Definition and Concept of

UNIT 1 DEFINITION AND CONCEPT OF Personality and Personality

Development
PERSONALITY AND PERSONALITY
DEVELOPMENT

Structure
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Objectives
1.2 Definition and Concept of Personality
1.3 Personality Development
1.3.1 Biological Factors
1.3.2 Psychological Factors
1.3.2.1 Intellectual Determinants
1.3.2.2 Emotional Determinants
1.3.2.3 Excessive Love and Affection
1.3.2.4 Self-disclosure
1.3.2.5 Aspiration and Achievements
1.3.2.6 Achievements
1.3.2.7 Goal Setting
1.3.3 Environmental Factors
1.3.3.1 Social Acceptance
1.3.3.2 Social Deprivation
1.3.3.3 Educational Factors
1.3.3.4 Family Determinants
1.3.3.5 Emotional Climate of Home and Ordinal Position
1.3.3.6 Size of the Family
1.4 Let Us Sum Up
1.5 Unit End Questions
1.6 Suggested Readings
1.7 Answers to Self Assessment Questions

1.0 INTRODUCTION
For laypersons, the term personality is often understood in terms of being good
looking, attractive etc. They go by the impression created by the person concerned.
The ability to talk and interact with others pleasantly in addition to being good
looking, would make others say that the person concerned has a good personality.
Persons who do not have good looks or not well dressed or do not interact
adequately are considered to have poor personality. But scientifically this is not
a true concept of personality. In fact, psychologists consider any attempt to define
personality in terms of social attractiveness inadequate because of two reasons,
first it limits the number and types of behaviour considered important and worthy
for incorporation into the study of personality. Second, such notion carries the
absurd implication that some people who have unique abilities and temperament
traits are devoid of having a personality. In this unit we will be dealing with the
definition of personality as put forward by psychologists. Definition of personality
will be presented as given by Gordon Allport and there will be a discussion of
the concept of personality development. Under Personality development, various
factors contributing to the same will be discussed including the biological,
psychological and environmental factors.
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Personality: Theories and
Assessment 1.1 OBJECTIVES
After the reading this unit, you will be able to:
• Define personality and describe the nature of personality;
• Elucidate the concept of personality;
• List the characteristic features of personality;
• Explain the factors that contribute to the development of personality; and
• Identify the environmental factors that influence personality development.

1.2 DEFINITION AND CONCEPT OF PERSONALITY

The term personality is often understood in terms of social attractiveness. A
good personality is considered to be one who impresses other people and who
has the ability to get on well with others. Those who do not possess such ability
are said to have relatively poor personality. However if one considers personality
from a scientific point of view, being attractive to others is not a true concept of
personality. In fact, psychologists consider any attempt to define personality in
terms of social attractiveness as inadequate because of two reasons, (i) it limits
the number and types of behaviours considered important and worthy for
incorporation into the study of personality and (ii) such a notion implies that
some people who have unique abilities, temperament and traits are devoid of
having a personality.

Psychologists have attempted to explain the concept of personality in terms of

individuality and consistency. We often observe that people differ a great deal in
the ways they think, feel and act and that too to different or even same situations.
This distinctive pattern of behaviour helps one to define one’s identity.
Commenting upon the notion of individuality, it has been said that each of us in
certain respects is like all other persons, like some other persons and like no
other person who has been in the past or will be existing in future (Kluckhohn &
Murray, 1953).

Another important notion in defining the concept of personality is consistency.

In other words it can be stated that the concept of personality also rests on the
observation that a person seems to behave somewhat consistently in different
situations over different time. Form this observation of perceived consistency
comes the notion of personality traits that determine the way of responding to
one’s world.

Combining these notions of individuality and consistency, personality can be

defined as the distinctive and unique ways in which each individual thinks, feels
and acts, which characterise a person’s response throughout life. In other words,
it can be said that personality refers to all those relatively permanent traits,
dispositions or characteristics within the person that give some measure of
consistency to the person’s behaviour. These traits may be unique, common to
some groups or shared by the entire species but their pattern will be different
from individual to individual.

The thoughts, feelings and actions that are perceived as reflecting an individual’s
personality typically have three characteristics
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i) Thoughts, feelings and actions are considered as behavioural components Definition and Concept of
Personality and Personality
of identity that make distinction between individuals Development
ii) Behaviours are viewed as being primarily caused by internal rather than
environmental factors.
iii) The behaviours of the person seem to have organisation and structure.
Behaviours of an individual seem to fit together in a meaningful way. It is to be
kept in mind that the nature of behaviours is dynamic and there may occur changes
in the organisation and structure of behaviours over a period of time. It is in this
sense that Allport (1937, 1961), defined personality as the dynamic organisation
within the person of the psychophysical systems that determine the unique
adjustments to one’s environment. This suggests that there is an inner personality
that guides and directs individual’s behaviour. Allport the man who has done
more than anyone to shed light on the myriad meaning of the term personality
analysed 50 definitions of personality, and finally put forward his own definition
of personality mentioned above.

For better distinct understanding of the term personality, it is essential that it

should not be confused with character and temperament. While the term character
refers to the value judgements, which are made about a person’s moral values or
ethical behaviour, the term temperament refers to the inborn enduring
characteristics such as adaptability, irritability etc. However, both character and
temperament are vital parts of personality.

Self Assessment Questions 1

1) Who has said that personality is the dynamic organisation of traits?
a) Eysenck b) Allport
c) Murray d) None of them.

2) Which of the followings are regarded as component of behavioural

identity of personality?
a) Thoughts b) Feelings
c) Actions d) All.

3) Human behaviours are largely determined by:

a) Internal factors b) Environmental factors
c) Both d) Neither.

4) Which one is the inborn enduring characteristics of the personality?

a) Traits b) Character
c) Temperament d) None of these.

5) Personality has been understood as largely the combination of:

a) Trait and temperament b) Consistency and individuality
c) Value and attitude d) Character and temperament.

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Personality: Theories and
Assessment 1.3 PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT
The development of personality has been a topic of interest for the personality
psychologists right from the time the term came into existence. Psychologists
have tried to identity those factors which directly or indirectly influence the growth
and development of personality. Although there are a large number of factors,
which influence the development of personality, such factors have been broadly
grouped into three general categories and these are given below.
1) Biological factors,
2) Pscyhological factors,
3) Environmental factors.
Since these factors tend to determine the way personality develops they are also
called as determinants of personality. These three sets of factors are discussed
here in detail.

1.3.1 Biological Factors

Biological determinants also called as physical determinants emphasise that
physique and body functioning are directly responsible for personality
development. Some of these factors are: (i) Body build (ii) Physical attractiveness
(iii) Homeostasis (iv) Physical defects (v) Health conditions.
i) Body build: Body build influences personality directly by determining what
an individual can and cannot do, as well as what the individual’s reaction
will be to all those whose body builds are superior or inferior.
Some of the known body builds are (i) ectomorph (ii) endomorph, and
(iii) mesomorph.
Ectomorphs are persons who are tall and thin in their body builds. They
have been generally found to be superior to Endomorphs who have round
and soft body builds. The superiority is especially in speed and endurance.
Likewise, mesomorphs who are strong and muscular in their body builds
have been found to be superior to both ectomorphs and endomorphs in
activities like speed, endurance and agility.
It has also been reported that body build of an individual affects the person’s
self-concept, which is an important constituents of personality. This self
concept can be favourable or unfavourable. For instance if the body build
allows the person to do things that are socially desirable, prestigious and
better than others it would contribute to positive self concept about oneself.
On the other hand if it allows the person to do things which are not favourable
or positive or ends up in failure, it would lead to poor or negative self concept.
ii) Physical attractiveness: Physical attractiveness is another physical
component that affects the development of personality. An attractive person
of any age is more appealing than a person who is unattractive. Brislin &
Lewis (1968) have commented that it is very much rewarding to be with
someone who is physically attractive. Generally, it has been found that the
people tend to be more tolerant in their attitudes and judgements of an
attractive person. That is the reason why a pretty child is less likely to be
punished or criticised for troublesome behaviour than a simple looking
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 homely child. In business circle, an attractive worker may be less efficient Definition and Concept of
Personality and Personality
and less conscientious than an unattractive worker and yet, the attractive Development
worker is relatively more likely to get promotion sooner than the unattractive
one.
iii) Homeostasis: Homeostasis is another important determinant. It refers to
the maintenance of a stable internal environment through relatively having
normal temperature, normal level of blood sugar, normal level of blood
pressure, proper water balance, etc. When any of these conditions is upset,
disequilibrium starts and disturbances in homeostatis results. Homeostatis
or disturbances in it, has a significant impact upon personality both directly
or indirectly.
Directly, the effect of homeostatis is seen in relaxed, controlled and socially
acceptable behaviour patterns of the person who is feeling well both
physically and psychologically. When the level of homeostasis is disturbed,
behaviours like irritability, indigestion, insomnia and other uncomfortable
states often result.
Disturbances in homestasis
Disturbances in homestasis also affects personality indirectly. It affects
personality through the way the person reacts to what he thinks and believes
to be the attitudes of some significant people in his life. For example, a
person who is above average in physical stature in comparison to his age
and sex group, because of excessive hormonal discharge will respond to his
superior size in one of the two ways. If his superior size is viewed favourably
by others, his reaction will be positive and therefore, disturbance in
homeostasis will thus have a favourable impact upon the development of
personality. But if his size proves to be a social handicap and others ridicule
it, his reactions will be negative and the effect in the disturbance of
homeostasis will be unfavourable.
Some studies have very clearly shown that development of personality is
affected by homeostasis or lack of it. For example, when the blood sugar
goes above the normal range, depressive mental states tend to follow. Severe
deficiency in vitamin B complex results in increased level of emotionality
and depression. High blood pressure frequently produces neuroticism.
Anoxia or reduction in the amount of oxygen in the inspired air, as it happens
in asthma, causes emotional outbursts, mental confusion and self-criticism.
iv) Physical defects: Physical defects are another determiners. The first scientific
study showing the impact of physical defect upon personality has come
from Alfred Adler’s theory of organ inferiority. Today several studies have
been conducted to examine the direct and indirect impact of physical defects
upon personality. Obesity is one of the popular physical defect. Obesity
proves to be a handicap in social relationship because the obese person is
unable to keep up with his contemporaries. Obesity also affects the
personality indirectly. Awareness of unfavourable attitude towards obesity
makes the person feel not only inferior but also they develop the feeling of
being socially scorned. Not only this, some researchers have also pointed
out that massively obese individuals become more disturbed perhaps because
of less self-satisfaction and cumulative adverse comment from others.

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Personality: Theories and Health conditions
Assessment
Health conditions also affect the development of personality. At all ages and in
both sexes good health is considered as a personality asset and poor health is a
liability. There are ample evidences to support it. Many personality changes result
from poor health conditions and tend to continue even after the illness has been
cured or its severity has been lessened. This is especially true during childhood
when the personality is in the formative stages. Many personality changes and
disturbances in adolescents and adults have their root in illnesses during the
early years of childhood (Martin & Vincent, 1960).

It has also been found that persons having illness like diabetes, etc., experience
tension and anxiety which causes frustration in dealing with the demands of
social environments. As a result of frustration, they become aggressive and often
turn their aggression towards others. Physical disturbances like the female
irregular menstrual cycle often lead to emotional instability accompanied by a
tendency to be irritable and depressed. This increases their level of emotionality
and the heightened emotionality is reflected in poor social adjustment and decrease
in social activities, ultimately affecting women’s self-concept and the attitudes
towards other people.

Self Assessment Questions 2

1) Tall and thin body builds are the characteristics of:
a) Mesomorph b) Ectomorph
c) Endomorph d) None of these.
2) Homeostatis refers to:
a) Disturbances in the internal balance of the body
b) Maintenance of a stable internal environment
c) Maintenance of even rate of oxygen utilisation
d) Maintenance of normal level of blood sugar and blood pressure.
3) Homeostasis affects the self-concept:
a) Only in a positive way b) Only in a negative way
c) Both positively and negatively d) Has no effect.
4) Which is Not the physical determinants of personality?
a) Homeostasis b) Physical attractiveness
c) Body builds d) Gender
5) High blood pressure is generally associated with causation of:
a) Neuroticism b) Depression
c) General nervousness d) None of these.

1.3.2 Psychological Factors

Several psychological factors tend to determine the development of personality.
Among those factors the following can be specially discussed because of their
importance. These include:
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i) Intellectual determinants Definition and Concept of
Personality and Personality
ii) Emotional determinants Development

iii) Self disclosure

iv) Aspiration and achievements
The above are being discussed in the following paragraphs.

1.3.2.1 Intellectual Determinants

These are one of the important factors which influence the development of
personality. Researchers are of view that intellectual capacities influence
personality through various kinds of adjustments in life and indirectly through
the judgments other persons make of the individual on the basis of the person’s
intellectual achievements.

This judgment in turn affects the evaluation and consequently the development
of personality. Intellectually bright men and women make better personal and
social adjustments than those of average or below average intelligence.

Several studies bear testimony to the fact that bright men and women are generally
introspective, thoughtful, creative, adventuresome and have strong concern with
problems, meanings and values. They are found to show a wider interest especially
in the theoretical and aesthetic areas. Since they have greater and stronger mental
ability, they have better control over themselves.

However, having very superior intelligence affects personality development

unfavourably because it creates special problems which are not encountered by
those persons who are merely bright. These various problems result in the
development of a personality pattern, which is characterised by the traits like
negativism, intolerance, habits of chicanery, emotional conflicts, solitary pursuit,
self-sufficiency, dominance, etc. Evidences also have provided support to the
fact that intellectual capacities also influence development of values, morality
and human.

1.3.2.2 Emotional Determinants

These are other important factors that shape the development of personality.
Emotions are considered important personality determinants because they affect
personal and social adjustment. Research has shown that several aspects of
emotions like dominant emotions, emotional balance, emotional deprivation,
excessive love and affection, emotional expressions, emotional catharsis and
emotional stress directly and indirectly affect the development of personality.
Some people experience a predominance of pleasant emotions while others
experience a predominance of unpleasant emotions. This predominance affect
the development of personality. The cheerful persons are usually happy and even
when they are in a depressive mood they can see the brighter side of things.
Likewise, since apprehensive persons are full of fear, they even when there is ja
happy or enjoyable situation, feel depressed and remain afraid. Emotional balance
which is a condition in which pleasant emotions outweigh the unpleasant emotion,
is considered essential to good social and personal adjustment.
When the person encounters with obstacles and problems, unpleasant experiences
like fear, anger, envy and other negative emotions are aroused. As a consequence,
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Personality: Theories and the person’s adjustments are adversely affected. Such conditions in the long run
Assessment
are responsible for development of many pathological traits in the person. Also
emotional deprivation of pleasant emotions like love, happiness and curiosity
also has an impact, which gradually leads to poor personal and social adjustment.

Research has revealed that impact of emotional deprivation depends upon the
extent to which a person is wmotionally deprived in addition to the duration of
emotional deprivation as well as upon the age at which it occurs. One of the
common effects of deprivation of love and affection is the development of
emotional insecurity. Much of adolescent and adult rebellion against authority
stems from emotional insecurity which has its origin in unstable affectional
relationship with parents and other members of family during early childhood
years.

1.3.2.3 Excessive Love and Affection

This also has psychologically negative effect. Sigmund Freud had earlier cautioned
that too much parental love and affection awakens a disposition for neurotic
disorders, spoils the child and makes the individual a problematic adolescent.
Strecker (1956) has pointed out that excessive mothering, that is, overprotective
mothers turn their sons and daughters into immature and dependent adults.
Emotional expression, that is, how the person expresses emotion also affects the
development of personality. If the person is able to express emotions in a socially
approved manner, that person would be judged favourably and this provides a
good mirror image of the self. Such emotional expression produces a better feeling
both physically and mentally because homeostasis can be restored.

Sanctions, control over the overt expression of emotions is often necessary to

avoid social disapproval. However, repression of emotions like anger, fear,
jealously, and envy makes the individual gloomy and morbid which ultimately
produces behaviour like extreme laziness, lack of interest in people, vacillation
of mood etc. Emotional Catharsis (release of unexpressed emotions) also
contributes to the development of good adjustment. Release of pent up emotions
allows for physical and mental homeostasis to be restored. As a consequence,
the person can judge oneself in a more realistic way.

1.3.2.4 Self-disclosure
Self disclosure is considered basic to mental health and such disclosure helps to
bring about a healthy personality pattern which is a guarantee for a socially
desirable and favourable reactions from others. Emotional stress expressed in
the form of anxiety, frustration, jealousy and envy also affect the development of
personality. A person who suffers from emotional stress makes good personal
and social adjustments. Intense emotional stress may motivate the person to go
to excesses in hope of being relieved from it. For example, the person may resort
to overeating and using drugs to dull the intense feeling of insecurity caused by
emotional stress. It has been reported that women who experience greater degree
of emotional stress during menstrual period, are found to develop depressive
tendencies. Psychologists have shown that people with low self-esteem are more
adversely affected by emotional stress than those with high self-esteem.

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1.3.2.5 Aspiration and Achievements Definition and Concept of
Personality and Personality
These also have an effect on the development of personality. Aspiration means a Development
longing for and striving for something higher than one’s present status. Thus
aspirations are the ego-involved goals that persons set for themselves. The more
ego-involved the aspirations are, the more will be the impact upon behaviour
and therefore, greater will be the impact upon personality. There may be various
forms of aspirations such as positive aspiration (to achieve success), negative
aspiration (to avoid failure), realistic aspiration (within the range of the person’s
capacity), unrealistic aspirations (beyond the capacity of the person), remote
aspirations (to achieve a goal in the remote future) or immediate aspirations (to
achieve a goal in the near future).

The motivating power of aspiration varies. In general, remote and realistic

aspirations do provide stronger motivating forces than immediate and unrealistic
aspirations. Negative aspirations are considered weaker in providing motivating
strength than positive aspirations.

Level of aspiration, that is, the discrepancy between the goal an individual has
achieved and the goal the person hopes to reach, affects the personality in terms
of the size of the discrepancy. When the size of discrepancy is large, the person’s
self-concept is severely damaged especially if the person fails to achieve the
goal. Not only the individual will judge self as failure but others will also judge
the person as a failure in particular if others know about the person’s goal and
that goal had not been achieved.

Research studies have also shown that high aspirations are not necessarily a
source of damage to the self-concept. They may be a source of motivation and
pleasure. They may be a kind of wishful thinking that will not cause any damage
to personality so long as it remains a form of fun and play.

1.3.2.6 Achievements
These are another related factor that determine the development of personality.
Achievement can be evaluated objectively by comparing one’s performance with
those of one’s peers and subjectively, by comparing the person’s achievement
with the level of aspiration. Success and failure are the two different attitudes of
the person towards achievement. If the person is pleased with own achievement,
the achievement will be considered a success and this has a favourable impact
upon the self-concept. However if the person’s attitude towards achievement is
negative, then the achievement will not be considered a success but a failure.
Such persons will feel dissatisfied and miserable and in turn their self concept
will be adversely affected. Persons who feel that they have been successful remain
satisfied with themselves and appear to be happy.

Besides building a favourable self-concept, achievement also raises the person’s

self-esteem and increases the level of self-confidence so that the individual can
solve the many new problem of the future successfully. In addition to the personal
satisfaction that a person derives from achieving the goal successfully, the
achievement ensures that the person is appropriate in all the actions that are
taken up, which in turn produce a stabilising impact upon the behaviour.
Therefore, a successful person tends to be more relaxed than a person who has
experiences of failure.
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Personality: Theories and 1.3.2.7 Goal Setting
Assessment
Experimental evidences have shown that one of the most important effect that
success has upon the person is that the individual becomes more realistic about
goal setting. Such persons would asset their goal to a point where they have
reasonable chances of reaching. This behaviour is an obvious characteristic of
intelligenct, well-adjusted people than of those who are poorly adjusted.
Success enhances self-concept by increasing the person’s prestige in the eyes of
others. This enhances social acceptance and strengthens the individual’s self-
concept. But too much success during early years of life may, in fact, weakens
the person’s motivation to do one’s best. It may cause the person to loose some
of the new motivations which can be generated by early achievement.
Extraordinary achievement even may prove to be more harmful than helpful to
social relationship and not only that, it may arouse jealousy and resentment among
those persons who are socially related to the person but somehow less successful.
Failure is another constituent of achievement. It is always ego-deflating. Failure
undermines the self-confidence and self-esteem. Gradually, it destroys the person’s
belief that she or he can do something to achieve and this, in effect, weakens the
motive to achieve even those things which are within his or her capability. Severe
and repeated failure causes stress, anxiety and tension. Sometimes such repeated
failures cause so intense stress and anxiety that it produces psychosomatic illness
or leads to a defeatist attitude, which strengthens the person’s belief in his or her
inadequacy and intensifies the poor personal and social adjustment. Research
have revealed that one of the most damaging aspects of failure is somehow not
achieving the desired goal and social recognition, especially when the person
hoped to do so. This sense of dissatisfaction is intensified by the realisation that
others with whom the person has competed, have achieved the success much
earlier than him or her. Under such conditions, the impact upon the self concept
is highly unfavourable.
By contrast, one of the greatest source of satisfaction is to achieve success,
recognition and prestige much earlier than anticipated and earlier than one’s
competitors. This condition has favourable impact upon the self-concept.
Sometimes it may be so much favourable that it may lead to the delusion of
grandeur and superiority complex and this condition, in the long term, may
counteract favourable social judgement and prove damaging to the self-concept.
Self Assessment Questions 3
1) Markedly superior intelligence leads to a personality pattern which is
characterised by :
a) negativism b) Intolerance
c) emotional conflicts d) All the above.
2) Which one of the followings is known as mental health insurance ?
a) Emotional balance b) Tolerance
c) Envy tolerance d) None of these.
3) Emotional starvation occurs due to :
a) Emotional deprivation b) Deprivation of love
c) Emotional imbalance d) None of these.
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 Definition and Concept of
4) Which one qualifies to be called as emotional stress ? Personality and Personality
Development
a) a specific state of heightened emotionality
b) a generalised state of heightened emotionality
c) a generalised state of emotional imbalance
d) none of these above condition.
5) Who are more adversely affected by stress ?
a) people with high self-esteem
b) people with high emotional catharsis
c) people with low self-esteem
d) people with poor emotional catharsis.

1.3.3 Environmental Factors

Besides physical and psychological factors, some environmental factors have
been isolated and shown to have a significant impact upon the development of
personality. Under environmental determinants, the following four sets of factors
have been primarily emphasised :

1.3.3.1 Social Acceptance

These are one of the major environmental determinants. Every person lives in a
social group, which judges the person’s behaviour in terms of the person’s
conformity to group expectations regarding proper performance behaviour and
appropriate role playing. Thus social judgement serve as basis for self-evaluation.
In this way, the social group tends to influence the development of self-concept.

The degree of influence the social group has on personality development depends
not alone on how well accepted the individual is but also on how much importance
social acceptance has for the individual. If the person places more value on group
acceptance, that person will be more willing to be influenced by the group. Persons
who are widely accepted and liked by the group, are likely to respond in a
congenial and friendly spirit than those who experience hostility, disregard and
rejection in the group.

In fact, how much influence social acceptance has on behaviour depends upon
two conditions: how much security a person has in his/her status in the group
and what importance he/she attaches to the social acceptance. If the person feels
fully secure in the status, which would make the person free to act as he/she
wishes and will not be greatly influenced by suggestions from others. Likewise,
if the person attaches more value to the social acceptance, he/she will also be
more susceptible to be in line with the group members.

Persons whose social acceptance is very high, they are generally more outgoing,
more flexible, more active and daring than those who are only moderately socially
accepted or moderately popular. However, such persons often fail to establish
close relationship with people. They also fail to show emotional warmth which
is considered essential to close and intimate personal relationship. This sense of
aloofness usually comes from a feeling of superiority.

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Personality: Theories and One extreme opposite of social acceptance is social isolation. If a person develops
Assessment
the feelings of rejection due to social isolation when in fact they want to be
accepted, would develop the feeling of resentment against those who have rejected
them. Such people are often depressed, sad and unhappy. They may develop
sour-grapes attitude towards social activities. Such social rejection may lead the
persons to become juvenile delinquents or criminals in the long run. Researchers
have further shown that if early social experiences of the persons are favourable,
they are likely to become social and if their experiences are unfavourable, they
are likely to develop an unsocial or antisocial personality.

1.3.3.2 Social Deprivation

This is another environmental factor, which is said to influence the development
of personality in massive and significant way. Social deprivation means being
deprived of opportunities for various types of social contacts including love and
affection. Social deprivation causes social isolation which has an adverse effect
on personality. Social deprivation has proved most damaging for two age groups—
the very young and the elderly. The young children who are deprived of contacts
with parents / guardians fail to develop healthy and normal personality. Their
behaviour is socially disapproved and they are also unfavourably judged by others.

Social deprivation in elderly people make them self-bound and selfish, which
gradually lead to unfavourable social and self judgements. It has also been
observed that social deprivation is far more damaging to people who want and
also need social contacts for happiness than those who are self-sufficient or who
voluntarily withdraw. For example, when elderly persons voluntarily decide on
their own to withdraw from social activities, they are far happier and relatively
well adjusted in comparison to those whose withdrawal is involuntary. If social
deprivation is extensive and prolonged, it gradually leads to unhealthy social
attitudes and mental illness.

1.3.3.3 Educational Factors

Another important factor, which influences the development of personality is
the educational factors. Schools, colleges and teachers have significant impact
upon the individual’s development of personality. The impact of educational
institution upon personality development is largely determined by the students’
attitude towards school and colleges, towards peers, towards teachers and also
toward the value of education. When these attitudes are favourable, the students
usually enjoy their academic activities and have a warm and friendly relationship
with teachers and their peers. This has a very favourable impact upon the
development of personality by producing stronger sense of self-confidence and
self-esteem.

The reverse is true when there is unfavourable attitudes amongst students towards
education and educational institutions, teachers and peers etc. . Research studies
have further revealed that if the students are physically and psychologically ready
to enter the school or colleges, their attitude tend to be far more favourable.
Attitude towards educational institution is greatly influenced by emotional climate
of the institution, which affect the level of motivation, students’ classroom
behaviour and their general emotional reactions. Through these various
behavioural patterns, the emotional climate of the educational institution affects
the students’ self-evaluation and the evaluation others make of them.
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Another important factor of educational determinants that affect personality is Definition and Concept of
Personality and Personality
student-teacher relationship, which is largely dependent upon the teacher’s Development
treatment of the students, upon students’ attitude toward particular teachers and
on their teaching as well as the disciplinary techniques used by the teachers
including the cultural stereotypes of teachers as a group. These attitudes, in turn,
affect the quality of the student’s academic work which becomes the basis of
evaluation of self and social evaluation. Teacher student relationship affect the
students’ personality through its impact upon students’ motivation for academic
achievement. When the students see that their relationship with the teacher is
warm and friendly, their achievements are far better than when they perceive the
relationship as hostile, punitive and rejecting. This boosts their self-concept by
enhancing self confidence and self esteem.

1.3.3.4 Family Determinants

This is another important class of factors that influence development of
personality. The influence of family on personality development is maximal at
all ages. The family affects the development of personality both directly or
indirectly. Direct influence of family upon personality comes chiefly through
different child-training methods which are used to mould the personality pattern,
and the communication of interest, attitude and values between members of the
family. Strict, demanding, punitive and inhibiting parents / guardians tend to
encourage their children for depending upon external controls to guide their
behaviour. As a result, when the children are outside the direct control of their
parents/guardian, they tend to show impulsiveness in their behaviour.

Indirectly, through identification with parents, children develop a personality

pattern similar to that of their parents. Experimental studies reveal that through
imitation also, a certain personality pattern develops. For example, living with
parents who are anxious, nervous and lacking the sense of humor produces in
the children a sense of nervousness and frequent outburst of temper. Likewise,
living with warm, affectionate, loving and interested parents generally produces
a social and gregarious persons. Such persons also develop an interest of welfare
and affection for persons outside the home as well.

1.3.3.5 Emotional Climate of Home and Ordinal Position

A very important factor in the development of personality is the emotional climate
at home as well as the ordinal position of the individual concerned within his
family. Ordinal position refers to the eldest or youngest or middle or 2nd or 3rd
child in the family. If the home climate is favourable, the person will react to
personal problems and frustrations in a calm way and to people in a tolerant and
cooperative way. On the other hand if emotional climate of home is full of friction
and conflicts, the person is more likely to develop a sense of hostility and may
often tend to react to people in an aggressive way.

Ordinal position also affects the development of personality. Studies have revealed
that the firstborns tend to be more conforming and dependent than later borns.
They are more affiliative, more susceptible to group pressures and more
introverted. Firstborns who achieve greater success than the later born siblings
tend to be selfish and self centred. They show their feeling of superiority about
their achievements by making criticism of others. Despite the feelings of
superiority, they continue to suffer from a feeling of insecurity which had
17
Personality: Theories and developed earlier when they were replaced by younger siblings towards which
Assessment
parents started giving more attention, love and affection. This feeling of insecurity
is responsible for poor personal and social adjustment of the firstborns.

The major personality characteristics of lastborn, as shown by the various

researches, are dependency, affiliative need, lack of self-confidence, lack of
frustration tolerance, defiance of authority, etc. In comparison to the firstborns,
most lastborns have relatively weak achievement motivation. They are generally
not pressed by the members of the family to achieve more nor do most families
care to provide them with the opportunities that were provided to the firstborns.
So far as the middle born or second borns are concerned, they are found to be
generally less family oriented and more peer oriented. From their peer relationship,
they develop such personality traits which produce better personal and social
adjustment. As a result, they are more popular among the peers in comparison to
the first or lastborn.

1.3.3.6 Size of the Family

This factor also affects the development of personality. In larger families parents
have little time to protect any child. As such, children learn to be independent
and show maturity in their behaviour at an earlier age as compared to children of
smaller families. However, larger families encourage certain personality
characteristics that may hamper good personal and social adjustments. For keeping
the home environment reasonably calm, parents of larger families generally adopt
authoritarian method of control, which produces a strong sense of resentment
and rebellion among children. In small families since parents devote enough
time to care and provide proper guidance to each child, this produces self-
confidence, self-assurance and eliminates the feeling of inadequacy which may
come when the child is left to meet the problem alone. However, due to strict
competition for getting parental attention, affection and approval in small families,
jealousy and envy especially against the firstborns who are perceived to be parents’
favourite, damages the self-concept of the concerned individual.

We have seen that the development of personality is shaped by a set of three

factors, namely, physical or biological factors, psychological factors and
environmental factors. There are psychologists like J.B. Watson, father of
Behaviourism, who have outright emphasised upon only one factor, that is
environmental factor ignoring the role of other two sets of factor in development
of personality. He had emphatically proclaimed that give him a child, he will
make him either a doctor or a beggar or a engineer or a thief irrespective of his
abilities. Today there is little support for such statement and there is almost an
unanimity among the personality psychologists regarding the basic view that the
physical or biological factors provide a boundary for the development of
personality and within this general boundary, personality is developed or shaped
under the influence of various psychological and environmental factors. Therefore,
it can be concluded that development of personality can be explained in terms of
the following equation:

Personality Development = Physical determinants × Psychological determinants

× Environmental determinants

18
 Definition and Concept of
Self Assessment Questions 4 Personality and Personality
Development
1) Social deprivation generally leads to :
a) Social rejection b) Social discrimination
c) Negative self-concept d) None of these.
2) Mohan, leader of a group, is more colourful, more flexible, more active
in his approach. It all happens because he has :
a) Social acceptance b) Social support
c) Social status d) All the above.
3) Within a group when the person status changes such as from follower
to leader or the vice versa, it is termed as :
a) Social mobility b) Changes in group status
c) Social stereotype d) None of these.
4. Which has the most lasting impact upon the development of personality
of a student ?
a) Academic success b) Teacher’s attitude and behaviour
c) Teacher-studente relationship d) All of the above.
5) Which size of the family is considered ideal for development of pesonality?
a) Small families b) Medium-size families
c) Large families d) None.

1.4 LET US SUM UP

In this unit we learnt about personality. We pointed out as to how the term
personality is often understood in terms of social attractiveness. We pointed out
the scientific approach to personality development which explain the concept of
personality in terms of individuality and consistency. Another important notion
in defining the concept of personality is consistency. Combining these notions
of individuality and consistency, personality can be defined as the distinctive
and unique ways in which each individual thinks, feels and acts, which
characterise a person’s response throughout life. In other words, it can be said
that personality refers to all those relatively permanent traits, dispositions or
characteristics within the person that give some measure of consistency to the
person’s behaviour. These traits may be unique, common to some groups or
shared by the entire species but their pattern will be different from individual to
individual.

Behaviours of an individual seem to fit together in a meaningful way. It is to be

kept in mind that the nature of behaviours is dynamic and there may occur changes
in the organisation and structure of behaviours over a period of time. It is in this
sense that Allport (1937, 1961), defined personality as the dynamic organisation
within the person of the psychophysical systems that determine the unique
adjustments to one’s environment.

Then we took up personality development and pointed out as to how psychologists

have tried to identity factors which directly or indirectly influence the growth
and development of personality. Although there are a large number of factors, 19
Personality: Theories and which influence the development of personality, such factors have been broadly
Assessment
grouped into three general categories and these are given below.
i) Biological factors
ii) Pscyhological factors and
iii) Environmental factors.
Since these factors tend to determine the way personality develops they are also
called as determinants of personality. These were discussed in detail. Biological
factors consisted of body build, physical attractiveness, homeostasis, physical
defects and health conditions. The psychological factors consisted of intellectual
factors, emotional factors including excessive love and affection, self disclosure,
aspiration and achievement and goal setting behaviour. and environmental factors
consisted of social acceptance, social deprivation, educational factors, family
emotional climate, ordinal position of the individual in the family and size of the
family. Finally it was concluded that personality development takes place through
learning processes including imitation.

1.5 UNIT END QUESTIONS

1) Define personality. Citing example, make distinction between temperament
and character.
2) Discuss the physical or biological determinants of personality development.
3) Outline the role of psychological determinants of personality development.
4) Discuss the role of environmental determinants in shaping personality
development.
5) Enumerate the basic formula : Personality Development = Physical
determinants × Psychological determinants × Environmental determinants

1.6 SUGGESTED READINGS

Coon, D. (2007). Introduction to Psychology: Thompson.
Wood, S.E. & Wood, E.G. (1996). The World of Psychology: Allyn & Bacon
Ryckman, R.M (1993). Theories of Personality: Brooks / Cole Publishing
Company.

1.7 ANSWERS TO SELF ASSESSMENT

QUESTIONS
1) 1. (b) 2 (d) 3. (a) 4. (c) 5. (b)
2) 1. (b) 2. (b) 3. (c) 4. (d) 5. (a)
3) 1. (d) 2. (b) 3. (b) 4. (b) 5. (c)
4) 1. (c) 2. (a) 3. (a) 4. (c) 5. (d)

20
 Definition and Concept of
UNIT 2 STATE/TRAIT APPROACHES TO Personality and Personality
Development
PERSONALITY

Structure
2.0 Introduction
2.1 Objectives
2.2 Type Approaches to Personality
2.3 Trait Approaches/Theories
2.3.1 Allport’s Trait Approach
2.3.1.1 Common and Individual Traits
2.3.1.2 Cardinal Traits
2.3.1.3 Central Traits
2.3.1.4 Secondary Traits
2.3.2 Cattell’s Trait Approach
2.3.3 Eysenck’s Type/Trait Hierarchy
2.3.3.1 Extraversion/Introversion
2.3.3.2 Psychoticism/Impulse Control
2.3.3.3 Inhibition Theory
2.3.3.4 Arousal Theory
2.3.4 Guilford’s Trait Theory
2.3.4.1 Physiological and Morphological Traits
2.3.4.2 Needs, Interests, Attitudes
2.3.4.3 Aptitudes
2.3.4.4 Temperament
2.3.5 Five Factor Model
2.3.5.1 Extraversion (E)
2.3.5.2 Neuroticism (N)
2.3.5.3 Consientiousness (C)
2.3.5.4 Agreeableness (A)
2.3.5.5 Openness (O)
2.4 Let Us Sum Up
2.5 Unit End Questions
2.6 Suggested Readings
2.7 Answers to Self Assessment Questions

2.0 INTRODUCTION
A large umber of approaches to studying the personality have been put forward
by many theorists. One of these is the type and trait approaches and these have
been especially attributed to a few major theorists. In this unit we will take up
first of all the Type approaches to personality and herein we will discuss the triat
approach by Allport to describe personality. This will be followed by the trait
approach by Cattell who gave emphasis on source and surface traits. Following
this we will be dealing with Eysenck’s trait and type approach to personality.
Next will be the discussion of Guilford’s theory which again is a trait approach.
This is followed by the relatively more recent Five Facotr Model of personality.
21
Personality: Theories and
Assessment 2.1 OBJECTIVES
After completing this unit, you will be able to:
• Define personality;
• Describe Allport’s trait theory approach;
• Elucidate the factors contributtuing to Allport’s theory of personality;
• Describe Cattell’s trait theory to understanding personality;
• Explain the factors contributing to Cattell’s personality theory;
• Elucidate Eysenck’s theory of trait and type apprioach;
• Explain the factors contributing to Extraversion, neuroticism and
psychoticism;
• Elucidate the Trait approach of Guilford to personality;
• Analyse the factors contributing to Guilford’s idea of personality
development;
• Elucidate the Five Factor Model of personality; and
• Describe and analyse OCEAN.

2.2 TYPE APPROACHES TO PERSONALITY

The earliest effort to explain human behaviour involved the use of personality
typologies, which classified behaviour into discrete, all-or-nothing categories.
For example, Hippocrates a Greek Physician (and later on Galen, too) classified
individuals into four exclusive types according to four basic internal fluids or
humors, each associated with a particular temperament. These four basic fluids
were : blood, phelgm, black bile and yellow bile. The dominance of any one
fluid led to a particular personality temperament. For example, dominance of
blood produced Sanguine temperament (cheerful and active), dominance of
phelgm produced Phlegmatic temperament (apathetic and sluggish), the
dominance of black bile produced Melancholic temperament (sad and brooding)
and dominance of yellow bile produced Choleric temperament (irritable and
exitable). This is known as four-humor theory and remained popular for centuries
although today it is regarded as a baseless theory because it has been established
now that personality and moods are not driven by bodily fluids. Later on the
basis of observation of patients, Hippocrates pointed out that people with short
and thick bodies were prone to stroke and those with tall, thin bodies to
tuberculosis.

Another interesting typologies were that of William Sheldon, a U.S.A. Physician.

He tried to relate physique to temperament. On the basis of somatotype (body
build), he assigned each individual to one of the three categories , viz., (i)
ectomorphic (thin, long and fragile), (ii) endomorphic (fat, soft and round) and
(iii) mesomorphic (muscular, strong and rectangular). According to Sheldon,
ectomorphs are artistic, brainy and introverted, endomorphs are relaxed, fond of
eating, sleeping and sociable whereas mesomorphs are affective, dominant, filled
with energy and courage.

22
Sheldon’s theory has not been substantiated and has proved of little value in State/Trait Approaches to
Personality
predicting individual behaviour (Tylor, 1965). In addition, people belonged to
many different shape and size and not all can be fitted to the Sheldon’s three
types.

MBTI (Myers-Briggs Type Indicator) typology is another typology which is

modern one and based upon Carl Jung’s theory of personality types. Using the
MBTI, individual’s selfreported preferences are used to assess four dimensions
of personality: E or I (Extraversion- Introversion), S or N (Sensing or Intution),
T or F (Thinking-Feeling) and J or P (Judgement-Perception). The MBTI identifies
16 types of personality based on Jung’s distinctions between E-I, S-N and T-F, as
well as upon Isobel Myer’s distinction between J-P. The J-P distinction indicates
as to whether an individual’s orientation toward the external world comes from
rational (judging) or the irrational (perceiving) function pair. If a person takes
MBTI, he would be assigned to only one pole of each dimension and the
combination of dimensions would determine which of the sixteen types best
describes him. For example, a person who receives ESFP (Extraverted-Sensing-
Feeling-Perception) classification would be characterised as outgoing, easygoing,
accepting, friendly and would be considered best in situations that need sound
common sense and practical ability with people as well as with things.

The Myers-Briggs is a very good type system because its categories are distinct
or discontinuous and people of any one type are supported to be very much like
each other that help them to be distinguished from other types. Critics of MBTI
state that while the four dimensions are informative, persons should be described
according to their actual scores on each dimension rather then being mixed into
types.

Type approach to personality apparently fails in its mission to provide a

satisfactory classification system because there are many people who cannot be
fitted into prescribed type. Today, psychologists prefer to describe people not in
terms of type rather in terms of traits. Types are not descriptive of the persons. In
fact, they rob the uniqueness of persons by placing the persons into a perconceived
category. Thus type exists in the eye of beholder whereas traits exist within the
people.

2.3 TRAIT APPROACHES/THEORIES

These approaches explain personality in terms of traits, which are defined as
relatively stable and consistent personal characteristics. Trait approach attempts
to explain personality and differences between people in terms of their personal
characteristics, to devise ways of measuring individual differences in personality
traits and to use these measures for understanding and predicting a person’s
behaviour. Type approach assume that there are separate, and discontinuous
categories into which persons fit whereas trait approach assumes that there are
continuous dimensions such as warmth, extraversion, etc. that vary in quality as
well as degree.

Under the trait approach, the viewpoints of Allport, Cattell, Eysenck Guilford,
and the Five Factor Model would be discussed in detail.

23
Personality: Theories and 2.3.1 Allport’s Trait Approach
Assessment
Allport is regarded as one of the most important and influential personality
theorists. Several years ago, Allport went through the English Dictionary and
painstakingly recorded a list of 17,953 words that described personal traits (Alport
& Odbert, 1936). Obviously it would be impractical to describe persons in terms
of where they fall on roughly 18,000 traits. However, on the basis of these words,
attempt was made to propose traits like dominance, friendlines, self-esteem, etc.
This is called lexical approach to define personality trait.

Fort Allport, traits are the building blocks of personality as well as the source of
individuality. He is known as idiographic trait theorist who has a strong belief
that each person has some unique as well as some common characteristics that
together form a unique combination of traits. For Allport, trait is something that
exits but remains invisible. It is located somewhere in the nervous system
(Ryckman, 1993).

We infer the existence of a trait by observing consistencies in the behaviour of

the person. Dissimilar stimuli tend to arouse a trait readiness within the person
and then trait manifests itself through the varieties of different responses. All
these responses are equivalent in the sense that they serve the function of
expression of trait.

To illustrate this, let us take an example of an employee working in the university

office. His shyness is inferred from his inability to establish friendship with
others, his avoidance of social gatherings of the employees, his enjoyment with
solitary entertainment activities and his unwillingness to participate in discussion,
etc.

2.3.1.1 Common and Individual Traits

Allport recognised two major categories of traits:
i) Common traits and
ii) Individual traits.
Common traits are those traits which we share in common with many others in
our culture. For example being quiet, showing due respect to seniors and making
polite behaviour to others are the traits we share with others in Indian culture.
This illustrates the common traits.

Individual traits or also called personal dispositions are those traits which are
unique to the person concerned and Allport regarded individual traits to be more
important than common traits.

According to him, there are three types of individual traits

2.3.1.2 Cardinal Traits

A cardinal trait is a trait which is so pervasive, dominant and outstanding in life
that every behaviour seems traceable to its influence. Most people do not have
cardinal traits but those who have them, are well-known by those traits. For
instance, Mahatma Gandhi was having the cardinal traits of peace-loving and
strong faith in non-violence for which he is well known.

24
2.3.1.3 Central Traits State/Trait Approaches to
Personality
Central traits are those traits which are generally listed in a carefully written
letter of recommendation. In fact, any trait name like friendliness, dominance,
self-centeredness would be the example of central trait. Every person has several
central traits and there are five to ten most outstanding traits in each person
around which a person’s life focuses.

2.3.1.4 Secondary Traits

Secondary traits are traits which are less conspicuous, less consistent, less
generalised and less relevant to the definition of personality. For example, food
habits, hair style, and specific attitudes are examples of secondary traits.

All these traits are dynamic in the sense that they possess motivational power.
Those individual traits or dispositions which are intensely experienced are said
to be more motivational. Those individual traits which are less intensively
experienced though possessing more motivational power are said to be more
stylistic.

Whether motivational or stylistics, some individual traits are close to the core of
the person’s personality whereas some are at the periphery.

According to Allport, all these individual traits form structure of personality

which, in turn, determines the behaviour of an individual. In his view only by
focussing upon the uniqueness of the individual, a scientific and substantial
understanding of personality is possible.

Allport also held that personality is not a mere bundle of unrelated traits, rather
it embodies a unity, consistency and integration of traits. This integration work
is accomplished by self or ‘Proprium’ as Allport has named it. In his view the
Proprium or self develops continuously from infancy to death and during this
period it moves through a series of stages.

Self Assessment Questions 1

1) Allport was supporter of:
a) Nomothetic approach to personality
b) Trait approach to personality
c) Idiograhic approach to personality
d) Both b and c
2) Your hair style will be the example of:
a) Cardinal trait b) Secondary trait
c) Central trait d) None of these
3) Allport emphasised more upon:
a) Common trait b) Individual traits
c) Proprium e) None of these.

25
Personality: Theories and
Assessment 4) Following Allport, the trait which is a defining characteristic of one’s
personality is :
a) Individual trait b) Common trait
c) Cardinal trait d) Secondary trait.
5) You have just been told by counsellor that on the basis of Myers-Briggs
personality test you are an ESTP. Your counsellor apparently favours
which of the following approaches to personality :
a) Trait approach b) Type appraoch
c) Psychodynamic approach d) Type approach

2.3.2 Cattell’s Trait Approach

Raymond Cattell (1950) considered personality to be a pattern of traits providing
the key to understanding it and predicting a person’s behaviour. According to
him, traits are relatively permanent and broad reaction tendencies of personality.
They serve as the building blocks of personality. He distinguished between (i)
surface trait and source trait, (ii) constitutional and environmental-mold traits
(iii) ability, temperament and dynamic traits.

i) Surface traits and source traits

The observable qualities of a personality like kindness, honesty, helpfulness,
generosity, etc. are named as surface traits. Allport has called these qualities or
traits as central traits. Using questionnaires and observations, Cattell studied
several thousand people and he reported certain cluster of surface traits that
appeared together from time to time. He further reported that these were the
clear evidence of some deeper, more general underlying personality factors, and
he referred to these as source traits.
Source traits make up the most basic structure of personality and are the underlying
factors that are responsible for the inter-correlation among surface traits. Although
source traits are smaller in number than surface traits, yet they are better predictors
of human behaviour. We all possess the same source traits but we do not possess
them in the same amount. For example, intelligence is an example of source trait
and everyone of us possesses this but we all do not possess intelligence in the
same amount.
Cattell found 23 source traits in normal persons and 16 of which he studied in
detail. These 16 basic source traits were then used in the construction of the
Sixteen Personality (16PF) Questionnaire popularly knows as “16 PF test”. The
sixteen factors identified by Cattell include (i) Reserved vs outgoing, (ii) less
intelligent vs more intelligent, (iii) emotional vs. stable (iv) humble vs. assertive,
(v) sober vs. happy-go-lucky, (vi) expedient vs. conscientious, (vii) shy vs.
ventursame, (viii) tough-minded vs. tender-minded, (ix) trusting vs. suspicious,
(x) practical vs. imaginative, (xi) forthright vs. shrewd (xii) placid vs.
apprehensive, (xiii) conservative vs. experimenting, (xiv) group-tied vs. self-
sufficiency, (xv) casual vs. controlled, and (xvi) relaxed vs. tense.
In addition to these 16 factors measured by personality test, Cattell, on the basis
of his subsequent researches proposed seven new factors : excitability, zeppia
vs. Coasthenia, boorishness vs. mature socialisation, sanguine casualness, group
26 dedication with sensed inadequacy and social panache vs. explicit expression.
Although the sixteen source traits utilised in 16PF can be used to make distinction State/Trait Approaches to
Personality
between normals and neurotics, they fail to assess all aspects of deviant behaviour
as well as the characteristics of psychotics. Using factor analysis to the surface
traits of the normal and abnormal personality spheres, Cattell derived 12 new
factors that measure psychopathological traits, such as hypochondriasis,
zestfulness, brooding discontent, anxious depression, energy euphoria, guilt and
resentment, bored depression, paranoia, psychopathic deviation, schizophremia,
psychesthenia and general psychosis. All these traits are in bipolar format. These
12 factors have been combined with 16 PF in the construction of new test called
Clinical Analysis Questionnaire (CAQ). With the construction of CAQ, Cattell
was of the view that he has identified major source traits of both normal and
abnormal personality.

ii) Constitutional and environmental traits

Cattell also distinguished between constitutional traits and environmental mold
traits. Constitutional traits are those traits which are determined by nature or
biology whereas environmental mold traits are those which are determined by
nurture that is by experience gained in interaction with environment.

Most surface traits, for Cattell, reflects a mixture of both heredity (nature) and
environment (nurture). However, he further points out that there are some source
traits which derive solely from within the individual (biology of the individual)
and there are some source traits which derive solely from source derived only
from environmental factors. Through a complicated statistical technique called
MAVA (Multiple Abstract Variance Analysis), he was able to assess the degree
to which various traits are determined either by environmental or genetically
determined factors. MAVA is based upon the comparisons between people of the
same family either reared together or reared apart or between members of different
families reared either together or apart.

iii) Ability, temperament and dynamic traits

Cattell has further subdivided traits into ability traits, temperament traits and
dynamic traits.

Ability traits refer to the person’s skill in dealing with the environment and the
goals set therein. Intelligence is an example of ability trait.

Temperament traits refer to stylistic tendencies that largely show how a person
moves towards a goal. Being moody, irritable, easygoing are examples of
temperament trait.

Dynamic traits are the person’s motivation and interest which set the person in
action toward the goal. A person may be characterised as being power-seeking,
ambitious or sports-oriented. This relfects the dynamic trait. The important
dynamic traits in Cattell’s system are of three types, viz. (i) attitudes, (ii) ergs
and (iii) sentiments.

Attitudes are dynamic surface traits which display specific manifestations of

underlying motives. Ergs are constitutional dynamic source trait. It is through
ergs that cattell has given due recognition to innately determined but modifiable
impellents of behaviour. Ten ergs like hunger, sex, gregariousness, parental
protectiveness, curiosity, escape, pugnacity, acquisitiveness, self-assertion and
27
Personality: Theories and narcissistic sex have been recognised by Cattell. Sentiment focusses on social
Assessment
object and it is an environmental mold dynamic source trait. Thus it is more or
less parallel to ergs except that it results from experimental or socio-cultural
factors.
Self Assessment Questions 2
1) The inter-correlation among surface traits leads to development of an
inference about:
a) Temperament trait b) Erg
c) Source trait d) None of there
2) Erg belongs to the category of:
a) Temperament trait b) Dynamic trait
c) Ability trait d) None.
3) Which of the following is not assessed by clinical Analysis
questionnaire?
a) Energy Euphoria b) Bored dpression
c) Schizophrenia d) Shyness.
4) Friendliness is an example of:
a) Source trait b) Surface trait
c) Temperament trait d) None.
5) According to Cattell which trait causes behaviour for predictable
purposes:
a) Surface trait b) Abiity trait
c) Source trait d) Dynamic trait.

2.3.3 Eysenck’s Type/ Trait Hierarchy

British Psychologist Hans Eysenck (1990) had a strong belief that personality is
largely determined by genes and that the environmental factors have very little
role to play in it. He opined that personality is more or less stable and enduring
organisation of a person’s character, temperament, intellect and physique. In this
definition, he has emphasised upon traits (stable and enduring characteristics)
which when clustered together, constitutes a type.

Eysenek’s viewpoint is personality is hierarchically organised, consisting of types,

traits and habits. At the lowest level of Eysenck’s hierarchy are the single responses
like action or thoughts. Regularly occurring responses form habits and related
habits form traits and several traits clustered together constitute a type or also
known as super factors.

Thus types are most abstract, followed by traits and then by habits and then
finally by responses at the beginning level. In fact, each of the ‘type’ concepts is
based on a set of observed inter correlations among various traits. Each ‘trait’ is
inferred from inter correlations among habitual responses. Habitual responses
are, in turn, based upon specific observable responses.

28
Thus the entire process can be explained through an example. It is known that State/Trait Approaches to
Personality
‘extraversion’ is based upon observed inter correlations among the traits like
liveliness, sociability, activity, and excitability. Each of these traits is inferred
from inter correlations among habitual responses such as for instance going to
club, liking to talk with people, taking part in any social activity on the spur of
the moment and so forth. These habits are themselves inferred from some
observable specific responses like real occasion where the person actually went
to club, talked with people, participated in group discussion, etc.

Based upon numerous factor analyses on personality data gathered from different
populations, Eysenck derived two major factors or dimensions of personality,
viz.,
i) Extraversion/Introversion
ii) Neuroticism/stability.
Later, on the basis of other statistical analysis, he postulated a third dimension,
viz.,
iii) Psychoticism/Impulse control.
These three dimensions, according to Eysenck, are the major individual difference
types considered most useful in describing personality functioning. To measure
these three dimensions of personality, Eysenck developed a paper and pencil
test. The latest version of the test has been named as Eysenck Personality
Questionnaire (EPQ).
2.3.3.1 Extraversion/Introversion
Extraverts are individuals who are sociable and impulsive and who like excitement
and oriented toward external reality. Introverts are introspective persons who are
more oriented toward inner reality and tend to exhibit preference towards a well-
ordered life. Neurotics are emotionally unstable persons. The hallmark of most
neurotics is that they exhibit an anxiety level disproportionate to the realities of
the situation. Some neurotics may exhibit obsessional or impulsive symptoms
and some may show unreasonable fear of objects, persons, places, etc. However,
there are neurotics who are free from the burden of anxiety and fear and in this
group, psychopaths are placed who fail to assess the consequences of their actions
and who behave in antisocial manner regardless of the punishment they get
(Eysenck, 1965).

2.3.3.2 Psychoticism/Impulse Control

Psychotics are characterised by traits such as being insensitive to others, hostile,
at times cruel and inhuman. Despite all the psychopathological traits, Eysenck
believed that psychotics tend to be creative (Eysenck & Eysenck, 1985). He
based his conclusion on his work with schizophrenics who gave many original
responses on the Rorschach test.

2.3.3.3 Inhibition Theory

Eysenck developed a theory called inhibition theory to explain why people who
differed along the various dimensions should behave differently from one another.
According to Eysenck, individual differences along the extraversion/introversion
dimension are strongly determined by heredity and have their basic origins in
the cerebral Cortex of the central nervous system.
29
Personality: Theories and Drawing upon the work of Tephlov (1964) and Pavlov (1927), Eysenck pointed
Assessment
out that extraverts have relatively stronger inhibitory processes and very weak
excitatory processes. Besides, their nervous systems are strong which forces them
to tolerate a large capacity of stimulation. Introverts, on the other hand, have
very strong excitatory processes and weak inhibitory processes. Apart from this,
their nervous system is weak which means that they have a small capacity to
tolerate stimulation. Thus the brains of extraverts react more slowly and weakly
towards stimuli thereby creating a strong desire for strong sensory stimulation
which causes them to seek excitement by going to parties, making new friends,
and attending to various types of meeting, etc. On the other hand, introverts are
more cortically aroused and their brains react quickly and strongly to stimuli. As
such, they tolerate relatively small amount of stimulation. Consequently, strong
stimulation from the environment proves to be aversive for them and they tend
to spend more time in aloof activities like reading, writing, playing chess, etc.

2.3.3.4 Arousal Theory

Recently, inhibition theory has been replaced by arousal theory by Eysenck
because inhibition and excitation although were very useful concepts, were found
to be extremely difficult to assess. Arousal theory has the advantage of identifying
the physiological systems underlying individual differences in extraversion /
introversion and neuroticism / stability. According to arousal theory, differences
in the behaviour of introverts and extraverts are due to the various parts of
Ascending Rreticular Activating System (ARAS) which is a network of fibers
going upward from the lower brain stem to the thalamus and cortex. Some other
fibers descend from the lower brain stem which influences the activities of bodily
muscles and autonomic nervous system. At the same time, such descending fibers
can also modulate the activity of the brain stem.

Thus the relation between ARAS and cortex become reciprocal, that is , ARAS
activate the cortex, which, in turn, influences ARAS either by increasing or
inhibiting the excitability. Eysenck was of view that introverts have innately
higher levels of arousal than extraverts. As a result, they are more likely to be
sensitive to stimulation. In arousal theory, Eysenck tends to make it explicit that
the seat of neuroticism lies in visceral brain or limbic system.

All structures of visceral brain such as hipocampus, amygdala, cingulum, septum

and hypothalamus are involved in generating emotionality. Since visceral brain
and ARSA are only partially independent from each other, cortical and autonomic
arousal can also be produced by activities of the visceral brain. In particular,
such activities produce arousal in sympathetic nervous system, causing increase
in heart rate, breathing rates and loss of digestion, etc. People showing higher
degree of neuroticism generally have lower thresholds for activity in visceral
brain and greater responsivity of sympathetic nervous system. That is the reason
why neurotics are innately more reactive rather overreacting to even mild forms
of stimulation.
Self Assessment Questions 3
1) What is the correct sequence of organisation in Eysenck type-trait
hierarchy?
a) Trait-Type-Habit-Response
b) Response-Habit-Trait-Type
30
 State/Trait Approaches to
c) Type-Trait-Response-Habit Personality
d) Habit-Response-Trait-Type.
2) Which of the followings is Not assessed by EPQ?
a) Extroversion b) Psychoticism
c) Neuroticism d) Pscyhopathic tendencies.
3) According to Eysenck, which are is Not the characteristic of Psychotics?
a) Psychotics are creative people
b) Psychotics are hostile and cruel
c) Psychotics are inhumane
d) Psychotics are oriented toward inner reality.
4) Who claimed that personality can best be understood by assessing people
on two dimensions: Extroversion and Neuroticism ?
a) Allport b) Cattell
c) Eyesenck d) Jung.
5) According to arousal theory of Eysenck, which one is regarded as the
seat of neuroticism ?
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................

2.3.4 Guilford’s Trait Theory

J.P. Guilford is another important psychologist who have tried to analyse and
predict about personality on the basis of traits. The importance of trait for
Guildford’s view about personality can be understood from his definition of
personality which states that an individual personality is nothing but the
individual’s unique pattern of traits. Trait, for him, is any distinguishable, relatively
enduring way in which one person differs from another.

Using factor analysis, Guilford came to the conclusion that there are seven
modalities of traits, that is (i) morphological, (ii) physiological, (iii) needs, (iv)
interest, (v) attitudes (vi) aptitudes and (vii) temperament. The first two are the
somatic traits whereas the last five are behavioural aspects of personality.

Guilford has emphasised that these modalities should not be regarded as seven
separate constituent parts of personality but personality must be seen as integrated
whole and these seven modalities can be seven different directions from which
the whole can be viewed. In other words, personality is not the sum total of
seven traits but rather a whole or single entity which can be looked at from at
least seven different angles. These seven traits are briefly discussed below.

31
Personality: Theories and 2.3.4.1 Physiological and Morphological Traits
Assessment
Physiological traits and morphological traits together are called somatic traits.
Physiological traits refer to physical functions such as heart rate, breathing rate,
hormone level, blood sugar and so forth. Morphological traits, on the other hand,
refer to physical attributes such as physique, head size, length of hand and leg,
size of ear, curvature of spine, etc. Guilford (1959) reported very little substantial
relationship between these two types of traits, that is, morphological traits and
physiological traits although Sheldon (1942) earlier had reported a high correlation
between physique and temperament.

2.3.4.2 Needs, Interests and Attitudes

Needs, interests and attitudes are regarded as hormetic (adaptive responses)
dimensions of personality by Guilford. These hormetic traits, therefore, instigate
action because they are more or less directly related to motivation.

Needs are said to be relatively permanent dispositions that motivate the person
towards certain condition. For example, prestige is one need and it instigates
action towards getting social prestige. Likewise to get food is a need, which
motivates a hungry person toward securing a full stomach.

Interests are person’s generalised behaviour tendency to be attracted by some

stimuli. Thus, for Guilford, interest are general rather than specific traits and
valued positively rather than negatively. Besides, interest also refers to liking to
perform some activities. All such interests contribute to causation of behaviour.

Attitudes also instigate behaviour and they are defined as a disposition to favour
or not to favour a social object or social action. Since attitudes involve belief,
feelings and action, therefore, they are cognitive, affective and conative, too.
One’s view about premarital sex, divorce and equal right to women can be the
example of attitudes. Having a particular attitude forces the person to think, feel
and act accordingly.

2.3.4.3 Aptitudes
Aptitudes refer to how well an individual can perform a given activity and they
represent a dimension of ability though they are more specific than abilities. It
means that all aptitudes are abilities but not all abilities are aptitude. For example,
a tall person may have the ability to reach at the highest shelf but this could not
be considered his aptitude. On the basis of factor analysis, Guildford (1959)
identified three primary aptitudes, viz., (i) Perceptual aptitudes, (ii) Psychomotor
aptitudes and (iii) intelligence.

Perceptual aptitudes relate to the various sense modalities and include factors
like visual, auditory and kinesthetic sensitivity.

Psychomotor aptitudes are abilities shown by physical educators, dance instructors

and athletic coaches. Human engineers also need psychomotor aptitudes because
they have to design machine in such a way that they must be operated conveniently.

Intelligence is a general aptitude. Guilford developed his famous Structure-of-

intellect model based upon three primary parameters of operations, products and
contents. Originally, there were five categories of operation and six categories of
32
product and four categories of content in this model. The result was 5 × 6 × 4 State/Trait Approaches to
Personality
=120 factors or components of intelligence. Shortly before his death, Guilford
(1988), however, expanded the total number from 120 to 180 abilities or factors
when he raised the categories of operation from five to six by dividing one of the
component of operation, that is, memory into two : Memory recording and
Memory relation. The total number of categories of contents was also changed
from four to five. Thus now the total factors constituting intelligence became
6 × 6 × 5 = 180.

2.3.4.4 Temperament
According to Guilford (1959) temperament refers to the manner in which the
individual performs a behaviour. Whether a person is impulsive, tolerant,
deliberate or critical in his or her behaviour, is all indicative of the person’s
temperament. Temperament has been assessed by varieties of inventories in which
Guilford-Zimmerman Temperament Survey (GZTS) became very popular.

GZTS assesses 10 bipolar traits of temperament : General activity vs. Inactivity

(G), Restraint vs. Impulsiveness (R), Ascendance vs. submissiveness (A),
Sociability vs. Shyness (S), Emotional stability vs. Depression (E) Objectivity
vs. Subjectivity (O), Friendliness vs. Hostility (F), Thoughtfulness vs.
Unreflectiveness (T), Personal relations vs. Criticalness (P) and Masculinity vs.
Feminity (M).

Guilford has pointed out that there are three levels of trait generality : hexic
level, primary trait level and type level. Hextic trait is displayed by the person
only in specific situations. For example, Mohan who is generally shy and reserved
person, may show dominance and aggression before his friends for wining the
competition. Here dominance and aggression are examples of hexic level trait
and determine his specific actions.

Primary traits are manifested in broader range of behaviour than are hexic traits.
For example, when Shyam shows dominance and aggression most of the time in
his behaviour, it means these two are his primary traits. Guilford further has
opined that primary traits are determined to some extent by types. When a person’s
behaviours generally revolve around any single disposition, he is said to be
manifesting a type upon which Guilford did not give as much emphasis as it had
been done by Eysenck. Thus types are composed of primary traits which have
positive intercorrelations. An extravert type, for example, may be recognised
through observation of high correlations among the primary traits of sociability,
orientation towards external reality, impulsiveness, love for contacting other
people, tolerance for pain, etc.
Self Assessment Questions 4
1) Which of the followings is Not a hormetic trait ?
a) Interest b) Need
c) Attitude d) Aptitude
2) Physicque is an example of:
a) Hormetic trait b) Physiological trait
c) Morphological d) None.
33
Personality: Theories and
Assessment 3) How many abilities have been identified by Structrue-of-intellect model?
a) 120 b) 160
c) 180 d) 140
4) Physical functions like heart rate, breathing rate, brain wave patterns
are all covered by :
a) Morphological traits b) Physicologial traits
c) Hormetic traits d) Behavioural traits.
5) Which of the followings is not assessed by GZTS?
a) Masculinity – feminity b) Friendliness – hostility
c) Practical – imaginative d) Sociability – shyness.

2.3.5 Five Factor Model

Today, the most talked about trait approach to personality is the Five Factor
Model (FFM) also known as the Big Five. As its name implies, according to this
model there are five broad personality factors, each of which is composed of
constellation of traits. Based on his own researches as well as researches of others
in 1981, Goldberg pointed out that it is possible to prepare a model for structuring
individual differences among traits of personality. Big Five was meant to refer to
the finding that each factor subsumes a large number of specific traits. In fact,
the Big Five are almost as broad and abstract as Eysenck’s superfactors. Those
Big Five dimensions of personality using the names assigned by MC Crae and
Costa (1987) are as under :

2.3.5.1 Extraversion (E)

This factor assesses the quality and intensity of interpersonal interaction. High
scorer in this factor is characterised by being sociable, active, talkative, person-
oriented, optimistic, fun-loving and affectionate, whereas low scorer is
characterised by being reserved, sober, aloof, task oriented, retiring and quiet.
Thus this factor contrasts extraverted traits with introverted traits.

2.3.5.2 Neuroticism (N)

This factor assesses adjustment vs. emotional instability. Persons high on
neuroticism are prone to emotional instability. Such persons tend to experience
negative emotion and are characterised by being moody, irritable, nervous,
insecure, and hypochondriacal. Low scorers on this dimension are characterised
by being calm, relaxed, unemotional, hardy, self-satisfied etc. Thus this factor
differentiates people who are emotionally stable from those who are emotionally
unstable.

2.3.5.3 Consientiousness (C)

This factor mainly assesses the person’s degree of organisation, persistence and
motivation in goal directed behaviour. In other words, this factor describes task
and goal directed behaviours and the socially required impulse control behaviour.
This factor easily differentiates individuals who are dependable, organised, hard
working, responsible, reliable and thorough (high scorers) from those who are
undependable, disorganised, unreliable, impulsive, irresponsible, lazy and
negligent (low scorers).
34
2.3.5.4 Agreeableness (A) State/Trait Approaches to
Personality
This factor assesses the person’s quality of interpersonal orientation ranging from
compassion to antogonism in thinking, feeling and action. High scorer on this
factor would be characterised by soft-hearted, good-natured, trusting, helpful,
straightforward and forgiving whereas the low scorer would be characterised by
cynical, suspicious, uncooperative, vengeful, irritable and manipulative.

2.3.5.5 Openness (O)

This factor assesses proactive seeking and appreciation of experience for its own
sake as well as tolerance for and exploration for the something new and unfamiliar.
High scorers would be characterised by being good-natured, warm, sympathetic
and cooperative whereas low scorers would be characterised by being unfriendly,
aggressive, unpleasant, argumentative, cold and even hostile.

First letters of the Big Five dimensions can be reordered to spell out the word
OCEAN—an easy way to keep them in memory.

For assessing these Big Five dimensions, Goldberg (1992) has developed a
questionnaire named Transparent Bipolar Inventory. Still another much more
popular questionnaire to assess Big Five has been developed by Costa and McCrae
(1992). This questionnaire has been named as the NEO-Personality Inventory
(NEO-PI-R). Originally, this inventory assessed only N, E and O but later on the
other two factors such as A and C were also included. In this new inventory each
dimension or factor is defined by six facets and each facet is measured by 8
items. Therefore, the latest version of NEO-PI-R consists of a total of 240 items
(5 factos × 6 facets × 8 items). On the basis of several studies, McCrae and Costa
(1990) are convinced that these five factors as measured by NEO-PI-R are
sufficient for describing the basic dimensions of personality. In fact, they go
beyond this to say that, “no other system is as complete and yet so parsimonious”.

In making a fair evaluation to trait approach, it can be said that longitudinal

studies support trait approach. McCrae and Costa (1990) have studied personality
traits of persons over time and have found them to be stable for a periods of 3 to
30 years. They have opined that stable individual differences in basic dimensions
are universal feature of adult personality. Despite this, critics are of view that
trait approach, like type approach, don’t explain the causes or development of
personality. It simply identify and describe characteristics, which are correlated
with behaviour. Moreover, critics of trait perspective further say that the
consistency of our behaviour across situations is very low and therefore, not
predictable on the basis of personality traits. Initially, one of the severest critics
of trait approach was Walter Mischel (1968) who claimed that the situation, and
not our traits, determines the behaviour.

Thus his stand initiated person situation debate, that is, question of relative
importance of person and situation in determining the behaviour of the persons.
Now Mischel has modified his original position and has proclaimed that behaviour
is shaped by both the person (traits) and the situation. Other psychologists have
also provided support for the view that there are some internal traits which strongly
influence behaviour across different situations (Carson, 1989; McAdams, 1992).

35
Personality: Theories and
Assessment Self Assessment Questions 5
1) Which of the followings is not assessed by Five factor model ?
a) Neuroticism b) Psychoticism
c) Agreeableness d) Conscientiousness.
2) The latest version of NEO-PI-R measures the dimensions of personality
through :
a) Six facets b) Five facets
c) Seven facets d) Four facets.
3) Who developed Transparent Bipolar Inventory ?
a) McCrae and Costa b) Goldbeng
c) Eysenck d) None of these.
4) Who has been considered as the most severest critics of trait appraoch?
a) Campbell b) Hawley
c) Mischel d) None of these.
5) High scorers on Agreableness dimension of Big Five model would be
characterised by being :
a) good-natured, trusting and soft-hearted
b) organised, reliable and hard-working
c) curious, creative and untraditional
d) active, talkative and fun-loving

2.4 LET US SUM UP

In this unit we learnt that the earliest effort to explain human behaviour involved
the use of personality typologies, which classified behaviour into discrete, all-
or-nothing categories. The first was the four-humor theory and remained popular
for centuries although today it is regarded as a baseless theory because it has
been established now that personality and moods are not driven by bodily fluids.
This was followed by Sheldon’s somatotype (body build) based theory of
personality. Sheldon assigned each individual to one of the three categories ,
viz., (i) ectomorphic (thin, long and fragile), (ii) endomorphic (fat, soft and round)
and (iii) mesomorphic (muscular, strong and rectangular). According to Sheldon,
ectomorphs are artistic, brainy and introverted, endomorphs are relaxed, fond of
eating, sleeping and sociable whereas mesomorphs are affective, dominant, filled
with energy and courage.

MBTI (Myers-Briggs Type Indicator) typology is another typology which is

modern one and based upon Carl Jung’s theory of personality types. The four
dimensions of personality that are assessed here are : E or I (Extraversion-
Introversion), S or N (Sensing or Intution), T or F (Thinking-Feeling) and J or P
(Judgment-Perception). The MBTI identifies 16 types of personality based on
Jung’s distinctions between E-I, S-N and T-F, as well as upon Isobel Myer’s
distinction between J-P.

36
Since the type theories robbed the uniqueness of persons by placing the persons State/Trait Approaches to
Personality
into a perconceived category, the trait theories came about. Trait approaches
explain personality in terms of traits, which are defined as relatively stable and
consistent personal characteristics. Trait approach attempts to explain personality
and differences between people in terms of their personal characteristics, to devise
ways of measuring individual differences in personality traits and to use these
measures for understanding and predicting a person’s behaviour. Under the trait
approach, we considered the viewpoints of Allport, Cattell, Eysenck, Guilford,
and the Five Factor Model would be discussed in detail.

For Allport, traits are the building blocks of personality as well as the source of
individuality. For Allport, trait is something that exits but remains invisible. It is
located somewhere in the nervous system (Ryckman, 1993). Allport recognised
two major categories of traits Common traits and Individual traits. He classified
individual traits further into three types, viz. cardinal tratis, central trait and
secondary trait.

All these traits are dynamic in the sense that they possess motivational power.
Those individual traits or dispositions which are intensely experienced are said
to be more motivational. Those individual traits which are less intensively
experienced though possessing more motivational power are said to be more
stylistic.

According to Allport, all these individual traits form structure of personality

which, in turn, determines the behaviour of an individual. In his view only by
focussing upon the uniqueness of the individual, a scientific and substantial
understanding of personality is possible.

We then learnt about Cattel’s Trait theory. Raymond Cattell (1950) considered
personality to be a pattern of traits providing the key to understanding it and
predicting a person’s behaviour. According to him, traits are relatively permanent
and broad reaction tendencies of personality. They serve as the building blocks
of personality. He distinguished between (i) surface trait and source trait, (ii)
constitutional and environmental-mold traits (iii) ability, temperament and
dynamic traits.

Cattell found 23 source traits in normal persons and 16 of which he studied in

detail. These 16 basic source traits were then used in the construction of the
Sixteen Personality (16PF) Questionnaire popularly knows as “16 PF test”. In
addition to these 16 factors measured by personality test, Cattell, on the basis of
his subsequent researches proposed seven new factors. Using factor analysis to
the surface traits of the normal and abnormal personality spheres, Cattell derived
12 new factors that measure psychopathological traits. Cattell also distinguished
between constitutional traits and environmental mold traits. Cattell has further
subdivided traits into ability traits, temperament traits and dynamic traits.

Dynamic traits are the person’s motivation and interest which set the person in
action toward the goal. The important dynamic traits in Cattell’s system are of
three types, viz. (i) attitudes, (ii) ergs and (iii) sentiments.

We then learnt about Eysenck’s Type Trait Hierarchy theory. British Psychologist
Hans Eysenck (1990) had a strong belief that personality is largely determined
by genes and that the environmental factors have very little role to play in it. He
37
Personality: Theories and opined that personality is more or less stable and enduring organisation of a
Assessment
person’s character, temperament, intellect and physique. In this definition, he
has emphasised upon traits (stable and enduring characteristics) which when
clustered together, constitutes a type.

Eysenek’s viewpoint is personality is hierarchically organised, consisting of types,

traits and habits. At the lowest level of Eysenck’s hierarchy are the single responses
like action or thoughts. Regularly occurring responses form habits and related
habits form traits and several traits clustered together constitute a type or also
known as super factors. Later, on the basis of other statistical analysis, he
postulated a third dimension, viz., Psychoticism/Impulse control. These three
dimensions, according to Eysenck, are the major individual difference types
considered most useful in describing personality functioning. To measure these
three dimensions of personality, Eysenck developed a paper and pencil test. The
latest version of the test has been named as Eysenck Personality Questionnaire
(EPQ).

Recently, inhibition theory has been replaced by arousal theory by Eysenck

because inhibition and excitation although were very useful concepts, were found
to be extremely difficult to assess. According to arousal theory, differences in
the behaviour of introverts and extraverts are due to the various parts of Ascending
Rreticular Activating System (ARAS) in the nervous system.
Eysenck’s theory was followed by learning about Guilford’s trait theory. Guilford
defined personality as the individual’s unique pattern of traits. Trait, for him, is
any distinguishable, relatively enduring way in which one person differs from
another. Using factor analysis, Guilford came to the conclusion that there are
seven modalities of traits, that is (i) morphological, (ii) physiological, (iii) needs,
(iv) interest, (v) attitudes (vi) aptitudes and (vii) temperament. The first two are
the somatic traits whereas the last five are behavioural aspects of personality.
Guilford emphasised that these modalities should not be regarded as seven
separate constituent parts of personality but personality must be seen as integrated
whole and these seven modalities can be seven different directions from which
the whole can be viewed. Guilford also pointed out three levels of trait generality:
hexic level, primary trait level and type level.
Today, the most talked about trait approach to personality is the Five Factor
Model (FFM) also known as the Big Five. As its name implies, according to this
model there are five broad personality factors, each of which is composed of
constellation of traits. Based on his own researches as well as researches of others
Goldberg pointed out that it is possible to prepare a model for structuring
individual differences among traits of personality. Big Five was meant to refer to
the finding that each factor subsumes a large number of specific traits. In fact,
the Big Five are almost as broad and abstract as Eysenck’s superfactors. Those
Big Five dimensions of personality using the names assigned by MC Crae and
Costa (1987) are Extraversion (E), Neuroticism (N), Consientiousness (C),
Agreeableness (A), Openness (O)
First letters of the Big Five dimensions can be reordered to spell out the word
OCEAN—an easy way to keep them in memory.
For assessing these Big Five dimensions, Goldberg (1992) has developed a
questionnaire named Transparent Bipolar Inventory. Still another much more
38
popular questionnaire to assess Big Five has been developed by Costa and McCrae State/Trait Approaches to
Personality
(1992) named as the NEO-Personality Inventory (NEO-PI-R). Originally, this
inventory assessed only N, E and O but later on the other two factors such as A
and C were also included.

2.5 UNIT END QUESTIONS

1) Make distinction between individual traits and common traits. Following
Allport, discuss the different types of individual traits and their importance
in predicting human behaviour.
2) Explain viewpoints of Cattell regarding traits as being one of the determiners
of human behaviour.
3) Do you find Eysenck’s type-trait hierarchy a satisfactory explanation for
making prediction about human behaviour ?
4) Discuss the different trait modalities as outlined by J.P. Guilford for
understanding and predicting human behaviour.
5) Discuss the role of five-factor model in understanding human behaviour.
6) Do you find trait perspective a satisfcatory explanation for explaining
personality. Give reasons.

2.6 SUGGESTED READINGS

Zimbardo, P.G. & Weber, A.L. (1994). Psychology: Harper Collins
Baron, R.A. (2005). Pscyhology: Pearson Education
Santrock, J.W. (2006). Psychology: Essentials: Tata McGraw-Hill
Wade, G. & Tavris, C. Psychology: Pearson Education.

2.7 ANSWERS TO SELF ASSESSMENT

QUESTIONS
1) 1. (d) 2. (b) 3. (b) 4. (c) 5. (b)
2) 1. (c) 2. (b) 3. (d) 4. (a) 5. (c)
3) 1. (b) 2. (d) 3. (d) 4. (c) 5. (c)
4) 1. (a) 2. (c) 3. (c) 4. (b) 5. (c)
5) 1. (b) 2. (a) 3. (b) 4. (c) 5. (a)

39
Personality: Theories and
Assessment UNIT 3 ASSESSMENT OF PERSONALITY

Structure
3.0 Introduction
3.1 Objectives
3.2 Needs and Aims of Assessment
3.3 Methods of Personality Assessment
3.3.1 Interviews
3.3.2 Projective Techniques
3.3.3 Classification of Projective Techniques
3.3.4 Association Technique
3.4 Ink Blot Technique
3.4.1 Construction Technique
3.4.2 Completion Technique
3.4.3 Expressive Techniques
3.4.4 The Rorschach Inkblot Technique
3.4.5 The Holtzman Inkblot Test
3.4.6 The TAT
3.4.7 The Sentence Completion Tests
3.4.8 Limitations of the Projective Tests
3.5 Behavioural Assessment
3.5.1 Limitations of Behavioural Assessment
3.6 Personality Inventories
3.6.1 The Mmpi – 2
3.6.2 Limitations of Personality Inventories
3.7 Let Us Sum Up
3.8 Unit End Questions
3.9 Glossary
3.10 Suggested Readings and References

3.0 INTRODUCTION
Personality assessment refers to the estimation of one’s personality make up,
that is the person’s characteristic behaviour patterns and salient and stable
characteristics. As there are different theoretical accounts of personality, and the
question is how do people find out what kind of personality they have? The
methods of estimating or measuring or assessing personality vary according to
the theory of personality used to develop those methods.

However, most of the psychological professionals doing personality assessment

do not necessarily tie themselves to one theoretical view point only, rather they
prefer to take an eclectic view of personality. The eclectic view is a way of
choosing the parts of different theories that seem to best fit a particular situation,
rather than using only me theory to explain a phenomenon.

In fact, looking at behaviour from different perspectives can often bring insights
into a person’s behaviour that would not easily come from taking only one
40
perspective (Ciccarelli and Meyer, 2006). Therefore, many of the professional Assessment of Personality
doing personality assessment use different perspectives and also take on different
techniques for its assessment.

It is also important to note here that personality assessment may also differ with
respect to the purposes for which its is done. For example, if the purpose is self-
understanding, the person may select different tests/inventories, if the purpose is
to classify person’s as per their personality traits a different set of tests may be
useful. Finally, if the purpose is diagnostic (clinical psychologist, counselors
etc.) an entirely different set of tests may be more useful.

There are several tests/inventories which are available for the assessment of
personality. Broadly, these can be grasped into one of the three categories. These
are the subjective, objective and projective methods. The subjective approach
incorporates the assessment of one’s personality taking his/her work into account
e.g. what he or she had done throughout his/her life. It may also consider his/her
autobiographical accounts and biographies etc. But there is a major limitation of
it that there are possibilities that the person may exaggerate his/her strengths and
may minimise the account of his/her limitations and therefore we may be devoid
of the true picture of personality. In personality assessment the effort is to make
the assessment free from bias of any sort both from the subject/participant (whose
personality is to be assessed) and from that of the assessor. It presents that there
are so many such test/inventories whereby we can assess personality of a person
objectively and these are the important tools for the purpose. While some tests
assess the surface characteristics, others uncover the underlying aspects of
personality. Among the major procedures that are in use currently, the important
ones are those based on content relevance, empirical criterion keying, factor
analyses, and personality theory. Personality assessment may differ in the purposes
for which they are conducted. Personality assessment is used in the diagnosis of
personality disorders by clinical and counseling psychologists, psychiatrists; and
other psychological professionals.

3.1 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit, you will be able to:
• Define personality assessment;
• Explain the prominent features of personality assessment;
• Explain the aims of personality assessment;
• Explain the various methods used in the assessment of personality;
• Differentiate between different types of tools of personality assessment;
• Explain projective techniques in detail; and
• Explain objective techniques in detail.

3.2 NEEDS AND AIMS OF ASSESSMENT

Testing is becoming more and more important with each growing area of
psychology. Traditionally, tests were employed only to measure individual
differences or intraindividual reactions under different circumstances. The nature
and extent of individual differences, their possessed psychological traits,
41
Personality: Theories and differences among various groups etc. are becoming some of the major
Assessment
components demanding assessment as an aid of measurement.

Personality testing is an essential pre-requisite for identifying the various

constituents of personality. Testing in personality provides measures of emotional
and motivational traits of personality.

3.3 METHODS OF PERSONALITY ASSESSMENT

Some of the important tests and techniques measuring personality include (i)
Interviews (ii) Projective techniques (iii) Association techniques (iv) Expressive
techniques

3.3.1 Interviews
Interview is a method of personality assessment in which the interviewee has to
answer the questions asked by the professional, in a structured or unstructured
fashion. Some therapists note down the answers of the interviewee in a survey
process. This type of interview is unstructured in manner and moves naturally.

Limitations of Interviews
Interview by the psychologist demands the report of innermost feeling, concerns
and urges on the part of client. This is something that can be known directly by
the client/interviewee and thus, the problems encountered with self report data
like survey are faced with interviewing also. Interviewees/Clients can misinform,
lie, distort the actual facts or reality and hide the true information for social
desirability. Also, biases can occur on the part of the interviewers as their personal
belief system or prejudices may put obstacles in the interpretation of the
information given by the interviewee.

Halo effect is the other problem with interviews. Halo effect is a tendency to
form a favorable or unfavorable impression of someone at the fist meeting and
after that first impression all of the comments and behaviour of that person are
interpreted in agreement with the impression. Those who make a good first
impression due to clothing, physical appearance or some other characteristic
seem to have a “halo” for everything they do in a positive light.

3.3.2 Projective Techniques

These techniques are assumed to reveal those central aspects of personality that
lie in the unconscious mind of an individual. Unconscious motivations, hidden
desires, inner fears and complexes are presumed to be elicited by their unstructured
nature that affect the client’s conscious behaviour. The assignment of a relatively
unstructured task is a major distinguishing feature of projective techniques.

An unstructured task is one that permits an endless range of possible responses.

The underlying hypothesis of projective techniques is that the way the test material
or “structures” are perceived and interpreted by the individual, reflects the
fundamental aspects of her or his psychological functioning. In other words, the
test material serves as a sort of screen on which respondents “project” their
characteristic thought processes, anxieties, conflicts and needs .

42
Clients are shown ambiguous visual stimuli by the psychologist and are asked to Assessment of Personality
tell what they see in that stimuli. It is presumed that the client will project the
unconscious concerns and fears onto the visual stimulus and thus the psychologist
can interpret the responses and understand the psychodynamic underlying the
problem of the client. Tests that utilise this method are called projective tests.
These tests, besides their function of exploring one’s personality, also serve as a
diagnostic tool to uncover the hidden personality issues.

The history of projective techniques began in the beginning of the 15th century
when Leonardo da Vinci selected pupils on the basis of their attempt to find
shapes and patterns in ambiguous form (Piotrowski, 1972). In 1879, a Word
association test was constructed by Gallon. Similar tests were used in clinical
settings by Carl Jung. Later, Frank (1939, 1948) introduced the term projective
method to describe a range of tests which could be used to study personality
with unstructured stimuli.

This way, the individual has enough opportunity to project his own personality
attributes which in the course of normal interview or conversation the person
would not reveal. More specifically, projective instruments also represent
disguised testing procedures in the sense that the test takers are not aware of the
psychological interpretation to be made of their responses.

Rather than measuring the traits separately the attention is focused on the
composite picture. Finally, projective techniques are an effective tool to reveal
the latent or hidden aspects of personality that remain embedded in the
unconscious until uncovered. These techniques are based on the assumption that
if the stimulus structure is weak in nature, it allows the individual to project his/
her feelings, desires and needs that are further interpreted by the experts.
Self Assessment Questions
1) What is the need for Personality Assessment?
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2) How can personality assessment prove to be an aid in understanding
human behaviour?
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43
Personality: Theories and
Assessment 3) What is the underlying approach behind personality testing?
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4) What is projective technique?
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3.3.3 Classification of Projective Techniques

Various types of projective techniques have been classified into several categories
by psychologists.
i) Constructive: It includes all those tests and situations where the construction
of some specific task is to be done by the examinee. The subject needs to
frame a structure upon the situation presented by the examiner, and be asked
to draw a human figure allowing the person to freely express the examiner’s
inclination.
ii) Constitutive: This category includes those tests which require the examinee
to constitute structures upon some given unstructured materials, as for
example, The Rorschach Ink Blot technique. In this test the examinee
imposes own structure upon the unstructured ink blots (Zubin, Eros and
Schumer, 1965) and the subject’s responses are scored and interpreted.
iii) Cathartic: It includes those situations where the examinee can release his
wishes, inner demands, conflicts etc. through some manipulative tasks.
iv) Interpretative: It includes those test situations where the examinee has to
add a detailed meaning to the given situation. For example, the Thematic
Apperception Test (TAT) and the Word Association Test.
v) Refractive: This category includes all those techniques through which the
examinee gets the opportunity to depict his personality in the form of
drawing, painting etc. Frank cited that graphology is the best example of
this category.
If we evaluate Frank’s classification, it is obvious that it consists of several
limitations. The biggest one is that according to his classification, same test can
be included in two or more categories, causing considerable overlap. This way,
Frank’s classification is not a popular classification of projective methods.

44
3.3.4 Association Techniques Assessment of Personality

This category includes all those situations where responses are to be given by
the examinee in the form of associations which he makes after seeing or listening
to the stimulus material . E.g. The Word Association Test etc. In the Word-
Association test, the examinee is provided with a number of words in the form
of a list and he is required to utter the very first word that comes to his mind on
listening the stimulus word. The responses in accordance with the reaction time
are used for the analysis of personality of the individual.

3.4 INK BLOT TECHNIQUES

The Ink blot techniques consist of two popular techniques, that is, The Rorschach
Test and The Holtzman Ink blot test. In these tests the examinee has to respond
to an unstructured situation composed of some ink blots.

3.4.1 Construction Techniques

All those situations are included here in which a story is constructed by the
examinee on seeing the stimulus material within some given time limit. The
themes and mode of responding are considered relevant in such tests. The
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT), the Object Relations Test are some of the
examples of construction techniques. Some other tests like Draw-A-Person test
are also included in this category. In all these tests, the examinee constructs or
produces simple/complex statements in a story form or draws some picture or
person.

3.4.2 Completion Techniques

These include the situations where some incomplete sentences are presented to
the examinee and he can complete them in the form he desires. For example
I want ………..,
I feel excited about…………………..
The subject has to fill up the blanks and the responses given by the examinee are
recorded and analysed to get a picture of the individual’s personality. For example,
Rotter’s Incomplete Sentences Blank. Some people consider it as a semi projective
technique.

3.4.3 Expressive Techniques

These include those tests where some manipulative tasks are used by the examinee
to depict his or her personality. Some interaction with the given material is the
theme of these techniques. Some of the common expressive techniques include
role playing, finger painting, play, drawing etc. The characteristic feature of
expressive techniques is that the examiner pays much attention to the manner in
which the given materials are manipulated by the examinee.

3.4.4 The Rorschach Inkblot Test

Rorschach inkblot test was developed in 1921 by Swiss psychiatrist Hermann
Rorschach. It consists of 10 inkblots, five in black ink on a white background
and five in colored inks on a white background. The Rorschach test is a measure
of both the intellectual and non intellectual personality traits. While developing
45
Personality: Theories and this technique, Rorschach experimented with a large number of ink blots which
Assessment
were administered to different psychiatric groups. On the basis of such clinical
observations various psychiatric syndromes that differentiate response
characteristics were taken up in the scoring system.

In the test , the subjects are asked to simply state whatever each inkblot looks
like to them. Responses are scored by the psychologists using predetermined
categories, on key factors such as color and shape, movement, whether the whole
or part blot has been seen, and whether the response is given in content to the
whole or to peculiar details in the blot.

These blots are frequently used for personality description, diagnosis of mental
disorders and for behaviour predictions (Watkins et al, 1995; Wiener, 1997).
The whole procedure of The Rorschach Test is a combined set of three
components, viz., performance proper, inquiry, and scoring. Let us deal with
each of these one by one.

Administration of Rorschach test

The administration of the Rorschach test can be put be up in two stages as given
below.

a) Performance proper
The examinee is asked to get seated and rapport is established with him. First
plate is then handled to the client with the question “What do you think this
could be?” During the process the examinee needs to be careful about the
following things:
1) Reaction time which means the time gap between the card presentation and
examinee’s response. Exclamations and comments are excluded from
scoring.
2) The position of the card is also taken account of while examinee is responding
and are scored as v, ^, <, >.depending on the direction in which the card is
turned.
3) The responses are recorded verbatim for the reason that the examiner can
read it and analyse the same effectively.
4) The total time for which the card is kept by the subject is also recorded. The
time lapsed between the presentation of the card and the first response the
subject gives is called the reaction time.
On completion of the first plate, the second plate is given to the examinee and
similarly all the 10 plates are presented in a sequential manner. The total number
of responses is also termed as response productivity ratio and is coded as R. On
a Rorschach protocol, for most adults the score varies from 15 to 30. Vague and
uncertain response by the examinee is noted down to be clarified in the second
stage of administration, that is, the inquiry stage.

Inquiry
It is the second stage of administration of the Rorschach test. It is taken up after
obtaining responses on all the ten cards during “performance proper”. The basic
purpose of conducting inquiry is to collect all the necessary information for the
accurate scoring of the responses. Here, a location sheet is presented before the
46
examinee and he is asked to locate the part on the basis of which he has responded, Assessment of Personality
so as to maintain a permanent record of the area of the blot used by the subject in
responding. The questions framed for the inquiry stage are based on the examiner’s
skill and expertise.

Scoring of Rorschach test

The major differences among the various scoring systems of the Rorschach test
flourished in 1930s to the 1960s. There is also the focus of concern for Rorschach
interpretation based either on the content of the responses or on their formal
characteristics, such as location, determinants, form quality, and the various
quantitative summaries derived from the responses, that is, the content.

Scoring of location is important. Location refers to that part of the plot with
which each response of the subject is associated. For example, whether the whole
blot or a common detail or a usual detail has been used by the respondent and are
scored as W, D ,d, Dd etc. The determinants of the response include form, color
shading and “movement” and are coded as F,C,S,M etc. The respondent’s
perception of the blot as a moving object is scored in context of “movement”.
The various types of movement include human movement, animal movement
etc.

The form quality of responses may depict the precision with which the response
match the location used, to their originality.
The treatment of content also varies from one Rorschach system to another except
some major regularly employed categories. Some of the main categories are
human figures, human details, animal details etc. and are coded as H, A , Hd, Ad
etc. Some other broad scoring categories may include art objects, plants, maps,
landscapes, clothing etc. For each of the 10 cards, certain specific responses are
scored as popular because of their common occurrence and thus, constitute the
popularity score.
Qualitative interpretations of the Rorschach scores include the association of
“whole” responses with conceptual thinking. The colour responses given by the
subject are indicative of the subject’s emotionality and fantasy life. The entire
response for all the 10 cards including the enquiry are integrated together to
interpret the psychodynamics underlying the problem and also decide upon the
diagnostic issues.
However, after a prolonged use of the Rorschach test as a psychometric
instrument, some of the researchers found a number of difficulties inherent in
the method itself, such as the variability in the total number of responses, examiner
effects and interdependence of scores etc. The five major Rorschach systems in
use developed in the United Sates show vast differences which were documented
by John E. Exner, Jr. (1969). He, with his extensive investigations of clinical
use of the Rorschach Test came up with a single, distilled system encompassing
all the useful features being possessed by the method. Questions are also asked
about the reliability and validity of the assessment done through the Rorschach
Test.
In this context, it is pertinent to mention here that the Rorschach Ink blot test
was never developed as a psychometric tool, rather, it was developed as an
instrument to aid in the clinical diagnosis.
47
Personality: Theories and To briefly state about this test, it can be concluded that more research still needs
Assessment
to be conduced to invent a standard method of administration and scoring of the
Rorschach. Test.

3.4.5 The Holtzman Inkblot Test

Holtzman et. Al. (1961) developed an inkblot test known as the Holtzman Inkblot
Test (HIT). This test was developed by Holtzman in order to remove the inherent
technical difficulties of the Rorschach like unlimited number of responses, poor
scorer reliability etc. There are two parallel forms (A and B) having 45 cards,
both colored and achromatic and markedly asymmetric. One response per card
is taken by the respondent. Each response is followed by a two fold simple
question : where was the percept represented in the blot and what the percept
suggests about the blot ? All the responses are then classified under 22 response
variables.
It has been found by many researchers that Holtzman test appears to be better
standardised than the Rorschach test. Also the scorer reliability of the HIT is
highly satisfactory validity data on HIT have also yielded satisfactory results. It
has also overcome the problem of productivity ratio by specifying the number of
responses.
Recently, Holtzman (1988) has also developed a variant of HIT called HIT 25.
Consisting of 25 cards. It has been found to be successful in diagnosing
schizophrenia.

3.4.6 The TAT

This test was developed by Henry Murray and his colleagues (Morgan and Murray,
1935). The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) consists of 20 pictures which are
all black and white. The people depicted in the picture are deliberately drawn in
ambiguous situations. After showing the picture, a story is to be told by the
client about the person or people in the picture. They have to say what is happening
in the picture, what has caused the event and what could have taken place in the
past and what would happen in the future. The story narrated by the client is
interpreted by the psychologist, who tries to look for revealing statements and
projection of the client’s hidden emotions onto the characters in the pictures. In
the original interpretation method of TAT scores, the examiner first determines
who is the “hero”, the character of either sex with whom the respondent
presumably identifies himself or herself. The content of the stories is then analysed
in reference to Murray’s list of “needs” and “press”. Achievement, affiliation
and aggression are the examples of needs whereas “press” refers to environmental
forces that may facilitate or interfere with need satisfaction.
However, TAT has been used extensively in the research of personality but the
high variations in administration and scoring procedures associated with TAT
has made it quite difficult to investigate the psychometric properties of the TAT.
Nevertheless, the value of Thematic Apperception Techniques has been confirmed
and also the clinical utility of various versions of the TAT both for traditional
and specific applications have been established.

3.4.7 The Sentence Completion Tests

Other than these two well-known projective tests, there are some other types of
projective tests which include Sentence Completion test, Draw-A-Person test,
48
and House-Tree-Person Test. In the sentence completion test, verbal material is Assessment of Personality
used. Various incomplete sentences are given to the subject to complete them.
Some of the incomplete sentences are like example given below:
I feel very …….,
I wish my mother….

The subject is asked to complete the sentence the way he/she desires. In the
Draw-A-Person and House-Tree-Person, the client is supposed to draw the named
items on a white sheet.

3.4.8 Limitations of the Projective Tests

Projective tests are basically subjective in nature and the interpretation of the
answers of clients needs deep analytic and artistic traits. Reliability and validity
related problems always exist in projective tests. There are no standard grading
scales for projective tests. Person’s varying mood may decide the person’s answer
which may vary considerably from one day to another.

Some situational variables like the examiner’s physical characteristics are likely
to influence the responses on projective techniques. It has also been seen that the
changed instructions on the part of examiner also influence the examinee’s scores
on projective techniques to a great extent.

Finally, in the words of Eysenck (1959), projective techniques can be summarised

as those in which the relationship between projective indicators and personality
traits have not been demonstrated by any empirical evidences.

A number of evidences show that most studies of projective techniques are guided
by methodological flaws and are ill designed.

Projective techniques are not guided by any consistent, meaningful and testable
theories.

There is no evidence showing a relationship between global interpretation of

projective techniques by experts and psychiatrists.

Generally, projective techniques have poor predictive ability regarding failure or

success in various walks of life.

Self Assessment Questions

1) Define Projective techniques as a tool of assessment.
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49
Personality: Theories and
Assessment 2) Explain various projective techniques in detail.
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3) Discuss the classification of projective techniques according to various
researchers.
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4) Critically evaluate various personality testing procedures.
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3.5 BEHAVIOURAL ASSESSMENT

Behaviorists assume that personality is a composite set of learned responses to
stimuli in the environment, they undertake to watch such behaviour as a preferred
method to study.
One of the methods is direct observation, that requires the psychologist to observe
the client while engaged in ordinary, daily-routine behaviour, at home, school,
workplace or any other natural setting.
Among other methods often used by behavioural therapists are rating scales and
frequency counts. In a rating scale, either the psychologist or the client assigns a
numeric rating or some specific behaviour. On the other hand, in a frequency
count, the frequency of certain behaviours in a specified time limit is counted.
Both rating scales and frequency counts are being used by educators in the
diagnosis of various behavioural problems like attention deficit disorder etc.

3.5.1 Limitations of Behavioural Assessment

Observer bias is the major limitation of behavioural assessments.

In observational method, there is no control over the external environment and

50 this may lead to interpret the events in fruitless direction.
 Assessment of Personality
3.6 PERSONALITY INVENTORIES
Personality inventory is a printed form that consists of a set of statements or
questions applying to human behaviour. The list of questions is a standard one
and requires specific answers such as “yes”, “no” and “cannot decide”. As the
questions demand close-ended answers, these assessments are quite objective in
nature.

Cattell’s 16PF is one such personality inventory. NEO-PI by Costa and McCrae
(2000) has been revised, which is based on the five factor model of personality
traits. Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) is another commonly used inventory.

Introversion, Extraversion (I/E) is a classic dimension that began with Jung and
is represented in nearly every personality theory, including the Big Five. The
sensing / intuition (S/I), thinking / feeling T/P), Introversion / Extroversion (I/E)
and Perceiving/Judging (P/J) are the four dimensions that can differ for each
individual resulting in ISTJ, ISTP, ISFP, ISFJ personality types possibly (Briggs
and Myers, 1998). For example, an ESTJ is an organiser, practical in nature and
energetic in activity, an ESTJ is also a good school administrator.

Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (Eysenck & Eysenck, 1993), the California

Psychological Inventory (Gough, 1995) and the Sixteen Personality Factor
Questionnaire (Cattell, 1994) are some other common personality tests.

3.6.1 The MMPI-2

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory, Version-II or MMPI-2 is the most
common personality inventory. It tests specifically, the abnormality inventory. It
tests specifically, the abnormal behaviour patterns in personality MMPI-2 consists
of 567 statements such as “I believe I am being plotted against”. The answers to
the statements must be in “true”, “false”, or “cannot say”. It has 10 clinical scales
and eight validity scales besides various subscales. Each scale tests a particular
kind of behaviour. Ranging from mild to more serious disorders such as
schizophrenia and depression, are assessed using this inventory.
Validity scales ascertain that whether the person taking the inventory is responding
honestly or not. For example, if one of the statements is “I am contended with
whatever I have” and a person responds “true” to that statement, gets into suspicion
that the person is lying. If several of validity scale questions are answered in this
manner, it clearly depicts that the person is not being honest.

3.6.2 Limitations of Personality Inventories

Personality inventories have certain advantages over projective tests and
interviews in the sense that inventories are standardised. Also, observer bias and
interpretation bias are not possible due to their objective frame. Inventories are
also superior to projective tests in terms of validity and reliability (Anastasi &
Orbina, 1997).

However, there are some problems with inventories too. Even though, good at
validity end, some people still fake their answers and respond in socially
acceptable ways. Also, some people follow a regular course of answering the
statements without actually considering them, there as others may pick statements
to answer at random rather than answering each and every statement. 51
Personality: Theories and Though, the tasks of personality assessment and measurement is a skilled and
Assessment
sophisticated one, today predictions of behaviour are based on measurement of
personality.
Self Assessment Questions
1) Explain the meaning of personality inventories.
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2) Discuss the nature of personality inventories.
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3) Critically evaluate different personality inventories.
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4) Critically evaluate behavioural assessment method.
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3.7 LET US SUM UP

All types of personality tests available possess certain difficulties which are both
of theoretical and practical in nature. Every approach comes up with certain
advantages and disadvantages. However, personality measurement research has
gained enough importance. Still various devices are in the process of
improvement.

52
Some upcoming trends in personality testing include increasing evidence of Assessment of Personality
mutual influence between emotional and cognitive traits. Second, development
of a comprehensive model relating to human activity subsuming all sorts of
basic research on both emotional and cognitive traits.

3.8 UNIT END QUESTIONS

1) What are the advantages and limitations of using interviews as a tool of
personality assessment?
2) How can projective tests be used to explore personality?
3) What are the problems encountered in using projective tests?
4) How can behavioural assessments be used in personality testing?
5) What are the different kinds of personality inventories used in personality
assessment?
5) How can further research in personality testing prove useful in enriching the
existing personality assessment procedures?

3.9 GLOSSARY
Method : Procedures of gathering information in
any field of study.

Interview : A method of personality assessment in

which the interviewer asks questions to
the clients and the client is allowed to
answer either in a structured or an
unstructured fashion.

Halo effect : Tendency of an interviewer to allow

positive characteristics of a client to
influence the assessments of client
behaviour and statements.

Projective tests : Assessment of personality that presents

ambiguous visual stimuli to the client and
ask the client to respond with whatever
comes to his mind.

Rorschach ink blot test : Projective test that uses 10 ink blots as
the ambiguous stimuli.

Thematic Apperception test : Projective test that uses 20 pictures of

persons in ambiguous situations as the
visual stimuli.

Personality Inventory : Paper and pencil tests that consist of

statements requiring a specific and
standardised response from the person
taking the test.

53
Personality: Theories and
Assessment 3.10 SUGGESTED READINGS AND REFERENCES
Anastasi, A. (1997). Psychological Testing. New York: Macmillan.
Ciccarelli, S.K. and Meyers, G.E. ( 2006) Psychology. New Delhi : Pearson
Education.

References
Butcher, J.N.,& Rouse, S.V.(1996). Personality: Individual differences and clinical
assessment. Annual Review of Psychology, 47,87-111.
Camara,W.J.,Nathan,J.S.,& Puente,A.E. (2000). Psychological test usage:
Implications in professional psychology. Professional Psychology: Research and
Practice, 31(2), 141-154.
Exner, J.E.Jr.(1966). The Rorschach systems.New York: Grune & Statton.
Eysenck, H.J.,& Eysenck, S.B.G.(1993). Eysenck Personality Questionnaire
[Revised]. London: Hodder & Stoughton.
Gough,H.G.(1995).California Psychological Inventory(3rd ed.). Palo Alto, CA:
Consulting Psychologist –Press.
Holtzman, W.H., Thorpe, J.S. ,(1961). Inkblot perception and personality-
Holtzman Inkblot technique. Austin: University of Texas Press
Wiener, I.B. (1997).Current status of the Rorschach Inkblot Method. Journal of
Personality Assessment,68,5-19.

54