete
breadboarding system. A typical system of this type is shown in
Fig. 13-3.
These breadboarding systems consist of a solderless socket and
various commonly used sub -circuits, such as power supplies and
oscillators. These sub -circuits can be separate, stand-alone mod-
ules used along with a simple solderless socket, but it is generally
more convenient to have them grouped together within a single,
compact unit, as shown in the photo. In either case, these sub -
circuits will be needed far too often to make breadboarding them
from scratch each time they're needed reasonable. Frequently em-
ployed sub -circuits should be permanently constructed.
Most breadboarding systems also have one or more potentiom-
eters and switches available for convenient use in experimental solderless socket and stan-
Fig. 13-3. A breadboarding system consists of a
circuits. dard, commonly used sub -circuits.
Remember to make all changes with the power off to reduce
the risk of damaging some components (especially ICs and other in the circuit you are
to the rule. If high frequencies are involved
semiconductors) or, in some cases, suffering severe injury your- interconnecting wires as short as possible. If
working with, keep
self. Bear in mind at all times that electrical shocks can be very the circuit operates incorrectly or erratically, try relocating some
painful, or even fatal-always use caution. of the components.
Some circuits might not work well (or at all) in a standard sol- their
Somewhat more common are circuits which may change
derless breadboard. This is usually true in high frequency circuits type of
operating parameters noticeably when a more permanent There really
where the length of connecting wires, "phantom" components (es- connection is used. Be aware of this potential problem.
pecially inductances and capacitances) and shielding (or lack be
isn't much you can do about it in advance, but at least you can
thereof) can become critical. Fortunately, the circuit which can not At least,
prepared to recognize such problems when they do crop up.
be prototyped in a breadboard socket is very much the exception you'll be able to save a lot of time and hair pulling.

PERMANENT CONSTRUCTION METHODS

the proj-
Once you have designed your circuit, breadboarded
want to re-
ect, and gotten all of the bugs out, you will probably
build some circuits in a more permanent way. Solderless bread-
with pro-
boarding sockets are great for testing and experimenting
really aren't much good when it comes to
totype circuits, but they
putting the circuit to practical use.
Breadboarded circuits, by definition, have nonpermanent con-
touch
nections. In actual use, some component leads may bend and
each other, creating potentially harmful shorts. Components may
moved
even fall out of the socket altogether when the device is
and picked up
about. Interference signals can easily be generated
Fig. 13-2. You can create your own customized solderless socket with Fahrn-
stock clips.
by the exposed wiring.
173
172
 Great care must be taken in laying out a PC board to eliminate
Generally, packaging a circuit built on a solderless socket will
wire crossings. Traces cannot cross each other. If a crossing is ab-
be tricky at best. They tend not to fit very well in standard circuit
solutely essential, a wire jumper must be used.
housings and boxes. Besides, a solderless socket is fairly expen-
sive. It is certainly worth the price if it is re -used for many differ- Stray capacitances between traces can adversely affect circuit
ent circuits. But if you tie it up with a single permanent circuit, performance. In critical circuits, a guard band between traces can
you're only cheating yourself. Less expensive methods that are help reduce the potential problem.
more reliable, more compact, and that offer better overall perfor- Especially in circuits using ICs, the copper traces are usually
mance are readily available. placed very close to each other. This means a short circuit is very
Some relatively simple circuits can be constructed on a perfo- easy to create. A small speck of solder, or a piece of a component's
rated circuit board, with component leads and jumper wires sol- excess lead could easily bridge across two adjacent traces, creat-
ing a short. Only small amounts of solder should be used. Too much
dered directly together, using point to point wiring. Only very, very
small, very simple circuits should ever be wired directly together will flow and bridge across adjacent traces.
without any supporting circuit board. Otherwise you will end up Tiny, near invisible hairline cracks in the copper traces can also
with a "rat's nest" of jumbled wiring that is next to impossible to be problematic, if you're not careful. Generally, fairly wide traces
trace if an error is made, or if the circuit needs to be serviced or that are widely spaced are the easiest to work with. However, this
modified at a later date. In addition, a lot of loose hanging wires isn't always practical with all circuits-especially where ICs are
can create their own problems, such as stray capacitances and in- used.
A printed circuit board type of construction results in very short
ductances between them, allowing signals to get into the wrong
portions of the circuit. component leads. Lengthy leads aren't needed. This can help min-
"Rat's nest" wiring is also just begging for internal breaks imize interference and stray capacitance problems.
within the wires, and short circuits between them. Momentary, in- More and more circuits being constructed today use the wire -
termittent shorts may not cause permanent damage in all cases, wrapping method. A thin wire is wrapped tightly around a square
but they can result in some strange circuit performance that can post. The edges of the post bite into the wire, making a good elec-
be maddeningly frustrating to diagnose and service. trical and physical connection without soldering. Components are
Symptoms of "rat's nest" wiring can also be a problem with fitted into special sockets that connect their leads to the square
some complex circuits on perf boards. Always try to minimize cross- wrapping posts. This form of construction is most appropriate for
ings of jumper wires. Use straight line paths for jumper wires when- circuits made up primarily of a number of integrated circuits.If just
ever possible. The circuit should be laid out for the minimum a few discrete components are used, they can be fitted into special
possible number of jumpers. Some will probably be unavoidable, sockets, or soldered directly, while the connections to the ICs are
but limit them whenever possible. wire -wrapped (hybrid construction). In circuits involving many dis-
You should also try to position all of the components on the crete components, the wire -wrapping method tends to be rather
board to see how they'll fit before you even plug in your soldering impractical.
Wire -wrapped connections can be made (or unmade) quickly
iron. This will help you avoid unpleasant surprises, like ending up
with no place to put that big filter capacitor. and easily, without risking potential heat damage to delicate semi-
For moderate to complex circuits, or for circuits from which conductor components.
a number of duplicates will be built, a printed circuit board gives There are some disadvantages to this type of construction. Dis-
very good results. Copper traces on one side (or, in very complex crete components are awkward at best. The thin wire -wrapping
circuits, on both sides) of the board act as connecting wires between wire is very fragile, and easily broken. It can only carry very low
the components. Very steady, stable, and sturdy connections can power signals. The wiring can be very difficult to trace.
Still, when many ICs are involved (some circuits require several
be made, since the component leads are soldered directly to the
supporting board itself. dozen), wire -wrapping is a very convenient form of construction.

175
174
SUUKE TS is the load resistance (e.g., the loudspeaker re-
RL
People working in electronics disagree strongly about the use sistance in the case of an audio amplifier circuit).
of IC sockets. Some technicians say sockets should only be used
for chips that are frequently changed (such as ROMs containing Strictly speaking the value of Vs used should be the battery
different programming), or possibly for very expensive ICs. Others voltage plus an additional 10 percent, e.g., if the circuit is powered
(myself included) recommend the regular use of sockets on all ICs. is 12 +
by a 12 -volt battery, the value of Vs to use in the formula
It may seem silly to protect a 25¢ IC with a 50C socket, but 1.2 = 13.2 volts. This allows for possible fluctuations in power level,
what you are really protecting is your own time and sanity. If you such as when using a new battery. If the circuit has a stabilized
make a mistake, or if an IC has to be replaced for servicing, you
power supply, then Vs can be taken as this supply voltage.
will have to desolder and resolder each individual pin, watching The quiescent drain current (Id) is found from the IC
out for solder bridges and over -heating. Frankly, I don't think it's parameters as specified by the manufacturers and will be depen-
worth the trouble. Sockets don't add that much to the cost of a proj-
dent on supply voltage. Figures may be quoted for "typical" and
ect, and they can head off a lot of grief and frustration if problems "maximum." In this case, use the maximum values.
do arise. Think of them as sort of an insurance policy. Figure 13-4 then gives the relationship between power to be
There are some cases in which sockets are undesirable. In
dissipated and copper area, based on a maximum ambient temper-
equipment for field use which is likely to be bounced around a lot, ature of 55 °C (which is a safe limit for most IC devices).
direct soldering may be desirable, to prevent a chip's pins from be- Example: Supply voltage for a particular Ic is 12 volts. Load
ing bounced out of place. resistance if 4 Sl and the maximum quiescent current drain quoted
A few (very few) high frequency circuits can be disturbed by for the IC at this operating voltage is 20 milliamps. The supply volt -
the slightly poorer electrical connection of a socket. But these are
few and far between. In 99% of the circuits you'll work with, us-
ing IC sockets will cause no problems and could save you from a Length of square area - inches
2
lot of needless hassle.
4
0.5
I I
1
I )1 I)1.5J I I I f 1 1

HEAT SINKS
Where integrated circuits handle moderate powers and a heat
3
sink is necessary to dissipate heat generated within the IC itself,
areas etched on the copper of a printed circuit board can con-
veniently be used as heat sinks. ICs which are suitable for heat sinks 2
of this type are usually fitted with a tab or tabs for soldering directly "'
0
to the copper bands forming the heat sink. a_

The area of copper needed for a heat sink can be calculated

quite simply, knowing the relevant circuit parameters. First it is 1

necessary to determine the maximum power to be dissipated, us- I

ing the formula:
0 40 50 60
0 10 20 30
V2 Length of square area - millimetres
Power (watts) = 0.4 + Vs Id
8R L
Fig. 13-4. This graph can be used to determine the size of squares of coppeof a
where Vs is the maximum supply voltage required for heat sinks on printed circuit boards. Size is given as length
square. Any other shape of the same area can be used (see text).
Id is the quiescent drain current in amps under the
177
176
Fig. 13-5. Copper area determined from Fig. 13-4 is for two equal squares (one
at each end of the IC). If a single square is used at one end of the IC, its area Fig. 13-6. Good and poor shapes for heat sink areas on PCBs.
needs to be slightly greater for the same heat dissipation.
sipate powers of 3 watts or more tends to become excessive, com-
age is not stabilized, so the value to use for Vs is pared with the area of printed circuit panel actually required for
the circuit itself. Where higher powers have to be dissipated, there-
12 + 1.2 = 13.2 volts fore, it is usually more convenient (and more efficient) to dissipate
heat by an external heat sink fitted to the IC itself. Some exam-
13.22 ples of external heat sinks are shown in Fig. 13-7.
Thus power = 0.4 x + (13.2 x 0.020)
8x4
= 2.178 + 0.264
= 2.422 watts (say 2.5 watts)

From Fig. 13-4, a suitable copper area is seen to be a 40 mm square.

This heat sink area can be arranged in two squares (if the IC
has two tags); or a single square (if the IC has one tag) (see Fig.
13-5). Of course, the area does not have to be a square. This is sim-
ply the easiest shape to calculate. It can be rectangular, regular
or irregular in shape, provided there is sufficient area. A point to
be borne in mind, however, is that with any shape the copper area
nearest the tag will have greater efficiency as a heat dissipator,
so shapes which concentrate the area in this region are better than
those that do not (see Fig. 13-6). If such a shape cannot be incor-
porated conveniently on the printed circuit layout, and a less effi-
cient shape has to be used, then it may be necessary to increase
the actual area of copper to compensate. Copper areas given in Fig.
5-1 should be adequate since most ICs can be worked at fairly am-
bient temperatures without trouble (e.g., up to 70 °C). Very approx-
imately this higher temperature operation will be provided by a
copper area of a little more than one half that given by the graph,
so there is a fair margin for error available when using this graph. Fig. 13-7. Examples of external heat sinks for fitting to power transistors and
The graph also shows that the area of copper necessary to dis- integrated circuits.

178 179
 high pass, 107 direct -coupled -transistor (DCTL),
low pass, 107 124
flip-flops, 127 metal oxide semiconductor
(MOS), 124
G NAND, 121
gate matrix, 137 NOR, 122
NOT, 121
H OR, 120
heat sinks, 176 resistor -transistor (RTL), 124
hi-fi tone controls, 149 transistor -transistor (TTL), 123
hi-fi stereo amplifier, 58 XOR, 122
high gain amplifier, 16 low pass filter, 107
high pass filter, 107
high power amplifiers, 63 M
high 0 notch filter, 113 master oscillator, 137
high quality AM radio, 72 metal oxide semiconductor logic
hybrid ICs, 3 gates, 124
mixer, 30
monolithic ICs, 3
ice warning indicator, 159 multiplier, 27
Index ICs
basics of, 1
multivibrator circuits, 15, 36, 79, 81

components of, 4 N
general purpose, 10 NAND gates, 121
1 complementary metal oxide semi- hybrid, 3 NOR gates, 122
1 -bit memory, 127 conductor logic gates, 124 monolithic, 3 NOT gate, 121
constant current circuit, 15, 17 shape of, 6, 8 notch filter, 112
5 construction methods, 170 size of, 6, 8
555 timer IC, 86 conversions sockets for, 9, 176 0
binary to decimal, 118 infrared transmitter/receiver, 162, op -amps, 19
A decimal to binary, 118 163 parameters of, 19
A -Dflip-flop, 130 current source, 35 integrator, 28 OR gate, 119, 120
adder/subtracter, 25 current -to -voltage converter, 34 intercom, 155
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AM radio with amplifier, 71 D J percussion, 138
AM/FM receiver, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, decimal to binary conversions, 118 J -K flip-flop, 130 permanent construction methods,
78 differential amplifiers, 25 173
amplifier performance differentiator, 28 L programmable timers, 92
modifying, 48 digital circuits, 117 LED brightness control, 151 pulse generator, 80
amplifiers, 21 digital voltmeter, 159 LED radio tuning display, 154
AND gate, 120 diode logic gates, 122 log amplifier, 29 0
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astable multivibrator, 83 diodes in ICs, 4 log multiplier, 29
audio amplifiers, 47, 30 direct -coupled -transistor logic gates, logic gate demonstration circuits,
124 124 radio circuits, 7, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73
B AND, 126 RAM IC chip and circuit, 134
band pass filter, 108, 111 E NAND, 125 RAM memory, 133
binary to decimal conversions, 118 electric motor speed controls, 102 NOR, 127 rectangle waves, 40
breadboarding, 170 electronic organs, 136 NOT, 125 resistor -transistor logic gates, 124
bridge amplifiers, 65 electronic tachometer, 166 OR, 126 resistors in ICs, 4
buffers, 21 logic gates, 119 RIAA amplifier, 65
F ROM memory, 133
AND, 120
C fan -in, 133 complementary metal oxide semi-
capacitance booster, 46 fan -out, 133 conductor (CMOS), 124 S
capacitors in ICs, 5 filters, 46, 106 diode (DL), 122 Schmitt trigger, 43
car theft alarm, 155 band pass, 108 diode -transistor (DTL), 123 short circuit protection, 56

180 181
signal splitter, 33 timer circuits, 84
sine wave generator, 42
sockets for ICs, 9, 176
top octave generator, 140
transistor -transistor logic gates, 123
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Look for these and other TAB books at your local bookstore.
TAB BOOKS Inc.
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Blue Ridge Summit. PA 17214

Send for FREE TAB catalog describing over 1200 current titles in print.
 117 Practical IC Projects You Can Build
R. H. Warring and Delton T. Horn

Dozens of fully tested, ready -to -build circuits

you can put together from readily available, low-cost ICs!
Here is a collection of some of the most practical analog and
digital integrated circuit devices available anywhere! Using the most
up-to-date technology and IC circuitry, Warring and Horn have given
you everything you need to build an amazing array of fully tested
electronics devices ranging from an audio mixer and a signal split -
ter to a tape deck amplifier and a top octave generator organ!
A total of 117 IC circuits are included in this single sourcebook!
You'll find full explanations and classification of common ICs (includ-
ing several new and advanced ICs) given in simple, easy -to -follow
terms. And you'll learn how to put these inexpensive and readily avail-
able ICs to work in an amazing range of practical applications. Cov-
ered are op amps-the workhorse among all ICs, audio amplifiers,
complete radio circuits, multivibrators, voltage regulators, electric mo-
tor speed controllers, filters, digital circuits, and other types of circuits.
Full details on safe and efficient construction practices have also
been included-important for the novice and a highly useful refresher
course for more experienced hobbyists as well. The main thrust of
the book, however, is devoted to actual projects. Each one includes
working diagrams and schematics to make construction of your
projects as simple and error -free as possible. Best of all, every one
of the included IC devices has been tested and proven so you know
it will function when properly completed.
Just a sampling of the devices you can build includes: an IC
radio, a variable frequency square wave generator, a sine wave os-
cillator, a stereo amplifier, a magnetic cartridge preamp, a program-
mable monostable multivibrator, a series of circuits that when put
together form a complete electronic organ, a quartz crystal clock cir-
. .
and the list goes on and on!
cuit and alarm, a car theft alarm .
R. H. Warring and Delton T. Horn both have many years of ex-
perience as electronics hobbyists and professionals. Warring's previ-
ous books for TAB include Electronic Components Handbook for
Circuit Designers. Among Horn's most popular TAB titles is Design-
ing IC Circuits . . .
with Experiments.

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