LECTURE NOTES

Basic Electronics

Atomic structure
Atom:
“An atom is the smallest unit of an ordinary matter that form a chemical element.”

 Every solid, gas and plasma is composed of neutral or ionized atoms.

 Atoms are extremely small, typically around 100 picometer across.
 Components: Electrons and a compact nucleus of protons and neutrons.

Electron:
The electron is a subatomic particle, symbol e⁻ or β⁻ , whose electric charge is negative one
elementary charge. Electrons belong to the first generation of the lepton particle family, and are
generally thought to be elementary particles because they have no known components or
substructure.

Electric charge: −1 e; −1.602176634×10−19 C

Composition: Elementary particle
Mass: 9.1093837015(28)×10−31 kg
Proton:
A proton is a sub-atomic particle, symbol p or p+, with a positive electric charge of
+1e elementary charge and a mass slightly less than that of a neutron.

Charge radius: 0.8414(19) fm

Composition: 2 up quarks (u , 1 own uar
Electric charge: +1 e; 1.6×10−19 C
Mass: 1.67×10−27 kg

Neutron:
The neutron is a subatomic particle, symbol. n. or. n 0. , which has a neutral (not positive or
negative) charge and a mass slightly greater than that of a proton.

Mass: 1.67×10−27 kg
Composition: 1 up quark, 2 down quarks
Electric charge: 0 e
 Energy Band Theory of solids
Electrons of an isolated atom are bound to the nucleus, and can only have distinct energy levels.
However, when a large number of atoms, say N, are brought close to one another to form a
solid, each energy level of atoms splits into N sublevels, called states, under the action of the
forces exerted by the other atoms in the solid.These permissible energy states are discrete but so
closely spaced that they appear to form continuous energy bands.

 In between two consecutive permissible energy bands, there is a range of energy states
which cannot be occupied by the electrons. These are called forbidden energy states,
and its range is termed as forbidden energy gap.

 The electrons in the outermost shell of atoms are called valance electrons and the energy
band occupying these electrons is known as valance band.
o It is obviously highest occupied band.
o It can either be completely filled or partially filled with electrons but can never be
empty.

 The band above the valance band is called conduction band.

o In conduction band electrons move freely and conduct current through solids.
o This is why electrons occupying this band are called conductive electrons or free
electrons.

 The bands below the valence band are completely filled and as such play no role in
conduction process.
Classification of Solids on the basis of Band Theory

Insulators:
Insulators are those materials in which valance electrons are bound very tightly to their atoms
and are not free. In terms of band theory, it means that an insulator has
 An empty conduction band (no free electrons)
 A full valance band
 A large energy gap (several electron volts) between them

Conductors:
Conductors are those which have plenty of free electrons for electrical conduction. In terms of
energy band, conductors are those materials in which
 Valance and conduction band largely overlap each other.
 There is no physically distinction between the two bands which ensure the availability of
a large number of free electrons.
Semiconductors:
In terms of energy bands semiconductors are those materials which at room temperature have
 Partially filled conduction band
 Partially filled valance band
 A very narrow forbidden energy gap (of the order of 1 eV) between the conduction and
valance band.
Types of semiconductors:
 Intrinsic semiconductors
 Extrinsic Semiconductors

Intrinsic semiconductors:
A semiconductor in its extremely pure for is known as intrinsic semiconductor.
 At 0K there are no electrons in the conduction band and their valance band is completely
filled.
 It means, at 0K, a piece of Ge or Si is a perfect insulator.
 With the increase in temperature, some electrons posses sufficient energy to jump across
the small energy gap from valance to conduction band.
 This transfers some free electrons in the conduction band and creates some vacancy of
electron in valance band, known as hole.
 Hence semiconductor starts behaving as conductor at elevated temperature

Extrinsic Semiconductors:
The electric behavior of semiconductor is extremely sensitive to the purity of material. It is
substantially changed on introducing a small amount of impurity into the pure semiconductor
lattice. The process is called doping. The doped semiconductors are called extrinsic
semiconductors.
n-type extrinsic semiconductor:
 When a pure semiconductor crystal (e.g. Si or Ge) is doped with a pentavalent element (
e.g Phosphorus, arsenic etc), four valence electrons of the impurity atoms form covalent bond
with the four neighboring Si/Ge atoms, while the fifth electron provides the free electron in the
crystal. Such a doped or extrinsic semiconductor is called n-type semiconductor.

p-type Semiconductors:
When a pure semiconductor crystal (e.g. Si or Ge) is doped with a trivalent element ( e.g
Aluminum, boron etc), three valence electrons of the impurity atoms form covalent bond with
the three neighboring Si/Ge atoms. While the one missing electrons in the covalent bond with the
fourth neighboring Si/Ge atom is called a hole which infact a vacancy where an electron can be
accommodated. Such an extrinsic semiconductor is called p-type semiconductor.
 Current, Resistance, potential difference

Electric current:
The charge per unit time passing through any cross section of a conductor is called electric
current.
(OR)
The rate of flow of charge is also called the electric current.
It is represented by “I” and it is a scalar quantity. If a net charge ΔQ passes through any
cross section of a conductor in time Δt then, electric current I is
I = ΔQ/Δt

Unit of Electric Current:

The SI unit of electric current is “ampere”.
 The current is said to be one ampere when one coulomb of charge is passing
through any cross-section of wire in one second. It is represented by A

1A = 1C/1sec

Direction of current:
Electric current is the flow of electrons in a circuit. It is directed from the negative
terminal to the positive terminal. Conventional current on the other hand is the flow of positive
charges and is directed from positive terminal of the battery to the negative terminal.
Charge carriers in various materials:
 In metallic conductors the charge carriers are electrons.

 The charge carrier in electrolyte are positive and negative ions.

 In gases, the charge carriers are ions and electrons.

Sources of Current:
To have a constant current the potential difference across the conductor should be maintained
constant. This is achieved by connecting the ends of wire to the terminals of a device called a
source of current. The source of current which converts some non-electrical energy such as,
chemical, mechanical, heat or solar energy into electrical energy is called source of current.
There are many types of sources of currents. For example;
 Cells which convert chemical energy into electrical energy.
(i) Primary cells: Cells which cannot be recharged.
(ii) Secondary cells: Cell which can be recharged.
 Electric generators which convert mechanical energy into electrical energy.
 Thermocouples which convert heat energy into electrical energy.
 Solar cells which convert sunlight directly into electrical energy.

Effect of Current:
The presence of electric current can be detected by various effects it produces. There are
three types
(i) Heating effect (ii) Magnetic effect (iii) Chemical effect
(i) Heating Effect
Current flows through a metallic wire due to motion of free electrons. During the course
of their motion, they collide frequently with atoms of metal. At each collision, they lose
some of their K.E and give it to atoms with which they collide. Thus as current flows
through wire, it increases K.E of vibrations of the metal atoms i.e., it generates heat in the
 wire. Heat produced by a current I in the wire of resistance R during a time interval t is
given by
H = I2RT

Uses: Heating effect of current is utilized in electric heaters, kettles, toaster and electric iron.
(ii) Magnetic Effect
The passage of current is always accompanied by a magnetic field in the surrounding
space. The strength of field depends upon the value of current and the distance from the current
element.
Uses: All the machines involving electric motors also use magnetic effect of current.
(iii) Chemical Effect
Certain liquids such as dilute sulphuric acid (H2SO4) or copper sulphate (CuSO4) solution
conduct electricity due to some chemical reactions that take place within them. The study of this
process is known as electrolysis. The chemical changes produced during the electrolysis of a
liquid are due to chemical effects of the current. It depends upon the nature of the liquid and
the quantity of electricity passed through the liquid.
The liquid which conducts current is known as electrolyte. The material in the form of wire or
rod or plate which leads the current into or out of the electrolyte is known as electrode. The
electrode connected with the positive terminal of the current source is called anode and that
connected with negative terminal is known as cathode. The vessel containing the two electrodes
and the liquid is known as voltmeter.

Types of current:

 Alternating Current (AC):

In this type the current changes its direction. Electrical current whose direction and
value keeps changing is known as Alternating Current (AC). The value of AC current in one
direction increases from ZERO to Maximum and fall down to ZERO and then in opposite
direction it increases from ZERO to Maximum again and come back to ZERO. Due to this
increase in both directions, the graph of AC looks like a Wave. Our household current
changes directions 50 times a second; hence you can see 50Hz written on most of our
electrical equipment.
  Direct Current (DC):
In this type the current flows in only one direction, advantages of this type of current
is that it is very easy to store because almost all type of batteries use direct current, most of
the electronics use direct current, computers, telephones, satellites all work on DC. Due to
the same direction of Direct Current, its frequency is ZERO. In DC Current one end is
Positive (+) and the other end is Negative (-).

Potential Difference/Voltage:
The potential difference of a supply is a measure of the energy given to the charge carriers in a
circuit.
It is defined as
“Work done in moving a unit positive charge from one potential to other potential”
OR
“Energy or work per unit charge”
Symbol
V
Mathematically
V = W/Q
Where V is the voltage in volts, W is energy in joules and Q is charge in Coulombs
Units: Volts
“One volt is the potential difference (voltage) between two points when one joule of energy is
used to move one coulomb of charge from one point to the other.”
Resistance (R):

“Opposition offered by the material to the flow of Current”

OR

“The ability of a material to stop the flow of electrical current”

Units:
Ohms (Ω)

“1 Ω resistance exists if there is 1A of currents in a material of 1 volts of potential difference is

applied across the material.

Dependence of Resistance:

The resistance of a wire is directly proportional to its length and inversely proportional to its
cross-sectional area.

Resistivity (ρ):
“Resistance of a meter cube of a material”
Mathematically
ρ =RA/l
Units: Ohm-meter (Ωm)
Conductance:
“The degree to which an object conducts electricity, calculated as the ratio of the current
which flows to the potential difference present.
This is the reciprocal of the resistance, and is measured in siemens or mhos.

Conductvity:
It is the reciprocal of resistivity and is defined as:
“Conductance of a meter cube of a material”

Dependence of Resistance on Temperature:

When the temperature increases, the vibrations of the metal ions in the lattice
structure increases. The atoms start to vibrate with higher amplitude. These vibrations, in
turn, causes frequent collisions between the free electrons and the other electrons. Each
collision drains out some energy of the free electrons and causing them unable t o move.
Thus it restricts the movement of the delocalized electrons. When the collision s happen
the drift velocity of the electrons decreases. This means that the resistivity of the metal
increases and thus current flow in the metal is decreased. The resis tivity increases means
that the conductivity of the material decreases.

Temperature co-efficient of Resistance:

“The fractional change in resistance per Kelvin”

α = Rt – Ro / Rot

 Conductors and insulators have positive temperature co-efficients. That means their
resistance/resistivity increases with temperature.
 Semi-conductors have negative temperature co-efficients. That means their
resistance/resistivity decreases with temperature.
 Ohm’s Law:
Ohm’s law states that,
“The voltage or potential difference between two points is directly proportional to the current
or electricity passing through the resistance.”
The formula for Ohm’s law is
V=IR.
This relationship between current, voltage, and relationship was discovered by German scientist
Georg Simon Ohm.
Most basic components of electricity are voltage, current, an resistance. Ohm’s law shows a simple
relation between these three quantities. Ohm’s law can also be stated as, “the current through a
conductor between two points is directly proportional to the voltage across the two points.”

Ohm’s Law Formula

Voltage = Current × Resistance

V= I×R
V= voltage, I= current and R= resistance

The SI unit of resistance is ohms and is denoted by Ω

 This law is one of the most basic laws of electricity. It helps to calculate the power,
efficiency, current, voltage, and resistance of an element of an electrical circuit.

Ohmic Devices:
The device which follows ohm's law for all voltages across it is called as an ohmic
device.(i.e under constant physical conditions such as temperature, the resistance is constant for
all currents that pass through it.
Examples of ohmic devices are: a wire, heating element or a resistor.

Non-Ohmic Devices:
The device that does not follow ohm's law is known as a non-ohmic device (i.e the
resistance is different for different currents passing through it).

Examples of non ohmic devices are: Tungsten filament, semiconductor diode, thermistors,
crystal rectifiers, vacuum tube etc.

A Filament Lamp
Here the graph curves because as the filament heats it’s resistance goes up.

A diode
A diode only allows current to flow in one direction through it (forward biased), when the
current tries to flow the other way (reverse biased) no current is allowed to flow through the
diode.
Series and Parallel Combinations of Resistances:
Resistance can be joined to each other by two ways:
1. Series combination
2. Parallel combination
SERIES COMBINATION
Characteristics:
1. If different resistances are joined with each other such that there is only one path for the
flow of electric current then the combination of such resistances is called Series Combination.
2. In series combination current through each resistor is constant.
3. In series combination Potential difference across each resistor is different depending upon
the value of resistance.
4. Equivalent resistance of circuit is equal to the sum of individual resistances.

Re = R1 + R2 + R3 + R4 + …………….. Rn

DISADVANTAGE

If one component is fused, then the other components of circuit will not function.
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EQUIVALENT
RESISTANCE IN SERIES
COMBINATION

Consider three resistances R1, R2, & R3 connected in series combination with a power supply of
voltage.
Potential difference of each resistor is V1, V2, & V3 respectively. Let electric current I is
passing through the circuit.
Now
V = V1 + V2 + V3
Accor ing to Ohm’s law V = IR
thus
IRe = IR1 + IR2 + IR3
IRe = I(R1 + R2 + R3)
IRe/I = R1 + R2 + R3
 Re = R1 + R2 + R3
This shows that in series combination equivalent resistance of circuit is always greater than
individual resistances.
PARALLEL
COMBINATION
Characteristics:
1. If there are more than one path for the flow of current in a circuit then the combination of
resistances is called Parallel Combination.
2. In parallel combination current through each resistor is different.
3. Potential difference across each resistor is constant.
4. Equivalent resistance of circuit is always less than either of the resistances included in the
circuit.

ADVANTAGE
In parallel combination of resistors, if one component of circuit (resistor) is damaged then rest
of the component of the circuit will perform their work without any disturbance. It is due to
the presence of more than paths for the flow of electric current.
EQUIVALENT
RESISTANCE IN
PARALLEL
COMBINATION
Consider three resistances R1 , R2 & R3 connected in parallel combination with a power supply
of voltage V.
Now
I = I1 + I2 + I3
accor ing to Ohm’s law
V/R = I
Therefore,
V/Re = V/R1 + V/R2 + V/R3
V/Re = V(1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3)
 V/ReV = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3
OR

Color Coding of Resistors:

Color-coding is a method used to indicate the resistive value, tolerance, and temperature
coefficient of resistors with low wattage rating because of their small size. Color bands are used
because they can be easily and cheaply printed on a small electronic component. Color-coding is
also used for capacitors, inductors and diodes.

Reading Color Codes:

 Resistors cases usually have three to six bands that indicate their resistance, tolerance and
sometimes their temperature coefficient of resistance (TCR).
 The bands are read from left to right.
 The reading direction is not always clear.
 To distinguish the reading direction, the tolerance band width is sometimes printed with
1.5 - 2 times the width of other bands. A larger gap between the tolerance band and the
other bands is sometimes noticeable.
 If a gold or silver band is present, then they must be at the right end since they are never
used for significant digits.
 It is always better to chec the manufacturer’s ocumentation or use a multimeter to get
the exact resistance value.
 In a three-band resistor, the first two bands represent the first two significant digits
followed by one band for the multiplier. Since no tolerance band is available, the
tolerance will always be ±20%.
 In a four-band resistor, which is the most common, the first two bands also represent the
first two significant digits. The third band represents the multiplier. The fourth band
represents the tolerance.
 In a five-band resistor, the first three bands represent the first three significant digits. The
fourth band represents the multiplier. The fifth band represents the tolerance.
 In a six-band resistor, the first five bands have the same representation as a five-band
resistor followed by one extra sixth band that represents the temperature coefficient of
resistance (TCR).