SEMINAR 8

REFERENCE WORDS
PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS

REFERENCE WORDS

A. Specific Reference Words – we use a range of words and phrases to refer to something
that has gone before or is about to come:
The former is / are not as complete as the latter.
The aforementioned incident took place on Monday.
The facts are as follows:…
Please note the following terms and conditions:…
Please return to the undersigned.
Send to the above address / to the address below.

B. Introducing terms of reference – we can use a number of common phrases to introduce

our terms of reference:
Regarding… As regards… With regard to…
As for the food,… As to the weather…
In historical terms,… Sociologically speaking,…
In terms of cost,… Apropos of costs,…

C. Making specific reference – we can use a range of words and phrases to add precise
information to a general statement:
Our options, namely English for Sociology or Social Work,…
The business students, in particular / particularly those in the marketing
department,…
The town’s student discos, notably Enfer, Alcatraz and Diablo, are offering…
Some employees, or to be more specific, those in Section A, are…

D. Arranging data – we use a number of words and common phrases to express how
information is arranged. For example:
I’d like to take every other Monday off.
I only want every alternate Monday.
I’ve worked on this three days consecutively.
Yuko and Yuki got an A and a C respectively.
List the battles in chronological order.
Are they arranged alphabetically or chronologically?

E. Referring to what has gone before – we use many phrases – often sentence adverbials,
see Lesson 7 – that refer to what has gone before. We can’t use them on their own:
in such circumstances at the time accordingly
be that as it may because of that consequently
F. Moving from topic to topic.
1. in conversation, we often move from one topic or point to another in a haphazard
way with common phrases. Here are some examples:
Oh, by the way Before I forget
Incidentally
Oh, that reminds me Speaking of which
Oh, and while I think of it

2. in writing, we move from one topic or point to another smoothly and logically,
often referring directly or indirectly to what has come before. We have several
options:
 we use sentence adverbials (see Lesson 7):
moreover furthermore in addition
however in the same way similarly
likewise and yet
 we can also use introductory phrases:
The first point I’d like to make is…
One further point we’d like to bring to your attention is…
One final point which may have escaped your notice concerns…
Last but not least,…
To summarise,…
In conclusion may I say…
 we can lead from one point to another within a sentence, often with a
phrase involving which:
…, at which point the debate reached stalemate.
…, as a result of which half the cabinet resigned.

G. Verbs that focus attention on a reference – there are many verbs we can use to focus
attention on a particular reference point. Here are some examples:
highlight focus on make mention of refer to
point out pinpoint spell out pin down
emphasise underline lay stress on point up
specify

H. Verbs that focus in an indirect way – we can also use certain verbs to focus indirectly,
but so that the listener / reader can guess what we mean. Here are some examples:
imply indicate hint at
suggest insinuate intimate

PRACTICE

1. Fill in the missing preposition in each of these phrases:

a. according ……… your report d. ……… random

b. ……… oldest to youngest e. ……… order of merit
c. alphabetically ……… first name f. ……… numerical order
2. Put the corresponding letter of the right word into the blank of each sentence.

1. The ………… are of the opinion that they have been badly treated.
a. underwritten b. undersigned c. below d. initialled
2. As a partner I accept full responsibility but by the same ………… I feel others
should do too.
a. sign b. reference c. token d. meaning
3. When it ………… to helping with the housework, he is absolutely hopeless.
a. refers b. goes c. comes d. amounts
4. We ………… to your communication of May 5.
a. reply b. respond c. refer d. answer
5. Be ………… as it may, I am afraid any kind of financial compensation is out of
the question.
a. it b. that c. this d.
which
6. He had an awful crash when he was about twenty-five, since ………… he has
been a model driver.
a. this b. when c. that d. then
7. It would be useful if we could………… the reasons for our failure.
a. pinpoint b. answer c. underline d. focus
8. We need to ………… the main points of our argument.
a. pin b. highlight c. spotlight d. enlighten

3. Fill in the missing word in each of these phrases.

a. in ……… days d. as if that were not ………

b. ……… is more e. that ……… the case
c. to make matters ……… f. on the other ………

PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS

A. Where do our problems come from?

1. many verbs collocate with the noun problem (see Lesson 1 for an introduction to
collocation):
Problems can arise / crop up / present themselves / recur. A recurring
problem is one of the worst!

2. we can also use other verbs and phrases:

We encounter / experience difficulties.
Sometimes we hit a snag.
We come up against a brick wall and find something (like money) a
stumbling block.
B. Where are we when problems arise?
1. we use several common phrases to describe a problematical situation. Here are
some examples:
in a quandary in a dilemma in dire straits
in a predicament
2. more informally we can use:
a bit stuck in a jam in a fix
in a hole in trouble

C. How to face problems – we use many verbs and common verb phrases to talk about
how we face problems:
One solution is to run away from them, ignore them, bury our heads in the sand,
hope they’ll go away. We may wash our hands of the matter, shirk our
responsibility, pass the buck. But then this may come back to haunt us one day.
No doubt the best solution is to confront the problem (head-on), tackle it, deal
with it, sort it out on the spot / here and then. Perhaps we should take the bull by
the horns, say ‘The buck stops here’, stand up and be counted, shoulder the
responsibility and sort it out once and for all.

D. Solution to problems and their outcome – we can also use many verbs and common
verb phrases to talk about how we deal with problems:
If there is uncertainty and doubts, we must dispel them.
Standards must be maintained.
Deadlines and demands must be met.
The mission must be accomplished and success must be achieved.
Minor details can be ironed out later.

E. Idiomatic phrases – English is full of idiomatic phrases relating to problems and

solutions:
He’s been a fly in the ointment / a real headache / a pain in the back.

F. Insoluble problems – sometimes can be so serious that there is no apparent solution:

His behaviour is incomprehensible.
The operation is irreversible.

PRACTICE

1. Put the corresponding letter of the right word into the blank of each sentence.

1. He’s been going through a bad ………… for some time.

a. streak b. mess c. front d. patch
2. I’m ………… between two courses of action.
a. stretched b. torn c. ripped d. suspended
3. You really must ………… yourself together.
 a. grip b. pull c. sort d. draw

4. Perhaps we could try and ………… our little misunderstanding of last week.
a. work out b. polish off c. clear up d. wear off
5. The wound will ………… in a week or two.
a. heal b. cure c. remedy d. cover
6. You’ll be as good as ………… before you know it.
a. rain b. new c. gold d. an ox
7. He’s experienced something of a ………… in his fortunes lately.
a. hole b. snag c. dip d. hitch
8. Sooner or later you’ll have to ………… your problems head-on.
a. tackle b. overcome c. clear d. settle
9. I think there’s only one person who can ………… with this problem.
a. handle b. solve c. deal d. tackle
10. One of us must ensure that standards are ………….
a. accomplished b. retained c. maintained d. followed

2. Fill each of the gaps with one of these verbs:

overcome averted reached struck restored

a. Agreement can be ……………….

b. A deal can be ……………….
c. These obstacles must be ……………….
d. In this way a disaster would be ……………….
e. Confidence will be ……………….

PROGRESS TEST

1. Circle the option that best completes each sentence.

1. I don’t think there’s a ……… of truth in what either defendant said.

a. gust b. grain c. spot d. touch
2. One of ……… days I’m going to give him a piece of my mind.
a. our b. those c. these d. the
3. I wouldn’t want ……… of my parents to know I have a boyfriend.
a. either b. any c. neither d. none
4. The ……… of people who attended the public meeting was surprisingly large.
a. figure b. number c. amount d. sum
5. The film ends with the sheriff lying in a ……… of blood.
a. bath b. puddle c. jet d. pool
6. I gather there was ……… doubt as to who should pay the bill.
a. any b. some c. the d. every
7. Unfortunately ……… too often one of our players gives the ball away.
a. all b. every c. none d. once
 8. I have rarely seen such an impressive sight as a ……… of buffalo roaming over
the plains.
a. flock b. swarm c. pack d. herd
9. I can’t help thinking he offered his apology with a ……… of irony.
a. touch b. spot c. torrent d. dash
10. Few, if ……… of the current team can stand comparison with the 1995 eleven.
a. none b. any c. many d. some
11. It was a stroke of luck that he had always been able to write with ……… hand.
a. both b. each c. every d. either
12. ……… can make a mistake; no one is perfect.
a. Nobody b. Someone c. Anyone d. each
13. The full……… of the damage done by the storm only became clear at daybreak.
a. degree b. amount c. summary d. extent
14. Thousands ……… to see the opening night of Simon’s musical.
a. trickled b. flocked c. thronged d. swarmed
15. It is difficult to conceive of the vast ……… of energy required by top marathon
runners.
a. volumes b. quantities c. reserves d. amounts

2. Fill each of the numbered blanks in the passage with one suitable word.

It was just before midnight, not the ……………… (1) of times for thinking
clearly, ……………… (2) there was a knock on the front door. ……………… (3)
the doorstep was a man in his late thirties, deeply apologetic and in clear distress.
He had noticed that my light was on and hoped I would forgive him bothering me.
……………… (4) had happened was that his daughter had been in an accident
and was in hospital. The ……………… (5) was he had no money for a taxi to get
there and desperately needed the £9 fare. He would be back the following
morning to repay it. I ……………… (6) it a bit strange because, not long before
……………… (7) had been a virtually ……………… (8) story reported in the
paper. On ……………… (9) of that, and incredible ……………… (10) it may
seem, a colleague had recently been telling me that a man had knocked on his
door with a story about… you’ve guessed it: accident, hospital, no money, back
tomorrow. ……………… (11) it was the same man was obvious: the same thing
happening three times had to be more than purely ……………… (12). Like all
con men (they usually are men), ……………… (13) he relies ……………… (14)
is the victim’s compassion: ……………… (15) pay up is a natural thing to do
because you feel sorry for him, even if it is sometimes against your better
……………… (16). You may have more than a sneaking ……………… (17) that
his story is false, but ……………… (18) is the nagging doubt in your head that he
may actually be in genuine trouble, plus the fact that to refuse would appear
downright ……………… (19), ……………… (20) is enough to make you hand
over the cash.
Action Systems and Social Systems

We consider social systems to be constituents of the more general system of action, the
other primary constituents being cultural systems, personality systems, and behavioral
organisms; all four are abstractly defined relative to the concrete behavior of social
interaction. We treat the three subsystems of actions other than the social system as
constituents of its environment. This usage is somewhat unfamiliar, especially for the
case of the personalities of individuals. It is justified fully elsewhere, but to understand
what follows it is essential to keep in mind that neither social nor personality systems are
here conceived as concrete entities.

The distinctions among the four subsystems of action are functional. We draw them in
terms of the four primary functions which we impute to all systems of action, namely
pattern-maintenance, integration, goal-attainment, and adaptation.

An action system's primary integrative problem is the coordination of its constituent

units, in the first instance human individuals, though for certain purposes collectivities
may be treated as actors. Hence, we attribute primacy of integrative function to the social
system.

We attribute primacy of pattern-maintenance – and of creative pattern change – to the

cultural system. Whereas social systems are organized with primary reference to the
articulation of social relationships, cultural systems are organized around the
characteristics of complexes of symbolic meanings – the codes in terms of which they are
structured, the particular clusters of symbols they employ, and the conditions of their
utilization, maintenance, and change as parts of action systems.

We attribute primacy of goal-attainment to the personality of the individual. The

personality system is the primary agency of action processes, hence of the
implementation of cultural principles and requirements. On the level of reward in the
motivational sense the optimization of gratification or satisfaction to personalities is the
primary goal of action.

The behavioral organism is conceived as the adaptive subsystem, the locus of the primary
human facilities which underlie the other systems. It embodies a set of conditions to
which action must adapt and comprises the primary mechanism of interrelation with the
physical environment, especially through the input and processing of information in the
central nervous system and through motor activity in coping with exigencies of the
physical environment.

Parsons, Talcott. The System of Modern Societies. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1971, pp. 4-8.