PUBLIC POLICY actors (private citizen, group representatives or

legislators). Such demands may range from

Policy often comes in the form of general general insistence that the government “do
statements about priorities, written regulations or something” about the issues
guidelines, procedures and/or standards to be ❖ Policy Statement – formal expression or
achieved. At its simplest, policy refers to a distinct articulations of public policy (legislative
path of action which is suitable for the pursuit of orders, executive orders and decrees)
desired goals within a particular context, directing indicating the government’s actions and
the decision making of an organization or goals and what will be done to realize them
individual
− A line of argument rationalizing the course d. Policy Output – involves what government
of action of a government “they debated the actually do, not just what they intend to do or
policy on the proposed legislation” what officials say they are doing.
− A plan of action adopted by an individual or − Policy output or the action actually taken in
social group pursuance of policy statement or decisions.
Examining policy output may differ from its
Public Policy Definitions policy statements indicate it should be.
Policy output should be distinguished from
The relationship of a government units to its Policy outcomes (outputs can be counted;
environment – Robert Eyestone, 1971 outcomes are often difficult or impossible to
measure as it focuses on policy societal
A purposive course of action followed by an actor consequences
or set of actors dealing with a problem or matter of
concern - James Anderson, 1975 e. Policy Outcomes – a public policy may either
● This definition focuses on what is actually be positive or negative. Some form of overt
done instead of what is only purpose or governmental action may deal with a problem
intended on which action is demanded (positive), or
● Public policies are those developed by government official may decide to do nothing
governmental bodies and officials. The on some matters on which government
special characteristics of public policies involvement was sought (negative)
stem from their being formulated by what − Public policy is based on law and is
political scientist David Easton has called authoritative, legally coercive quality
Authorities” in a political system. They take imposed sanctions or disabilities
actions that are accepted and act within the
limit of their roles A rule for action, manifesting or clarifying specific
organizational goals, objectives, values or ideas
Also a purposive or goal-oriented than random or often prescribing the obligatory and most desirable
chance behavior; consists of courses of action ways and means of their accomplishment. Such
than separate, discrete decisions; what rule for action established for the purpose of
government actually do, not what they intend to do framing, guiding or directing organizational
or say they are going to do, based on law and activities, including decision-making, intends to
authoritative; broken down into the following provide relative stability, consistency, uniformity
categories: and continuity in the operations of the organization
a. Policy demands – purposive or goal oriented - Kalypso Aude Nicolaïdis, 1963
action, public policies are designed to
accomplished specific goals or produce A multi-dimensional entity of the organizational
definite result. Proposed policies is a useful word; has pluralistic purpose, character form and
thought as hypothesis suggesting the specific development; is generally incomplete and
action to be taken to achieve a particular goal. sometimes ambiguous to leave enough freedom to
It provides general direction rather than precise the operating level to shape the (final) policy -
target for its implementation Kalypso Aude Nicolaïdis, 1963
b. Policy decisions – policies consist of courses
or patterns of actions taken of the government Guidance for action - United Nations, 1975
overtime. A policy includes not only the
decision to adopt a law or make a rule on some Major guidance for action directed at future,
topic but also the subsequent decisions that decided mainly by government organizations
are intended to enforce or implement the law formally aim at achieving what is the public interest
or rule by the best possible means – DYehezkel Dror,
c. Policy Demands – are claims for action or 1978
inaction on some public issues made by other
Series of more or less related choices (including Third, Public Policies are made presumably to
decisions not to act) made by governmental bodies address a given problem or set f interrelated
and officials dealing with many different issue problem in the society, Dunn (1991) theorizes “(if
areas such as defense - William N. Dunn, 1981 there is) no problem (there is) no policy solution.
He insist that public policies exist as intended
An identifiable set of government actions towards solutions to the problem(s) that beset the society
some situations perceived problematic; what those
actions are from the perspective of the public, and Lastly, Public Policies are ideally intended for the
what their consequences are – Lyn, 1987 as common good and welfare of the people, since
quoted in Crew, Jr 1992 policies can never be completely unintentional,
they are ideally supposed to achieve a certain
What government choose to do or not to do - purpose or goal beneficial to the public. They are
Thomas Dye, 1972 intended to improve society.

Public Policy as an Output

The term “policy” or “public policy” lacks a precise
First, Public Polices are course of action, and generally acceptable definition among
sometimes inaction, rules and guidance for action scholars, the bottom line though is that policy has
they are modern governments’ quintessential an intention and purpose set of government action
response to the environment. They connote a plan, or inaction, directed ideally at improving society
a coherent vision, a direction and a resolve to take and its people
on the job. They are sets of directions for
government operations. They are what are actually At a more concrete level, the following concept of
done or intentionally left undone by government, public policy with its various meanings and uses:
as against what are the proposed or intended to be
done. They include a series of procedures, a. Label for a field of government activity, public
process, rules, modes or ways for governments’ policy may consist of economic policies, social
conduct of the affairs of the state policies, and policies on international relations,
policies on defense, peace and order and so
Second, Public Policies are taken and adopted by on. Economic policies may further include the
the government or its instrumentality, this special liberalization of trade. However, despite the
characteristic of public policy stems from the fact- seeming compartmentalization of these fields,
that they are defined, assessed, formulated, it is still not mutually exclusive in the sense that
adopted, implemented, sometimes monitored and one is immune from the influence or
evaluated. interrelation of or by other fields
− Easton (1965) calls the “authorities” in a Example:
political system. They are, namely the ● Health for all, respect for human rights
“eldest, paramount, chef, executives, and social reforms agenda
legislators, judges, administrators and the ● Becoming an industrialized country
like. He says that the person or institutions depends on the quality of its human
who “engage” in the daily affairs of a resource (which is address by social
political systems are recognized by most policies). Achievement of economic
members of the system as having growth is not without social, political
responsibility for these matters. And take and economic reforms
actions that are “accepted” as binding most
of the time by most of the members so long
as they act within the limits of their roles b. An aspiration of or for the society, it may
− Democracy is supposed to be governance include government pronouncements such as
“for the people, by the people and through “war against poverty” health for all, people
the people”. True enough, however, it does empowerment and food for all
not ignore the orchestrating role of the state
officials who are representatives of the c. Expression of general purpose, it may read
people. It only gives “officious” something like “it shall be the policy of the state
consideration for the government to deregulate the downstream oil industry to
authorities who have the mandate to foster competitive market which can better
formulate, implement and interpret policies achieve the social policy objectives of fair
for the welfare and interest of the people prices and adequate supply of environmentally
clean and high-quality supply of petroleum
products
d. Theory of cause and effect, it may include these affairs are themselves
assuming that “privatization” improves industry characterized by discontinuity
efficiency, promotes competition, encourages ● Dye (1978) asserts that government lends
private entrepreneurial behavior, broadens the legitimacy to public policies. Government
ownership base and raise capital of policies are generally regarded as legal
government corporations and command the loyalty of citizens. They
also involved universality in the sense that
only government policies extend to or cover
Characteristics of Public Policy all people in the society. In addition, only
government monopolize coercion on
● Public Policy is also a multi-purpose society and legitimacy imprisons violators
device. It is a guide or norm set forth. of its policies
Likewise, it is a simplification method of
acting and doing. It is a compass for Types of Public Policies:
organizational navigation or “policy-
lighthouse” helping to maintain continuity Substantive Public Policy - These are the policies
and uniformity among institutions. It is a concerned with the general welfare and
regulating device of the communication development of the society like provision of
system. It gives guides as to whom one has education and employment opportunities,
to ask or demand certain actions. It is also economic stabilization, law and order
an adjusting device between overlapping enforcement, anti-pollution laws, etc are its
levels of organizational action (Nicolaidis examples. It does not cater to any particular or
1973) privileged section of society and have to be
● Expanded into the organization of the State formulated dynamically keeping in mind the goals
with the government as the main controller and characteristics of the constitution and directive
and coordinator of public actions, public principles of state policy as well as the current and
policy is the essence of governance and moral claims of society.
service (Pal, 1992). It is the rationale for
state intervention into private actions, Regulatory Public Policy - These policies are
either to encourage, regulate, inspire or concerned with regulation of trade, business,
direct (Weimer and Vining, 1994) safety measures, public utilities, etc performed by
● Public Policy has dual character: command independent organizations working on behalf of
and agreement (Nicolaidis, 1973). It is a the government.
rational articulation of the means and
objectives or maximization of government Distributive Public Policy - These are the policies
outputs. It is also a method of compromise meant for specific segments of society especially
and agreement between and among the needy ones. Public assistance and welfare
parties that may be affected or are affecting programs, adult education program, food, relief,
the form and substance of policies. This is social insurance, vaccination camps, public
needed to eliminate conflicts and secure distribution systems, etc are all examples of such
smooth operation of the government and its policy.
organs
● Aucoin (in Doern and Aucoin, eds 1979) Redistributive Public Policy - These policies are
mentioned three principal characteristic of concerned with rearrangement of policies
public policy: concerned with bringing basic social and economic
a. Coercive – it entails the capacity of changes. Certain assets and benefits are divided
government to bring on citizens the full disproportionately amongst certain segments of
force of political authority, including society and so those need to be redistributed so it
the imposition of sanctions (example: reaches where it is needed and does not lie about
death penalty for heinous crime) surplus somewhere else.
b. Distributive – it entails the capacity of
the government directly or indirectly, to Capitalization Public Policy - These policies are
allocate goods and services, rights related to financial subsidies given by the Centre
and privileges in socio-economic to state and local governments and central and
affairs and of equal importance, to state business undertakings, etc and is not directly
arrange the offices or positions of linked to public welfare as the others listed above.
authority in the political system itself it does contribute but indirectly. It is basically
c. Systematic – it entails the exercise of infrastructural and development policies for govt.
political authority across the total business organizations to keep functioning
range of public affairs, however, much properly.
Constituent Public Policy - It is the policies relating Policy Process
to constituting new institutions/mechanisms for ● A sequential flow of interactions between
public welfare. government and non-government participants
who discuss, argue, about and find some
Technical Public Policy - It relates to the policies common grounds for agreeing upon the scope
framed for arrangement of procedures, rules and and types of policies appropriate leading with
framework which a system shall provide for a particular social problem
discharge of action by various agencies on the ● It is an activity or finding or defining problems
field. that can be solved. It is a learning process of
detection and correction
The following authors provided a definition on the ● It is a course of transformation which turns
Publicness of Public Policy: political inputs into a political outputs.
Likewise, it decides the major guidelines for
“If it is authoritatively determined, action directed at the future
implemented and enforced by ● The process of public policy-making is
government institutions” – Dye, 971 extremely complex. It is analytical and
political.
“If it is legitimate, universal, coercive in ● It is an ongoing cycle which had no beginning
effect” – Dye, 971 or end.
● Its boundaries, actions and interactions are
“If it commands obedience as well as uncertain and circuitous.
agreement” – Nicolaidis, 1963 ● It is dynamic and gets contributions from
various institutions, groups or individuals who
“If it has the key role of government
and also the participation of other has a say in governance
institutions/sectors” – Hogwood and In summary, Public Policy Process is:
Gunn, 1984
a. Seeking information to define and re-structure
“and more importantly, if it is for the the societal problem
achievement of societal improvement, b. Developing alternatives to solve the problem
or ideally for the common good of the c. Reaching and adopting an agreement on
public” – Mendoza, 1991 which alternative will best solve problem
d. Implementing the solution
e. Evaluating the outcomes
Anatomy of Public Policy
Policy Process Cycle

a. Problem Identification/Analysis and re-

definition Seeking information to define the
societal problem, it involves the persistent
articulation of a concern or issue besetting the
society as a whole.
− It can emerge from an external (society) or
internal demand (executive-bureaucratic or
legislative arena) or combination of both
− It involves a process in which “the problem”
is shaped or confined to more practical
limits from the point of view of the policy-
makers and advisers.
− It involves the discussion and elaboration
of the ideas inherent in the problem, the
objective to be met, and the
consequences. Both positive and negative
which have to be enhanced or avoided
Public Policy Process
b. Agenda Setting is valued as “legitimate”
Process – refers to a regularized cycle of concern of government. It may be set in the
behavior that policy actors to some extent agenda of the government as a whole or of an
have to work to or around. agency of a government in particular
c. Policy Formulation Stage is search and Other Policy Process Model
analysis of alternatives or of ways to solve the
problem. All major alternatives are assessed Anderson Model (James E. Anderson) was
as to their potential costs and benefits. And developed on 1975 and modified in 1978 and
their likely effectiveness and efficiency which again in 1984, it conceptualized the policy process
involves a search for alternative instruments. in terms of categories of action, policy demand,
Often, it also includes the consideration of the policy decision, policy statement, policy action or
option of doing nothing and/or maintaining the output, and policy outcome
status quo
− It is at this stage that the bureaucratic a. Policy Demand – are claims made upon
influence is strongest. Ideas and facts public officials buy other actors, private or
are present in abundant, though it may official, in the political system for action or
be glibly buried in rhetoric or in the inaction on some perceived problem (example:
terminology of short-term politics and sought audience of the demand group to the
analysis. It is also here that it is most government)
difficult to separate the myths, realities b. Policy Decision – this pertains to the decision
and perception of the relative influence by public officials that authorities or gives
and power of the bureaucrats direction and content to public policy actions
(example: decision to enact a law or
d. Deciding on the Best Choice, assuming that administrative order)
the final “best” choice is among the alternatives c. Policy Statement – these are formal
is reached, it may need legitimatization and expressions or articulations of public policy
official adoption by the government in power. (example: Administrative Order (AO),
− This are courses of action that the Executive Order (EO) and Republic Act (RA)
government may take to address a ⮚ There are instances in real life when the
given societal concern actual or potential course of action by
government involves conflict among
e. Policy Implementation, the intent of the different segments of the society (Dunn,
implementation is to produce results in a 1981). In such a case, a Policy Issue
reliable, predictable way to meet the ideas and exists. Debates, negotiations, bargaining
objectives sought by a policy solution. and compromises. The final decision or
− Implementation occurs over time and is policy arrived at symbolizes the tilt to those
usually the longest and most whose interest, power and resource
permanent stage of the policy cycle prevailed (example: contentious and
emotional debate for death penalty)
f. Policy Monitoring and Evaluation would be d. Policy Outputs – this pertains to “tangible
both necessary and desirable to monitor and manifestations” of public policies; they are the
evaluate the results of adopted and things actually done by government in
implemented policies to see if the objectives pursuance of policy decisions and statements;
have been met. they are simply “what the government actually
− In the broadest sense, it is assumed does” (example: taxes collected, roads
ideally, that the policy maker and constructed, schools created, etc.)
constituents wants to learn and obtain e. Policy Outcome – these are the
feedback so that reconceptualization of consequences for society, intended or
policy problem and solutions. unintended, that flow from the action or
− It may lead to the termination, reform inaction of the government (example: abuse
and change of existing policies use of natural resources – linked to the
inefficient environmental policies)
Policy Process may have a stumbling blocks along
the way, such as political, economic, cultural,
psychological and geographical. Also, there is the
possibility that a policy concern may not reach full-
cycle. Some would become policy issues,
problems, statement, outputs, and outcome.
Others have a definite life-cycle-moving from birth
to death, creation and termination
Rushefsky Model (Mark E Rushefsky) works in their advocacy role for change and reform in
linear fashion. He nevertheless recognizes that this the society
pattern may not always be true in reality, and ● It advocates orientation to the processes,
complexities occur at every step of the process. All methods and tools of policy analysis and
stages in his model are going on almost at the same research in developing alterative policy
time. Some stages are re-visited and re-negotiated solutions. Likewise, the tool of stakeholder
as the cycle progress analysis is stressed to promote its use I
making our policies more politically
a. Policy Formulation – is the stage where policy, acceptable and administratively, technically
plan, program or project to remedy the problem feasible
is developed. It is also the stage for real and
conceptual problem solving
b. Policy Adoption – is the acceptance by some
person or group that has power or authority to
make decisions for them
c. Budgeting – is a multifaceted process of a
policy, providing funds to an adopted preferred
solution to a problem
d. Implementation – is carrying out a policy,
program, project or activity intended to address a
particular problem
e. Evaluation – is assessment of how well a policy,
program, project or activity has worked
f. Policy Succession – is the phase when
reflection on whether a policy is to be changed
amended or terminated is done

Philippine Policy-Making Process

Ma. Fe. V. Mendoza (Mendoza Model) is a reflection

of a politics and rationality of public policy making in
the country. The process is cyclical and dynamic.
Each phase is replete with objectivity, balance, tilt,
rationality and politics ❖ In every branch of government, various
mechanism are in place for public policy
● The model is similar to the policy process making. The policy stages of the 3 branches
paradigms in the sense that policy making is
(Executive, Legislative and Judiciary) are
traced backward from problem identification
different.
to agenda building, and forward to policy
formulation, adoption, implementation and
evaluation Executive Branch is supposed to be involved in
● It is different from the other models as it almost all phases of the policy cycle, fro policy
emphasize the problem re-definition, reformation and redefinition to implementation and
assuming a serious evaluation of policy evaluation (note that on Woodrow Wilson Policy-
performance has been made, or that an dichotomy, it is supposed to be responsible in the
agitated sector/s have already perceived a implementation only)
critical problem and re-defined it as well, in
order that it becomes more acceptable to the Legislative Branch it is mainly involved in the policy
policy agenda makers and setters. It also formulation and legitimization stages. Although in
espouses more participation by citizens and Aid of legislation, it can be involved in other stages
other institutions of democracy as well as of policy cycle
Judiciary Branch is more in arbitration of the participation is basically for inputs to policy
constitutional concerns. Thus, its involvement is formulation and decisions
more on policy legitimization. Although it can also
immersed in policy adoption and review

Executive Branch

The Cabinet is composed of all heads of

departments and those occupying the rank of
Secretary in the Executive Brach. It is headed by
the President, the prime initiator an implementor of
policies and programs in the country
● Its main function is to orchestrate, with the
guidance and leadership of the President
all activities, proposals and policies of the
government. It meets regularly to discuss,
deliberate and decide on the programs and
projects of the government
● The participation of interest group and
other agencies beside those in the regular
departments in the cabinet policy-making
process is ad-hoc. The cabinet has not yet
institutionally opened its membership to
other sectors. This is due to the
confidentiality of most of the decisions of
“national importance” and the formal
structure has not yet recognized the need
to institutionalize membership of other
sector
Police-making process through the NEDA Board

Legislative Branch is basically the flow of how a

Bill becomes a Law. Here, the policy enactment is
not the Legislative’ monopoly nor sole prerogative
since a presidential action (approval or veto) is
needed for a bill to become a law

Process Flowchart:

Police-making process through the cabinet

National Economic and Development Authority

(NEDA) pursuant to Section 9, Article XII of the
1987 Philippine Constitution, is the country's
independent economic development and planning
agency. It is the governing body that sets major
development policy directions for the country.
● The NEDA Board is like the mini-cabinet or
the mini-cluster. It is also chaired by the
President and its vice-chair is the NEDA
Director General
● The unofficial stakeholders such as other
agencies both in public and private sector,
are also included in the process. Their
Evolution of Public Policy Discipline Thomas Dye and Harmon Zeigler, in The Irony of
Democracy (1975) provided a summary of the elite
theory:
Public Policy Models
⮚ The society is divided into the few who have
Models is interchangeably and generally taken as power (elite) and the many who do not have
an abstraction of reality, a paradigm, or a (masses). Only the elite allocate values for
systematic statement of basic assumptions, society; the masses do not decide public policy
concepts and proposition employed by a school or ⮚ The elite are not typical of the masses. They
school of analysis are drawn disproportionally from the upper
socioeconomic strata of the society
Policy Models are simplified representations of ⮚ The movement of the non-elite to elite position
selected aspects of a problematic situation must be slow and continuous to maintain
constructed for a particular purposes. They are stability and prevent revolution. Only the non-
also artificial reconstructions of “reality” in issue elite who have accepted the basic elite
areas in the society. consensus can be admitted to governing
circles
Descriptive Process and Process Oriented
⮚ The elite share a consensus on the basic
Models
values of the social system and the
preservation of the status quo
Elite Theory: Policy as Elite Preference
● Regarded as reflecting the values and ⮚ Public policy does not reflect the demands of
preferences of a governing elite. This reflects a the masses but rather the prevailing values of
seemingly negative bias against participatory the elite. Changes in policy will be incremental
democracy, particularly the participation of the rather than revolutionary
masses in governance. ⮚ The active elite are subject to relatively little
● The main argument of the model is that, it is direct influence from a largely ill-informed and
not the participation of the “masses” who apathetic masses. The elite influence the
determine public policy through their demands masses rather than the other way around
and action. Rather, public policy is decided by
the ruling elite and carried into effect by public The table below shows the Elite Group
officials and agencies that are believed to be perspective:
“instruments” of the elite as well, as Policies
flow downward from the elite to the masses. Group
Characteristics
Perspective
Advocates substantial changes of
the present system
Progressive Elite
- Economic, progressive and
intellectual Elite
Advocates changes within the
Moderate Elite
existing system
Works to retain or strengthen the
Conservative Elite
status quo

In the Philippines, the profile of the legislators

provides an impression of a Congress dominated
by old political elite (dynasties). The elite theory
does not categorically say that policies being the
presence of elite, are bad or disadvantageous to
the masses. However, it hints of a seemingly tilted
policy making in favor of those who have power

Group Theory: Policy as Ground Equilibrium

● The bureaucracy allegedly widens the gap ● The interaction among groups is the central
between the rulers and the ruled, or between facts of politics. Individuals with common
the government and the governed. interest band together into a group, formally or
informally to press their demands upon
government. The group becomes more
important and forms the essential link between
the individuals and their government. The task
 of the latter is to manage group conflict by the
following: a. Policy will move in the direction
desired by groups gaining influence
a. Establishing the rules of the game in and inversely away from the desires of
the group struggle; groups losing influence
b. Arranging compromises and balancing b. The hydraulic thesis: the polity is a
interests; system of forces and pressures acting
c. Enacting compromises in the form of and reacting to one another in the
public policy; and formulation of public policy
d. Enforcing these compromises
The group theory recognizes several forces that
hold together the whole political system in
equilibrium. They include:

a. A nearly universal, large latent group which

supports the constitutional system and
prevailing the “rules of the game; this is not
always visible but can be activated to
administer overwhelming rebuke to any
group that attacks the system and
threatens to destroy the equilibrium
b. Overlapping group membership which
helps to maintain the equilibrium by
preventing any group from moving too far
from prevailing values
c. The check and balance resulting from
group competition whereby no single group
constitutes a majority in any society

In the Philippines, the following are some of the

controversial issues faced by the “neutral”
executive branch:

− The Reproductive Health Law faced by the

Executive branch and the catholic church
− The Pro and anti of death penalty
− The Pro and anti of Cha-cha
● According to the theorist David Truman, who
explained the model in his book “The System Model: Policy as a System Output
Government Process” (1951) and Earl Latham
in his essay “The Group Basis of Politics” ● The System model relies on the concepts of
(1956) politics is really a struggle among information theory (feedback, output, input)
groups to influence public policy. Public policy, and conceives the process of policy making as
on the other hand, is at any given time the being essentially cyclical.
equilibrium” reached in the group struggle. This ● It also perceived public policy as a response of
equilibrium” represents a balance which the political system to force brought to bear
contending parties constantly strive to tip in upon it from the environment
their favor.
● According to Dye, 1978, the group influence is − Forces generated in the environment that
determined by their numbers, wealth, affect the political system are viewed as
organizational strength, leadership, access to inputs;
decision makers and internal cohesion − The environment is any condition or
circumstance external to the boundaries of
● The group theory purports to describe all the political system
meaningful political activity in terms of group − The political system is the group of
struggle. It views policy makers as constantly interrelated structures and processes
responding to group pressure, bargaining, which function authoritatively to allocate
negotiating and compromising among values for the society
competing demands of influential groups. It
also posits the following:
 − Outputs are authoritative value allocation regarded as legal obligations which
of the system which constitutes public command the loyalty of citizens
policy − Government policies involve universality
such that only government policies extend
to all people in the society
− Government monopolize coercion in
society because only government can
imprison violators of its policies

● The institutional model maybe applied to

government reorganizations to find out how the
structure of government works and how the
content of public policies has been designed or
formulated in the situation

Example:
a. The Generics Act may have originated from
the Department of Health
b. The Indigenous People’s Rights Act of
Input – represents the inputs of the citizen and 1997 maybe the handiwork if the
organizations to the policy making process which Department of Environment and Natural
may be support or demand for a particular Resources
government action.

Output – represents the output of government

which may be a set of purposive course/s of action
or inaction, or what we know as public policy

Black Box – which is the government or the only

authorized institution to formulate, implement,
monitor, evaluate public policies.
● As a Black Box, whatever goes in is “not”
know by the public.

Feedback – are reactions to the outputs of the

policy system which may be negative, positive or
neutral

Example: the enactment of the New Rape Act of

1998 which took almost nine years to finally
legislate. The act redefines the concept of rape as
“crime against person and not merely a crime Neo-Institutionalist Model: Policy as Arenas of
against chastity” Power
Institutionalist Model: Policy as Institutional Activity ● The neo-institutionalist model springs from the
institutional model and is chiefly concerned
● The Institutionalist model treats policies as with political institutions. it attempts to
activities if state institutions which are the only categorize public policies according to policy
ones authorized to determine, formulate and sub-systems or arenas of power.
implement policies (Legislative, Judiciary and ● It seeks to generate theoretical and analytical
Executive) predictions about how policy types relate to the
● This model focuses on the organizational chart branches of the government, to the polity in
of the government. It describes the general and to the typologies of political
arrangements and official duties of bureaus and behavior associated with each policy arena.
departments. It also emphasizes the distinctive ● Theodore Lowi is one of the proponents of the
public-ness of policies which only government theory.
institutions provide such as legitimacy, coercion
and universality
− Legitimacy to policies in the sense that
government policies are generally
Lowi’s Four Arenas of Power c. Dangerous drugs law which penalize
pushers, users and drug lords

Redistributive Policies
− A portion of power and wealth from those
who have to does who don’t have.
− Policies under this arena call for the
transfer of resources largely from one
better-off group or class in the society to
another less privilege. They are highly
productive of conflicts and tendencies for
class clashes
− Example: Comprehensive tax reform law –
those who are in better position to pay are
taxed more than those who may not be
able to afford. Such moves will give rise to
lobbying, ideological debates and
● According to Lowi, these policy arenas which advocacy for or against their adoption and
determines by the target and probability of implementation
government coercion, emerge certain
identifiable types of political behaviors, such Streams and Windows Model: Policy as an
as: Intellectual Process of Interaction between and
among the Problem, Policy and Political Streams
Distributive Policies
− Include giving out scholarships, rations, ● The visual representation of the streams and
relief good during calamities, pork barrel windows model was conceptualized by John
projects and the like. Generally, these Kingdom after years of conducting interviews
policies are beneficial to individuals and and analysis of the policy agenda setting and
institutions to whom such goods or services policy making process
are directly provided. ● Kingdom observed 3 “streams” that flowed
− They affect relatively smaller number of largely independently of one another and
people who seemingly rely on philanthropy which constitute the policy making. He
and goodwill. As such, they may not require identified the streams as the problem, political
government coercion and policy streams

Constituent Policies
− Pertains to those which affect the people as
political actors, policy stakeholder or
constituents of a particular politician
− These policies tend to reallocate political
and economic values through the social
structure itself.
− Example: Pork Barrel is one of such
constituent policies which is in the arena
which is legislatively centered.
Government coercion is remote in the
sense that the conduct of the society is
rarely sanctioned or monitored expect Problem Stream
when anomalies exist − This stream involves focusing the attention
of the public and the policy-maker on a
Regulative Policies particular social problem, then defining the
− Likely to be identified with costs such as problem and either deciding to apply a new
sanctions and fines to a particular group or public policy to the resolution of the
person who violate or neglect the problem or let the problem fade from sight.
regulatory policies − Policy problems may get into the agenda of
− They produce demands for the restriction government through a number of
or limitation of actions of others. processes, including:
− Example: a. the routine monitoring of social data;
a. Traffic rules and regulations; b. the occurrence of certain focusing
b. Waste disposal or pollution regulations; events; and
 c. the feedback from existing programs ● If when and these 3 streams meet, a public
that can be obtained through such policy can result. This occasion is a window, it
devices as congressional hearings in opens due to a change of administration, a shift
aid of legislation or the on-going in the national mood or when a pressing public
administration of public programs problem emerges

Example of social problems which made rethink of Philippine Setting:

the policy options on various concerns: Political Stream – led by politicians and executives
Policy Stream – led by policy institutes, media, and
a. the Ozone Fire Tragedy – question on who universities
is responsible for the safety in public
places; Game Theory: Policy as a Rational Choice in
b. the hanging of Flor Contemplacion and the Competitive Situations
case of Sara Balabagan – question on what
should be done to prevent abuses against ● Game theory is the study of rational decisions
OFWs and promote their welfare in situations in which two or more participants
c. the Cebu Pacific Plane Crash in Cagayan have choices to make and the outcome
De Oro – question on the safety of our depends on the choices made by each of them
airlines amidst the open skies policy ● It is applied to policy making situations where
there is no independently best choice that one
Political Stream can make because the best outcomes depend
− it is the stream that the policy problem on what others do (Dye, 19780)
reaches the agenda of the government and ● The idea of the game is that decision makers
that solutions to address particular policy are involved in choices that are
streams are considered and formulated by interdependent. Each player must adjust his or
the government a whole (systemic agenda) her conduct to reflect not only his or her own
or specifically by a particular agency of the desires and abilities but also his or her
government which has primary expectations about what others will do. One
responsibility over such concern anticipates what other competitors will do in
− Visible Cluster are the primary participants order for his or her action to be more
in the political stream. These are responsive to the competitive situation
participants readily seen on public stage. ● If the idea is to win, one has to use strategies
They include the administration (high-level to achieve optimum payoff. Such strategies
government appointees), members of include minimax that minimizes the maximum
congress, media, and other interest loss or maximizes the minimum gain for a
groups. player regardless of what his or her opponent
− A consensus is achieved by bargaining does (Dye, 1978)
among these participants and at some ● Game theory is more frequently proposed as
point, a “bandwagon or tilt effects” occurs an analytic tool by social scientist than as a
as a consequence of an intensifying desire practical guide to policy making by government
by the participants to be “dealt with” not be officials. Seldom do policy makers know the
excluded in the policy resolution process real payoff values for themselves or their
opponents. in addition, seldom do policy
Policy Stream making manifest itself rationally.
− It is the stream where the decision agenda ● Game theory provides an interesting way of
or “alternative specification/s” of solution/s thinking clearly about policy choices in conflict
to the problem is/are formulated. situations. The importance of the game theory
− The decision agenda is the list of in context is in the anticipatory rigor and
alternatives form which a public policy may discipline it requires of policy makers and
be selected by policy makers. The major players
forces are not political but intellectual and
personal ideas of the policy analysts or Example:
researchers. Policy entrepreneurs and a. President Ramos could have used game
others who hold a deep and long-abiding theory in anticipating the fate of the Charter
commitment to a particular policy change. Change (Chacha) move. Had he headed a
− the major participants in this stream are call for more categorical statements on the
what kingdom calls the hidden cluster move and not insisting it on “keeping his
which includes among others, the career option open”, it could had save his face due
public administrators, academicians, to no to cha-cha movement
researchers and consultants.
 b. President Estrada could have used the Problem Alternatives Solution
game theory in PAL rather than let
emotions ran high between Lucio tan and Problem
PAL employees and other labor unions. He ▪ Represents the complete conceptualization of
could have used it against the critical press the problem in the society
and more enlightened segments of the
society who are more disenchanted with Alternatives
his administration’s performance ▪ Represents all the possible alternatives to
resolve the problem

Solution
▪ Represents the solution arrived at rationality
and comprehensively (it is presumed to
address all the values in the society)

● In reality, however, there are several important

obstacles

https://www.cliffsnotes.com/study-guides/american-
government/public-policy/the-policymaking-process

Prescriptive Output and Effect-Oriented https://publicadministrationtheone.blogspot.com/20

Models 12/08/public-policy-models-of-policy-making_27.html
https://www.slideshare.net/aggiesan/models-
Rational-/comprehensive Model: Policy as
approaches-of-public-policy
Efficient Goal Achievement
https://www.slideshare.net/NazilaHana/public-policy-
by-anderson
● The rational comprehensive model expects
policy output to be rational, such that it http://www.questjournals.org/jrhss/papers/vol4-
represents efficient goal achievement. issue4/D442328.pdf
● They must also be comprehensive in the sense
that they capture the essence of problem
solving and solution analysis
● This model requires that to select a rational or
efficient policy, policy makers must:
a. Know all the society’s value preferences
and other relative weights;
b. Know all the policy alternative possible;
c. Know all the consequences of each policy
alternative;
d. Calculate the ratio of achieved to sacrificed
societal values for each policy alternative;
and
e. Select the most efficient policy alternative
(Dror, 1968)

● It is not enough to know and weight the values

of some groups and not the others, on the other
hand, there must be complete understanding
of all societal values. In addition, it requires the
existence of information about alternative
policies, the predictive capacity to foresee
accurately the consequences of alternative
policies and the intelligence to calculate
correctly the ratio of costs to benefits
● It also requires a decision-making system that
facilitates rationality in policy formation