Engineering Graphics

RGPV-BE 105

Bachelor of Engineering B.E. (Common to all Branches)

 About the Authors
Basant Agrawal holds BE and MTech. degrees from Maulana Azad
National Institute of Technology Bhopal, and a PhD degree from Indian
Institute of Technology Delhi. He received the gold medal in MTech.
from Rajiv Gandhi Proudyogiki Vishwavidyalaya, Bhopal, and the
‘Promising Research Award’ from BAG Energy Research Society, Vara-
nasi. Presently, he is working as Assistant Professor in the Department of
Mechanical Engineering at Shri G S Institute of Technology and Science,
Indore. Dr Agrawal has over ten years of teaching experience, and his
broad areas of interest include thermal engineering, heat transfer, solar
energy and passive building design. He has published/presented over 35
research papers in various international / national journals and confer-
ences. He is a life member of Indian Society for Technical Education and
Institution of Engineers (India).

C M Agrawal obtained a BE degree from BIT Sindri, and MTech. and

PhD degrees from Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur. He re-
ceived ‘Best Application Oriented Paper Award’ at AIMTDR Jadavpur
University, in 1988. Presently, he is professor in the Department of Me-
chanical Engineering at Maulana Azad National Institute of Technology,
Bhopal. He has over forty years of teaching experience at undergraduate and
postgraduate levels and in guiding research scholars. His broad areas
of interest includes engineering drawing, and industrial and production
engineering. He has published / presented over 47 research papers in various
international / national journals and conferences. He is a life member of Insti-
tution of Engineers (India).

By the Same Authors

Engineering Drawing—Basant Agrawal and C M Agrawal, 2008 (fifth re-
print 2011), Tata McGraw Hill Education Private Limited, New Delhi.

Contents:
Drawing Instruments and Their Uses, Sheet layout, Lines Lettering and
Dimensioning, Geometrical Construction, Scales, Conic Sections, Engineering
Curves, Loci of Points, Orthographic Projections, Sectional and auxiliary
views, Projections of Points, Projections of Straight Lines, Projections of
Planes, Projections of Solids, Sections of Solids, Anti-sections, Develop-
ment of Surfaces, Anti-development, Intersection of Surfaces, Isometric
Projections, Oblique Projections, Perspective Projections, Computer Aided
Design (CAD).
 Engineering Graphics
RGPV-BE 105

Bachelor of Engineering B.E. (Common to all Branches)

Basant Agrawal
Assistant Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering
SGSITS, Indore

C M Agrawal
Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering
MANIT, Bhopal

Tata McGraw Hill Education Private Limited

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Engineering Graphics (RGPV 2011)

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 Preface
Overview
Engineering Graphics is the ‘international language of engineers’. It is a core subject for the first-year
students of all branches of engineering. It is also a prerequisite subject of study for all professionals
since it acts as a viable means of communicating technical ideas in a recorded form. When exact visual
understanding is necessary, engineering graphics is the most appropriate way to represent information.
It also develops the ability to visualize any object with all its physical and dimensional features.
Target Audience
The present book intends to meet the requirements of the first year BE students of Rajiv Gandhi
Proudyogiki Vishwavidyalaya (RGPV) and other autonomous engineering colleges of Madhya
Pradesh. It contains a large number of examples on drawing various shapes, and each example outlines
the steps of construction. Problems from previous examination papers of RGPV are included. They
have been classified from simple to advanced. The illustrations are simplified to help students grasp
the basic concepts. Multiple-choice questions with answers are given at the end of each chapter for the
purpose of quick revision and preparation for practical/viva-voce examination.
About the Book
One of the major strengths of the book is the excellent presentation of the subject matter in a clear, logi-
cal and concise manner. The work is an extract of the knowledge gained by the experience of successful
classroom teaching of this subject with utmost devotion. No one who goes through the book can miss
the enormous work that has been undertaken to prepare the text in the present form.
This book is designed to act as a comprehensive guide to cover the basic principles. It also includes every
significant feature of graphics software while making use of the computer as a drawing instrument. The
drawings have been prepared to scale with the help of advanced software packages as per recommenda-
tions of ISO and the latest BIS codes. Simple language, systematic introduction of concepts, variety of
solved examples, questions and objective type questions are some of the major features of the text.

Salient Features
The salient features include the following:
• Excellent illustrations (2D & 3D) for effective visualization of the objects
• An exclusive chapter on application of CAD software
• Step-by-step procedures given for solved problems with classification from simple to typical
ones
• Large number of solved examples from RGPV question papers
• Simplified presentation of the subject matter and illustrations
• Use of BIS code ‘SP 46 : 2003’ and ISO standards
• Excellent Pedagogy includes examples and practice questions:
� Solved examples: 383
� Practice Questions: 406
� Review Questions: 154
� Multiple Choice Questions: 172
vi Preface

Chapter Organization
This book is organized into thirteen chapters. Chapter 1 provides the list of drawing instruments
required in engineering graphics and covers the important geometrical constructions. Chapter 2 de-
scribes the different types of engineering scales and their applications. Chapters 3 and 4 deal with the
construction of curves used in engineering practice. Chapter 5 introduces the fundamentals of ortho-
graphic projections. Chapters 6 through 10 present projections of points, straight lines, planes, solids
and sections of solids. Chapter 11 describes the development of surfaces as applied to sheet metal work.
It is recommended for the beginners to read Chapters 5 through 11 in the same chronological order as
given in this book. Chapter 12 is devoted to isometric projections. Finally, Chapter 13 deals with the
use of computer graphics with special emphasis on AutoCAD developed by Autodesk Inc. An attempt
is made to present some of the basic commands in a simple way. The readers are, however, advised to
refer the manuals prepared by Autodesk for its detailed features and applications.

Acknowledgements
We are indebted to the expert faculties for their appreciation, recommendation, valuable suggestions
and encouragement during preparation of this book. We would also like to thank the editorial and
production staff—Ms Vibha Mahajan, Ms Shalini Jha, Ms Tina Jajoriya, Mr Manish Choudhary, Ms
Sohini Mukherjee, Mr Satinder Singh, Mr Anuj kr. Shriwastava and Ms Rachna Sehgal, at McGraw-
Hill Education India for their assistance and cooperation. The reviewers of this text also deserve a
special note of thanks. Their names are mentioned below.

Nitin Srivastava University Institute of Technology, Bhopal

Manish Soni Mahakal Institute of Technology and Science, Ujjain
Pavan Srivastava Corporate Institute of Science and Technology, Bhopal
P K Jain Sagar Institute of Research and Technology, Bhopal

Our acknowledgements would be incomplete if we forget to mention the love, care and patience ren-
dered by our family members. Our wholehearted thanks go to them.

Feedback

Any further suggestion or criticism from the readers for improvement of the text will be highly appreci-
ated. For any assistance or clarification, please contact us through our e-mail ids: [email protected]
and/or [email protected].

Basant Agrawal
C M Agrawal
Publisher’s Note
Remember to write to us. We look forward to receiving your feedback, comments and ideas to enhance
the quality of this book. You can reach us at [email protected]. Please mention the title and
author’s name as the subject. In case you spot piracy of this book, please do let us know.
 Contents
Preface ix
Chapter 1: Introduction 1.1
1.1 Introduction 1.2
1.2 Drawing Instruments and Accessories 1.2
1.3 Sheet Layout 1.3
1.4 Lines 1.5
1.5 Lettering 1.7
1.6 Dimensioning 1.9
1.7 Geometrical Constructions 1.13
1.8 Construction of Regular Polygons 1.17
Review Questions 1.24
Multiple Choice Questions 1.25
Chapter 2: Scales 2.1
2.1 Introduction 2.2
2.2 Representation of Scales 2.2
2.3 Units of Measurements 2.2
2.4 Types of Scales 2.3
2.5 Representative Fraction (R.F.) 2.3
2.6 Data Required for Construction of Scales 2.4
2.7 Plain Scale 2.4
2.8 Diagonal Scale 2.9
2.9 Comparative Scale 2.20
2.10 Scale of Chords 2.25
Review Questions 2.31
Multiple Choice Questions 2.31

Chapter 3: Conic Sections 3.1

3.1 Introduction 3.2
3.2 Cone 3.2
3.3 Circle 3.2
3.4 Isosceles Triangle 3.3
3.5 Ellipse and its Applications 3.3
3.6 Parabola and its Applications 3.4
3.7 Hyperbola and its Applications 3.5
3.8 Construction of Ellipse 3.7
3.9 Locate Centre, Major Axis and Minor Axis 3.13
3.10 Tangent and Normal to the Ellipse 3.14
3.11 Empirical Relations 3.16
3.12 Construction of Parabola 3.17
viii Contents

3.13 Axis of the Parabola 3.21

3.14 Focus and Directrix of the Parabola 3.22
3.15 Tangent and Normal to the Parabola 3.23
3.16 Construction of Hyperbola 3.25
3.17 Locate Asymptotes and Directrix of the Hyperbola 3.33
3.18 Tangent and Normal to the Hyperbola 3.33
3.19 Empirical Relations 3.34
3.20 Miscellaneous Examples 3.35
Review Questions 3.44
Multiple Choice Questions 3.45

Chapter 4: Special Curves 4.1

4.1 Introduction 4.2
4.2 Cycloidal Curves 4.2
4.3 Cycloid 4.2
4.4 Epicycloid 4.3
4.5 Hypocycloid 4.5
4.6 Involute 4.6
4.7 Spiral 4.9
4.8 Archimedean Spiral 4.9
4.9 Logarithmic Spiral 4.11
4.10 Miscellaneous Examples 4.12
Review Questions 4.21
Multiple Choice Questions 4.22
Chapter 5: Orthographic Projections 5.1
5.1 Introduction 5.2
5.2 Multi-view Projection 5.2
5.3 Terminology 5.3
5.4 First-angle Projection 5.4
5.5 Third-angle Projection 5.6
5.6 Second-Angle and Fourth-angle Projections 5.8
5.7 Symbols for Orthographic Projection 5.8
5.8 Assumptions 5.9
5.9 General Preparation for Multi-view Drawings 5.9
5.10 Miscellaneous Examples 5.10
Review Questions 5.23
Multiple Choice Questions 5.24

Chapter 6: Projections of Points 6.1

6.1 Introduction 6.2
6.2 Location of a Point 6.2
6.3 Conventional Representation 6.2
6.4 Point Above the H.P. and in Front of the V.P. 6.2
6.5 Point Above the H.P. and Behind the V.P. 6.4
6.6 Point Below the H.P. and Behind the V.P. 6.5
 Contents ix

6.7 Point Below the H.P. and in Front of the V.P. 6.6
6.8 Point on the H.P. and in Front of the V.P. 6.7
6.9 Point Above the H.P. and on the V.P. 6.8
6.10 Point on the H.P. and Behind the V.P. 6.9
6.11 Point Below the H.P. and on V.P. 6.10
6.12 Point on Both H.P. and V.P. 6.11
6.13 Miscellaneous Examples 6.12
Review Questions 6.15
Multiple Choice Questions 6.16

Chapter 7: Projections of Straight Lines 7.1

7.1 Introduction 7.2
7.2 Orientation of a Straight Line 7.2
7.3 Trace of a Straight Line 7.2
7.4 Line Parallel to Both H.P. and V.P. 7.2
7.5 Line Perpendicular to H.P. 7.4
7.6 Line Perpendicular to V.P. 7.5
7.7 Line Inclined to H.P. and Parallel to V.P. 7.6
7.8 Line Inclined to V.P. and Parallel to H.P. 7.7
7.9 Line Situated in the H.P. 7.8
7.10 Line Situated in the V.P. 7.9
7.11 Line Situated Both in H.P. and V.P. 7.10
7.12 Summary 7.11
7.14 Miscellaneous Examples 7.11
7.15 Line in the First Angle Inclined to Both the Reference Planes 7.18
7.16 Projections of a Line Inclined to Both the Reference Planes 7.18
7.17 True Length and True Inclination of the Given Line 7.21
7.18 Trapezoid Method 7.23
7.19 Traces of a Line Inclined to Both the Reference Planes 7.24
7.20 Projections of a Line Contained by a Profile Plane (i.e. p + e = 90º) 7.26
7.21 Traces of a Line Contained by a Profile Plane 7.27
7.22 Miscellaneous Examples 7.29
7.23 Line Inclined to Both the Reference Planes the Ends of Which Lie in
Different Angles 7.61
7.24 Miscellaneous Examples 7.63
Review Questions 7.75
Multiple Choice Questions 7.75

Chapter 8: Projections of Planes 8.1

8.1 Introduction 8.2
8.2 Orientation of Planes 8.2
8.3 Plane Parallel to H.P. 8.2
8.4 Plane Parallel to V.P. 8.3
8.5 Plane Perpendicular to Both H.P. and V.P. 8.4
8.6 Plane Inclined to H.P. and Perpendicular to V.P. 8.5
8.7 Plane Inclined to V.P. and Perpendicular to H.P. 8.8
x Contents

8.8 Trace of a Plane 8.10

8.9 Miscellaneous Examples 8.13
8.10 Plane Inclined to Both the Reference Planes 8.19
8.11 Plane Inclined p to H.P. and e to V.P. Such that p + e = 90º 8.29
8.12 Miscellaneous Examples 8.31
Review Questions 8.40
Multiple Choice Questions 8.41
Chapter 9: Projections of Solids 9.1
9.1 Introduction 9.2
9.2 Classification of Solids 9.2
9.3 Recommended Method for Naming Corners of the Solids 9.4
9.4 Orientation of Solids 9.5
9.5 Deciding Initial Position of the Solid 9.6
9.6 Rules to Identify Visible and Hidden Lines 9.6
9.7 Axis Perpendicular to H.P. 9.7
9.8 Axis Perpendicular to V.P. 9.9
9.9 Axis Parallel to Both H.P. and V.P. 9.10
9.10 Axis Inclined to H.P. and Parallel to V.P. 9.11
9.11 Axis Inclined to V.P. and Parallel to H.P. 9.19
9.12 Miscellaneous Examples 9.22
9.13 Axis Inclined to Both the Reference Planes 9.34
9.14 Miscellaneous Examples 9.51
Review Questions 9.59
Multiple Choice Questions 9.60
Chapter 10: Sections of Solids 10.1
10.1 Introduction 10.2
10.2 Terminology 10.2
10.3 Types of Section Planes 10.2
10.4 Sections of Solids by Horizontal Plane 10.5
10.5 Sections of Solids by Plane Parallel to V.P. 10.10
10.6 Sections of Solids by Auxiliary Inclined Plane 10.15
10.7 Sections of Solids by Auxiliary Vertical Plane 10.23
10.8 Sections of Solids by a Profile Plane 10.27
10.9 Miscellaneous Examples 10.29
Review Questions 10.42
Multiple Choice Questions 10.42
Chapter 11: Development of Surfaces 11.1
11.1 Introduction 11.2
11.2 Classification of Surfaces 11.2
11.3 Methods of Development 11.2
11.4 Development of Prism 11.2
11.5 Development of Cylinder 11.9
11.6 Development of a Cone 11.13
 Concents xi

11.7 Development of Pyramid 11.20

11.8 Anti-Development 11.27
11.9 Miscellaneous Examples 11.30
Review Questions 11.37
Multiple Choice Questions 11.37
Chapter 12: Isometric Projections 12.1
12.1 Introduction 12.2
12.2 Principle of Isometric Projection 12.2
12.3 Terminology 12.3
12.4 Construction of an Isometric Scale 12.4
12.5 Characteristics of the Principal Lines in Isometric Projection 12.5
12.6 Isometric Projection and Isometric View 12.5
12.7 Dimensioning on Isometric Projection 12.6
12.8 Four-centre Method to Draw Ellipse 12.6
12.9 Isometric View of Right solids 12.7
12.10 Isometric View of Objects Containing Non-isometric Lines 12.7
12.11 Isometric View of Truncated Solids 12.11
12.12 Isometric View of Composite Solids 12.14
12.13 Isometric Views of Objects from Orthographic Views 12.20
12.14 Miscellaneous Examples 12.30
Review Questions 12.46
Multiple Choice Questions 12.47
Chapter 13: Computer Aided Drafting (CAD) 13.1
13.1 Introduction 13.2
13.2 CAD Application 13.2
13.3 Software Providers 13.2
13.4 Hardware and Operating System Technologies 13.2
13.5 Basic Components of a Computer 13.3
13.6 Introduction to AutoCAD 13.6
13.7 Starting With AutoCAD 2007 13.6
13.8 AutoCAD Classic Workspace 13.6
13.9 Setting up Drawing Space 13.8
13.10 Sheet Layout 13.10
13.11 MVSETUP Command 13.11
13.12 command Execution 13.11
13.13 Methods of Locating a Point 13.11
13.14 Regulating the Cursor Movement 13.13
13.15 Drawing Lines and Curves 13.15
13.16 Editing a Drawing 13.30
13.17 Miscellaneous Examples 13.46
Review Questions 13.54
Multiple Choice Questions 13.55
Appendix: Solutions to Unsolved Problems A1.1
Solution of RGPV Question Papers Q1.1
 Roadmap to the Syllabus
Unit-1:

Scales: Representative fraction, plain scales, diagonal scales, scale of chords

Conic Sections: Construction of ellipse, parabola, hyperbola by different methods; Normal and Tangent
Special Curves: Cycloid, Epicycloid, Hypocycloid, Involutes, Archimedean and logarithmic spirals

Chapter 1 – Introduction
▲
GO TO Chapter 2 – Scales
Chapter 3 – Conic Sections
Chapter 4 –Special Curves

Unit-2:

Projection: Types of projection, Orthographic projection, First and third angle projection, Projection
of points and lines, Line inclined to one plane, inclined with both the planes, True Length and True
Inclination, Traces of straight lines.

Chapter 5 – Orthographic Projections

▲

GO TO Chapter 6 – Projection of Points

Chapter 7 – Projection of Straight Lines

Unit-3:

Projection of Planes and Solids: Projection of planes like circle and polygons in different positions;
Projection of polyhedrons like prisms, pyramids and solids of revolutions like cylinders, cones in
different positions
▲

Chapter 8 – Projection of Planes

GO TO Chapter 9 – Projection of Solids

Unit-4:

Section of Solids: Section of right solids by normal and inclined planes; Intersection of cylinders
Development of Surfaces: Parallel line and radial-line method for right solids
▲

Chapter 10 – Sections of Solids

GO TO
Chapter 11 – Development of Surfaces

Unit-5:

Isometric Projections: Isometric scale, Isometric axes, Isometric Projection from orthographic drawing.
Computer Aided Drafting (CAD): Introduction, benefit, software’s basic commands of drafting
entities like line, circle, polygon, polyhedron, cylinders; transformations and editing commands like
move, rotate, mirror, array; solution of projection problems on CAD.
▲

Chapter 12 – Isometric Projections

GO TO
Chapter 13 – Introduction to Computer Aided Drafting
 1

Introduction

� Introduction
� Drawing Instruments and Accessories
� Sheet Layout
� Lines
� Lettering
� Dimensioning
� Geometrical Constructions
� Construction of Regular Polygons
1.2 Engineering Graphics

1.1 INTRODUCTION

Engineering drawing is used to fully and clearly convey the ideas and information necessary for
constructing engineered items. It is usually created in accordance with standard conventions for
layout, nomenclature, interpretation, appearance, size, etc. The purpose of engineering drawing is
to provide exact geometrical configuration for the construction or analysis of machines, structures,
or systems. Today, the mechanics of the drawing task has been largely automated, and greatly ac-
celerated, through the use of CAD systems. This chapter provides a list of drawing instruments,
layout of drawing sheets, methods of dimensioning and some important methods of geometrical
constructions.

1.2 DRAWING INSTRUMENTS AND ACCESSORIES

The following instruments and accessories are required for drawing:

1. Drawing board
2. Mini-drafter
3. Card sheet (A1 size)
4. Drawing sheet (A2 size)
5. Pencil (2H, H and HB)
6. Compass (big and small)
7. Divider (big and small)
8. Protractor
9. Ruler (scale)
10. French curves
11. Set-squares
12. Eraser or rubber
13. Drawing clips
14. Adhesive tape
15. Pencil cutter
16. Sandpaper pad
17. Brush or towel cloth
18. Sketchbook

A drawing board provides flat and smooth surface on which the drawing sheet is fixed. A mini-drafter
is used to draw horizontal, vertical and inclined parallel lines of desired lengths anywhere on the draw-
ing sheet with considerable ease. A compass is used for drawing circles. A big compass is used to draw
circles, arcs and circular curves of diameter greater than 20 mm. A small bow compass is used to draw
circles, arcs and circular curves of diameter less than 50 mm. A divider is used to divide lines or curves
into a number of equal parts, to transfer measurement from one part of the drawing to another part and
to step off a series of equal distances on the drawing. In engineering drawing, we need a big divider and
a small bow divider. A protractorr is used to draw and measure angles, and to divide a circle or a sector
into any number of equal parts.
 Introduction 1.3

A flat metric ruler is required for measurements in centimetres and millimetres. French curves are used
to draw smooth curves through predetermined points in short steps. Setsquares are used to draw lines
inclined at 30º, 45º and 60º with the horizontal. Lines inclined at 15º and 75º can also be drawn with
the help of a pair of set squares. An eraserr or a rubber is used for removing unwanted pencil marks.
Drawing clips and adhesive tapes are used to fix the drawing sheet on the drawing board. The pencils
are prepared by a blade-type cutterr or a sharpener. While sharpeners are used for preparing conical
points, the blade-type cutters are suitable for removing the wood from the pencil. A sandpaper pad is
used to sharpen the pencil lead. A brush, dusterr or towel cloth is used to keep the drawing surface clean
by removing the erased crump, graphite particles or accumulated dirt.

1.3 SHEET LAYOUT

A proper sheet layout facilitates easy reading of drawings and makes it possible for essential
references to be located. A standard arrangement should ensure that all necessary information for under-
standing the content of drawing is included and sufficient extra margin is left to facilitate easy filing and
binding wherever necessary. IS 15093 : 2002 and SP46 : 2003 published by Bureau of Indian Standards
specify the exact size and location for each items on the drawing sheet. A typical layout of drawing sheet
containing frame, title block, space for text and other information is shown in Fig. 1.1.
10 mm

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

A Grid references Centering mark A

Space can be used
for text, if required

B B
Metric reference
graduation
C

Drawing space
D

Border line
E E
65 mm

F Orientation mark Title Block F

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
170 mm
Sheet edges

Fig. 1.1 Typical layout of drawing sheet

1.3.1 Title Block

A title block or a nameplate is made on the drawing sheet for identification purpose. It is normally
placed in the bottom right-hand corner of the drawing frame. The size of the title block recommended
by B.I.S. is 170 mm × 65 mm. Figures. 1.2(a) and 1.2(b) show sample title blocks used by draughtsmen
in industries and engineering students in colleges respectively.
1.4 Engineering Graphics

55 115

47

SIZE FSCM NO DWG NO REV

9
9

SCALE 1:10 SHEET 1 OF 1

Fig. 1.2(a) Title block used by draughtsmen in industries

50 120
5

TITLE
ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS
5
5

NAME
NAME OF STUDENT
5
5

BE I SEM MECH. Roll NO.

5

CLASS
5

COLLEGE
NAME OF THE INSTITUTE
5
5

STARTED
DRAWN ON SCALE 1:5 SHEET NO. 1 OF 1
5
5

FINISHED ON
ALL DIMENSIONS ARE IN MILLIMETERS
5
5

Fig. 1.2(b) Title block used by students in engineering colleges

A title block contains the following information:

• Name of the organization or the institute

• Title of the drawing
• Drawing sheet number
• Scale on which the drawing is prepared
• Symbol for the angle of projection used
• Initials of designing, drawing, checking, approving and issuing officer
• Any other information that may be necessary

The title block should also contain the statement “All dimensions are in millimetres unless otherwise
specified”.

1.3.2 Space for Text

A space for text may be used to provide (i) explanation of special symbols, designation, abbreviations and
units of dimensions, (ii) material specification, surface treatment and number of units, (iii) references to
supplementary drawings and other documents, (iv) location figures, usually in case of architectural and
building drawings, and (v) revision tables to record all document modifications, alterations or revisions
which are made from time to time.
 Introduction 1.5

This space is normally placed at the right-hand edge of the drawing sheet as shown in Fig. 1.1. The
width of the space is equal to that of the title block. If a figure takes up the whole width of the drawing
sheet, the space for the text is provided at the bottom edge of the drawing sheet. The height of the space
for text is chosen as required.

1.3.3 Item References on Drawing and Item Lists

If the drawing contains a number of items, or if it is an assembly drawing, a list of items, also known as
bill of materials, is attached just above the title block. The item list included in the drawing should have its
sequence from bottom to top, with headings of the column immediately underneath as shown in Fig. 1.3.

3
5 mm

2.
1.
S. No. Item Ref. Item Name Quantity Material

Fig. 1.3 Item list (bill of materials)

1.4 LINES

The Bureau of Indian Standards has recommended various types of lines to be used. The types of lines
and their applications in engineering drawing given in SP 46 : 2003 are summarized in Table 1.1.

Table 1.1 Types of lines and their applications in engineering drawing

S. No. Line description and Application
representation
1. Continuous narrow lines Imaginary lines of intersection, dimension line, extension line, leader line with
reference line, hatching, short centre lines, dimension lines termination, ar-
rowheads, diagonals for indication of flat surfaces, projection lines, grid lines
a
2. Continuous narrow freehand Preferably manually represented termination of partial or interrupted views,
line cuts and sections if the limit is not a line of symmetry or a centre line

a
3. Continuous narrow line with Preferably mechanically represented termination of partial or interrupted
zigzags views, cuts and sections if the limit is not a line of symmetry or a centre line

4. Continuous wide line Visible edges, visible outlines, lines of cuts and section arrows

5. Dashed narrow line Hidden edges, hidden outlines

6. Dashed wide line Indication of permissible areas of surface treatment

7. Long-dashed dotted narrow line Centre lines, line of symmetry, pitch circle of gears, pitch circle of holes
1.6 Engineering Graphics

Table 1.1 (Contd.)

S. Line description and Application
No. representation
8. Long-dashed dotted wide line Indication of (limited) required areas of surface treatment e.g. heat treat-
ment, indication of cutting planes

9. Long-dashed double-dotted outlines of adjacent parts, extreme positions of movable parts, centroidal
narrow line lines, parts situated in front of a cutting plane

a
It is recommended to use only one type of line on one drawing.

1.4.1 Rules for Drafting Lines

The following rules should be observed while drafting lines:

1. The minimum space between parallel lines should preferably be greater than 0.7 mm.
2. Lines with dash (S.No. 5 to 9 of Table 1.1), should preferably meet at a dash.
See Fig. 1.4.

Fig.1.4 Samples of dashed lines

3. Lines should be drawn in black or white depending on the colour of the background.
4. In case of two or more lines of different types which may overlap or coincide, the drawing priority
may be given in the following order.
a. Visible outlines and edges
b. Hidden outlines and edges
c. Cutting planes
d. Centre lines and lines of symmetry
e. Centroidal lines
f. Projection lines
For example, if a visible line coincides with a hidden line then only the visible line is to be drawn,
ignoring the hidden line. Similarly, if a hidden line coincides with a projection line then only the
hidden line is to be drawn, ignoring the projection line.
 Introduction 1.7

1.5 LETTERING

Fig. 1.5(a) Lettering A: Single-stroke vertical letters

Writing of titles, notes and other particulars on a drawing is called lettering. Lettering should be done
on the drawing in such a manner that it may be read when the drawing is viewed from the bottom edge,
except when it is used for dimensioning purposes. An HB or H pencil with conical-shaped point works
best for most lettering.

The Bureau of Indian Standards recommends Latin alphabets and numerals for technical drawing
in its bulletin IS 9609 (Part 1): 2006. Single-stroke vertical capital letters and numerals shown in
Figure 1.5(a) are generally used in practice. Figure 1.5(a) also shows recommended single-stroke
vertical lower-case letters. Inclined or italic letters, having an inclination of about 75º may also be used
in special conditions. Figure 1.5(b) shows single-stroke inclined capital letters, lower-case letters and
numerals.
1.8 Engineering Graphics

Fig. 1.5(b) Lettering A: Single-stroke inclined letters

1.5.1 Rules for Lettering

The following rules should be observed while lettering:

1. Guidelines ensure consistency in the size of the letter characters. If the lettering consists of capi-
tals, draw only the cap line and base line. If the lower-case letters are included as well, draw the
waist line and the drop line.
2. The thickness of the line of the letter should be such as is obtained in one stroke of pencil.
3. The width-to-height ratio should be around 1:2 for all capital alphabets [except I and W] and 1:3
for all numerals [except 1].
4. Letters should be written in capitals. Lower-case letters should be used only when they are ac-
cepted in international usage for abbreviations.
5. Letters and numerals should neither touch each other nor the lines.
6. Letters should be so spaced that the area between them appears equal. It is not necessary to keep
clearances between adjacent letters equal, e.g., as in letters LA, TV or Tr.
7. Words should be spaced one letter apart.
 Introduction 1.9

1.6 DIMENSIONING

Dimensions are marked on the drawing to specify the size such as length, breadth, height, diameter,
radius, angle and location of holes.

1.6.1 Dimensioning Terminology

Figure 1.6 shows the methodology of dimensioning a figure. Various lines and arrowheads used in it
are as follows:

1. Dimension Lines These are thin continuous lines used to indicate the measurement. The mea-
surement is denoted in figures and placed near the middle of the dimension lines.
2. Projection Lines These are thin continuous lines extended beyond outlines. Projection lines
are drawn in a direction perpendicular to the feature to be dimensioned or where necessary, they
may be drawn obliquely but parallel with each other.
3. Leaders or Pointer Lines These are the lines referring to a feature and notes. These are thin
continuous lines and terminated by arrowheads or dots. Notes and figures are written above the
extended dimension lines. Leaders are usually drawn at any convenient angle 30º, 45º and 60. Use
of long leaders should be avoided.

Dimensional value
Leader
Ø15

Arrowhead
R
30

Dimension Line
60
30

22.5 Projection line

90
20

Projection line
Fig. 1.6 Dimensioning terminology

4. Arrowheads The common types of arrowheads recommended by B.I.S. are shown in

Fig. 1.7(a). These are used to terminate the dimension lines. It is preferable to use filled ar-
rowheads in engineering drawings with its length about three times the depth/width as shown
in Fig. 1.7(b). Normally, length of arrowheads is 3 mm for small drawings and 4 to 5 mm for
large drawings.
1.10 Engineering Graphics

Open 90°
Open 30°

Closed blank
Depth of arrowhead x
Closed filled
Oblique
Length of arrowhead 3x
Fig. 1.7(a) Types of arrowheads Fig. 1.7(b) Execution of closed filled arrowhead

1.6.2 Placing of Dimensions

Dimensions should be placed on the view which shows the relevant features more clearly. The two
recommended systems of placing the dimensions are as follows:

1. Aligned System for Linear Dimensioning In this system, all dimensions are so placed that
they may be read from the bottom or the right-hand edges of the drawing sheet. See Fig. 1.8(a). As
far as possible, dimension lines should not be placed in 30º zone shown hatched in Fig. 1.8(b).

f20

20
20
20 20
40

20 20
20
20 20
20

20
20

50

Fig. 1.8 Aligned system for unidirectional dimensioning

2. Aligned System for Angular Dimensioning Angular dimensions are represented in the same
manner as the linear dimensions. See Fig 1.9(a). In certain cases, they may be written horizontally
if this improves clarity. See Fig. 1.9(b).

60° 60°
30°
30

60°
°
°
60

60°

60°
30°

30°
60 ° 60° 60°
° 60

Fig. 1.9 Aligned system for angular dimensioning

3. Unidirectional System for Linear Dimensioning In this system, all dimensions are so
placed that they may be read from the bottom edge of the drawing sheet. See Fig. 1.10(a). There is
no restriction controlling the direction of dimension lines. See Fig. 1.10(b). This system is advan-
tageous on large drawings, where it is inconvenient to read dimensions, from the right-hand side.
 Introduction 1.11

Ø20
20 20 20
20 20
40 20 20
20 20
20 20 20
50
Fig. 1.10 unidirectional system for linear dimensioning

4. Unidirectional System for Angular Dimensioning Angular dimensions are placed in the
same manner as that of dimensioning linear dimensions. See Fig 1.11.

60°
30°
60°

60°
30°

60° 60°

Fig. 1.11 unidirectional system for angular dimensioning

1.6.3 Method of Dimensioning Some Common Features

1. Circles They should be placed on the most appropriate view to ensure clarity, and should be
preceded by the symbol ‘f ’. They should be dimensioned by one of the methods depending on
size. See Fig. 1.12.

Ø15
Ø10
Ø60

Ø40
Ø15
Ø25

Ø20
40
Ø

Fig. 1.12 Dimensioning circles

2. Radii They should be preceded by the letter ‘R’. As far as possible, the dimension line of a radius
shall pass through the centre of the arc. Whenever the centre is located by dimensions, the centre
1.12 Engineering Graphics

shall be marked by a clear dot or small cross. While dimensioning small radii, the arrows may be
reversed. See Fig. 1.13(a). Leaders which indicates radius must always be radial line.
In case the size of the radius can be derived from other dimensioning, it should be indicated
with a radius arrow and symbol R without an indication of the value. See Fig. 1.13(b).

R5 R5 40
R5 R5

0
R2

40
R10
Fig. 1.13(a) Dimensioning radii Fig. 1.13(b) Dimensioning radii

3. Angles Some typical examples are shown in Fig. 1.14 to give an idea of the methods of indicating
angular dimensions.
"
'22

67°
65

°27
°32

15
'2"

59°

59°

67° 42
°

Fig. 1.14 Dimensioning angles

4. Spheres The radius or diameter dimension of a spherical surface should be preceded by the
word ‘S’. See Fig. 1.15.
5. Squares and Hexagons The dimension of a square should be preceded by the symbol ‘�’ and
the dimension of a hexagon should be preceded by the word ‘HEX’.

Sf 40
SR 15
Sf 20
50
Sf

Fig. 1.15 Dimensioning spheres

 Introduction 1.13

1.6.4 Rules for Dimensioning

The following rules should be observed while dimensioning:

1. Dimensions should be clear and permit only one interpretation. Numerals and letters should be
large enough to ensure easy reading.
2. Dimension values should be placed preferably near the middle. If unavoidable due to lack of
space above the extended portion of the dimension line beyond the arrowheads, preferably it
should be on the right-hand side.
3. As far as possible, dimensions should be placed outside the views. In case it is not possible, it
may be placed within the view. However, dimensions should not be placed within a view unless
the drawing becomes clear by doing so.
4. Dimensions should be placed at sufficient distance from the parts being dimensioned and also
from each other.
5. Dimensions indicated in one view need not be repeated in another view, except for purpose of
identification, clarity or both.
6. Dimensions should be marked with reference to the visible outlines. Dimensions should be
marked from a base line or centre line of a hole or cylindrical parts or finished surfaces, etc.,
which may be readily established, based on design requirements and the relationship to other
parts.
7. Dimensioning to a centre line should be avoided, except when the centre line passes through the
centre of a hole, or a cylindrical part.
8. An axis or a contour line should never be used as a dimension line but may be used as a projec-
tion lines.
9. Intersection of projection and dimensional lines should be avoided. However, if their
intersection is unavoidable, neither line should be shown with breaks.
10. Overall dimensions should be placed outside the intermediate dimensions. Where an over-
all dimension is shown, one of the intermediate dimensions is redundant and should not be
dimensioned.
11. If the space for arrowhead termination is sufficient it should be shown within the limit of
dimension lines. If the space is limited, the arrowhead termination may be shown outside
the intended limits of the dimension lines that are extended for that purpose. However,
where space is too small for an arrowhead, it may be replaced by an oblique stroke or a dot.
See Fig. 1.16.

30 15 10
15

15

15

10
30 15

Fig. 1.16 Arrowhead termination

1.7 GEOMETRICAL CONSTRUCTIONS

While preparing a drawing, one or more of the following constructions may be required.
1.14 Engineering Graphics

1.7.1 Divide a Line

A line may be divided into any number of equal parts as illustrated in the example below.

Example 1.1 (Fig 1.17)

Divide a 100 mm long straight line into seven equal parts.

A 1 2 3 4 5 6 B

1'
2'
3'
4'
5'
6'
7'
C
Fig. 1.17 Dividing a line in seven segments

Construction: Fig. 1.17

1. Draw a 100 mm long straight line AB.

2. Draw a line AC at any convenient acute angle with AB.
3. Set the divider to a convenient length and mark off seven spaces on AC. Let the points
obtained be 1′, 2′, 3′, 4′, 5′, 6′, and 7′.
4. Join 7′ to the point B.
′ to meet AB at points 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
5. Draw lines through points 1′, 2′, 3′, 4′, 5′ and 6′ parallel to 7′B
and 6 respectively. These points divide AB in equal length.

1.7.2 Bisect an Angle

An angle is bisected as explained in the following example.

Example 1.2 (Fig 1.18)

Draw an angle of 75º and bisect it.
A

P
O

B
Fig. 1.18 Bisecting an angle
 Introduction 1.15

Construction: Fig. 1.18

1. Draw angle AOB of 75°.

2. Set the needle point of the compass at O, draw an arc CD of arbitrary radius to strike OA and OB
at points C and D respectively.
3. With the ends C and D as centres, draw arcs of equal radius to intersect each other at the point P.
4. Draw a line from O through P. The line OP P bisects the angle AOB.

1.7.3 Divide a Circle

A protractor may be used to divide a circle. However, if it is to be divided into twelve equal parts, one
may use the drafter and the compass. The following example illustrates the method.

Example 1.3 (Fig 1.19)

Divide a 50 mm diameter circle into twelve equal parts.

K J
I

L H

A G
O
B F

C E
D
Fig. 1.19 Dividing a circle into twelve segments

Construction: Fig. 1.19

1. Draw a 50 mm diameter circle having O as the centre.

2. Using Drafter, draw diameters AG G and DJ perpendicular to each other.
3. Draw arc of radius equal to the radius of the circle (= 25 mm) and A as the centre to meet the cir-
cumference of the circles at point C and K.
4. Similarly, draw arcs of the same radius (= 25 mm) and centres G, D and J respectively, to obtain
points E, I, B, F, H and L on the circle. These points divide the circumference of the circle into 12
equal parts.

1.7.4 Triangles
Geometrical construction of a triangle with three given sides is illustrated in the example.
1.16 Engineering Graphics

Example 1.4 (Fig 1.20)

Draw a triangle having sides of 80 mm, 60 mm and 50 mm.
C

R5
0
R6

0
A B
80

Fig. 1.20 Triangle

Construction: Fig. 1.20

1. Draw an 80 mm long straight line AB.
2. Draw an arc having A as the centre and radius of 60 mm.
3. Draw another arc having B as the centre and radius equal to 50 mm to intersect the previous drawn
arc at the point C.
4. Draw lines connecting A and B with the point C, to obtain the required triangle ABC.

1.7.5 Rectangles and Squares with Given Sides

When the lengths of sides of the rectangle or the square are given, use of a drafter is recommended to
draw them. Set the drafter along line AB and erect perpendiculars AD and BC, equal to the given width
from the ends, as shown in Fig 1.21(a). Join points C and D to obtain the required rectangle. If all the
sides are made equal the figure obtained would be a square, as shown in Fig 1.21(b).

D C D C

A B A B

Fig. 1.21(a) Rectangle Fig. 1.21(b) Square

1.7.6 Squares with Given Diagonal

Diagonals of the squares are perpendicular bisector of each other. To draw a square of given diagonal,
set the drafter along one of the diagonals, say AB, as shown in Fig 1.22. With the help of 45º-set-square,
draw a 45º angle from the ends A and B on either sides of the line AB, and obtain points C and D. Join
ABCD which is a square. Another method suggest to use the compass to draw the AB and CD as the
 Introduction 1.17

perpendicular bisector of each other and making their lengths equal about the intersecting point O. Join-
ing the end points will constitute the square.

A O B

D
Fig. 1.22 Square with given diagonals

1.8 CONSTRUCTION OF REGULAR POLYGONS

Regular polygons can be drawn with the help of protractor taking internal angle of the polygon equal to
⎡( ) ⎤ ⎡2 ⎤
⎢⎣ n × 180°⎥⎦ or external angle equal to ⎢⎣ n × 180°⎥⎦ , where n is the number of sides of the polygon.

1.8.1 General Methods for Construction of Polygons

Example 1.5 (Fig 1.23)

Draw a regular pentagon and a regular heptagon having 40 mm long sides, using general
method.
C

B D
B

2 3 3 4
C 5
2 E
4
1
1 6

P O A P O A
Fig. 1.23(a) Pentagon Fig. 1.23(b) Heptagon
1.18 Engineering Graphics

Construction:

Method 1:
Fig. 1.23(a) for pentagon and Fig. 1.24(b) for heptagon

1. Draw a 40 mm long line OA.

2. Draw a semicircle with O as the centre and OA as radius.
3. Divide the semicircular arc AP P into n equal parts (where n = number of sides of the polygon).
Number the divisions as 1, 2, 3, etc starting from the point P.
4. Join O through the point 2.
5. Draw an arc with 2 as the centre and OA as the radius, to meet O3 produced at the point B.
6. Draw another arc with B as the centre and the same OA the radius, to meet O4 produced at the
point C. For heptagon proceed to draw arcs of radius OA, from with C and D centres to meet O5
and O6 produced at points D and E, respectively.
7. Join the points to obtain the required polygon as shown.
Method 2:
Fig. 1.23(c) for Pentagon and Fig. 1.23(d) for heptagon

F D
D
P
P8 8
7 7
E C
6 6
5 G 5
C
4 4

Q Q
A B A B
Fig. 1.23(c) Pentagon Fig. 1.23(d) Heptagon

1. Draw a 40 mm long line AB.

2. Draw a line PQ as the perpendicular bisector to the line AB.
3. Describe a semicircle having diameter AB, to meet the line PQ at the point 4.
4. With either A or B as the centre, draw an arc of radius AB to meet the line PQ at point 6.
5. Bisect line 4-6 and obtain point 5 on PQ.
6. Mark point 7 and 8 on PQ such that the lengths 4-5, 5-6, 6-7, 7-8 are equal.
7. Draw a circumcircle with centre 5 for pentagon and 7 for heptagon passing through points A and B.
8. Lay off the circle into the parts of chord length AB and obtain the required polygon.

1.8.2 Special Methods for the Construction of Pentagons

The example below illustrates the special geometrical constructions methods for a regular pentagon.
 Introduction 1.19

Example 1.6 (Fig 1.24)

Draw a regular pentagon of 40 mm long side.
Method 1: Fig. 1.24(a)

D D

E C
E C Q
Q

circle 1 circle 2
- A B - A P B M

R P S
Fig. 1.24(a) Pentagon method 1 Fig. 1.24(b) Pentagon method 2

1. Draw a 40 mm long line AB.

2. Set the compass to radius AB and draw circle-1 and circle-2 with centres A and B respectively. Let
circle-1 and circle-2 intersects each other at points P and Q.
3. With P as the centre and same radius AB, draw an arc to intersect the circle-1 and the circle-2 at
points R and S respectively.
4. Join PQ to meet arc RSS at point M.
5. Join RM and produce it to meet circle-2 at point C.
6. Join SMM and produce it to meet circle-1 at point E.
7. Draw arcs having AB as the radius and centres C and E, respectively, to intersect each other at
point D.
8. Join ABCDE E to obtain the required pentagon.

Method 2: Fig. 1.24(b)

1. Draw a 40 mm long line AB.

2. Locate P as the midpoint of AB.
3. Erect line BQ perpendicular and equal to AB.
4. Draw an arc with P as the centre and length PQ as the radius to meet the line AB produced at point
M. This line AM
M is the diagonal of the pentagon.
5. Draw an arc with A as the centre and AB as the radius to intersect the arc drawn with B as the centre
and AM as the radius at the point E.
1.20 Engineering Graphics

6. Draw another arc with B as the centre and AB as the radius to intersect the arc drawn with A as the
centre and AM
M as the radius at the point C.
7. Draw arcs having AB as the radius and centres C and E, respectively, to intersect each other at the
point D.
8. Join ABCDE E to obtain the required pentagon.

D D

E C
E C

1.54 a
10
8° 8°
10
P
A 40 B A a = 40 B

Fig. 1.24(c) Pentagon method 3 Fig. 1.24(d) Pentagon method 4

Method 3:

Fig. 1.24(c)

1. Draw a 40 mm long line AB.

2. Draw 40 mm long lines AE and BC, both inclined at 108º with line AB.
3. With centres C and E and radius AB, draw arcs intersecting each other at the point D.
4. Join ABCDE E to obtain the required pentagon.
Method 4:
Fig. 1.24(d)
1. Draw a 40 mm long line AB.
2. Locate P as the midpoint of line AB.
3. Erect PD perpendicular to AB, with a length equal to 1.54 times of the side AB.
4. Draw arcs having AB as the radius and B and D as the centres, respectively, to intersect each
other at the point C.
5. Draw arcs having AB as the radius and A and D as the centres, respectively, to intersect each
other at the point E.
6. Join ABCDE E to obtain the required pentagon.

1.8.3 Special Methods for the Construction of Hexagons

The example below illustrates the special geometrical constructions methods for a regular hexagon.
 Introduction 1.21

Example 1.7 (Fig 1.25)

Draw a hexagon of 40 mm long side.
3 E D 2

4 1

F C

A B
Fig. 1.25 Hexagon

Construction: Fig. 1.25

1. Draw a 40 mm long line AB.
2. Erect lines A2 and A4 at point A, inclined at 60º and 120º respectively with AB.
3. Erect lines B1 and B3 at point B, inclined at 60º and 120º respectively with AB.
4. With centres A and B and radius AB, draw arcs to meet lines B1 and A4 at points C and F
respectively.
5. Similarly, with centres C and F and radius AB, draw arcs to lines meet A2 and B3 at points D and
E respectively.
6. Join ABCDEF, which is the required hexagon.
Another simplified method for construction of hexagon is based on the principle of inscribing it in a
circle. The example below illustrates this.

Example 1.8 (Fig 1.26)

Draw a regular hexagon having a 40 mm side as (a) vertical, and (b) horizontal.
A
F E

B F
0
R4
HEX 40

O
O A D

C E

B C
D HEX 40

Fig. 1.26 Hexagon with an edge: (a) Vertical (b) Horizontal

1.22 Engineering Graphics

Construction: Fig. 1.26(a) and Fig. 1.26(b)

1. Draw a circle of 40 mm radius with O as its centre.

2. Draw diameter of the circle AD at a desired inclination. [For case (a), AD should be vertical and
for case (b), AD should be horizontal]
3. With radius OA and centres A and D respectively, draw arcs to meet the circumference of the
circle on points B, F, C and E.
4. Join ABCDE E to obtain the required hexagon.

EXERCISE 1

1. Divide a straight line of 90 mm length into parts that are proportional as 2:3:5.
2. Draw an angle of 45º and bisect it using compass.
3. Draw an equilateral triangle of 60 mm side with an edge inclined at 45º.
4. Draw a square of 30 mm side such that all the sides are equally inclined (45º) to a horizontal
line.
5. Draw a pentagon of 30 mm side such that one of its edges is vertical.
6. Draw a heptagon of 25 mm side such that one of its edges is vertical.
7. Use a mini-drafter to draw Fig. E1.1 to E1.3 in a square of 100 mm side. Take the distance
between consecutive parallel lines as 10 mm.

Fig. E1.1 Fig. E1.2 Fig. E1.3

8. Use a mini-drafter to draw Fig. E1.4 to E1.6 in a square of 90 mm side. Take the distance
between consecutive parallel lines as 10 mm.

Fig. E1.4 Fig. E1.5 Fig. E1.6

 Introduction 1.23

9. Use a mini-drafter to draw Fig. E1.7 to E1.9 in a square of 100 mm side. In Fig. E1.7 and Fig.
E1.8, take the distance between consecutive parallel lines of 10 mm length.

Fig. E1.7 Fig. E1.8 Fig. E1.9

10. Use necessary drawing instruments to draw Fig. E1.10 to E1.12 in a square of 100 mm side.

R10 10

Fig. E1.10 Fig. E1.11 Fig. E1.12

11. Use necessary drawing instruments to draw Fig. E1.13 to E1.15 in a square of 100 mm side.

15° 15
15° °
15

15°
°

Fig. E1.13 Fig. E1.14 Fig. E1.15

12. Use necessary drawing instruments to draw Fig. E1.16 to E1.18 in a circle of 100 mm diameter.

Fig. E1.16 Fig. E1.17 Fig. E1.18

1.24 Engineering Graphics

13. Use necessary drawing instruments to draw Fig. E1.19 to E1.21 in a circle of 100 mm diameter.

Fig. E1.19 Fig. E1.20 Fig. E1.21

14. Use necessary drawing instruments to draw Fig. E1.22 to E1.24 in a circle of 100 mm diameter.

Fig. E1.22 Fig. E1.23 Fig. E1.24

15. Use necessary drawing instruments to reproduce Fig. E1.25 to E1.27.

20

40 35

Fig. E1.25 Fig. E1.26 Fig. E1.27

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Name different types of drawing instruments.

2. What information should be contained in the title block of a drawing sheet?
3. Draw the lines recommended by B.I.S. for the following applications:
(a) Visible outlines (b) Hidden lines (c) Centre lines (d) cutting plane line (e) projection lines
 Introduction 1.25

4. Write all the alphabets and numerals of 12 mm height using single stroke vertical capital letters
according to latest Indian standard IS 9609 : 2006.
5. Write the name of your institute of 10 mm height using single-stroke vertical capital letters
according to IS 9609 : 2006.
6. Write “the quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog” of 12 mm height using single- stroke
vertical capital letters recommended by latest Indian standards.
7. Distinguish between dimension line, projection lines and leaders with the help of a neat sketch.
8. Show various dimension line terminations (arrowheads) as recommended Bureau of Indian Stan-
dards.
9. Differentiate between aligned and unidirectional systems of linear dimensioning.
10. What do you understand by a perpendicular bisector?
11. How can you divide a line into given equal number of parts?
12. Explain the method of inscribing a hexagon in the given circle.

MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS

Choose the most appropriate answer out of the given alternatives:

i) A drafter helps in drawing

(a) parallel and perpendicular lines (b) concentric circles
(c) smooth curves (d) all the above
ii) Center lines are drawn as
(a) continuous narrow lines (b) dashed narrow line
(c) long-dashed dotted narrow line (d) long-dashed double dotted narrow line
iii) Long-dashed dotted narrow line is used to represent
(a) line of symmetry (b) centre lines
(c) pitch circle of gears and holes (d) all the above
iv) Which of following publications made by Bureau of Indian Standards includes standard tech-
niques for line conventions and lettering in detail?
(a) SP 46 (b) BIS 9609
(c) ASME Y14.2M (d) ISO 9000
v) The inclination of letters as for inclined lettering as recommended by B.I.S. is
(a) 75º (b) 70º (c) 65º (d) 60º
vi) The length-to-height ratio of a closed filled arrowhead is
(a) 1:3 (b) 3:1 (c) 1:2 (d) 2:1
vii) The two recommended systems of placing the dimensions are
(a) unidirectional and aligned systems (b) upright and inclined systems
(c) linear and oblique systems (d) linear and inclined systems
1.26 Engineering Graphics

viii) The dimension figure for radius of a circle should preceded by

(a) R (b) CR (c) SR (d) RAD
ix) The dimension figure for diameter of a circle should
(a) preceded by the symbol ‘f’ (b) suffixed by the symbol ‘f’
(c) preceded by the symbol ‘D’ (d) suffixed by the symbol ‘D’
x) The recommended method of dimensioning a sphere with 80 mm diameter is
(a) 80f S (b) f 80S (c) S80f (d) Sf 80
xi) When two diameters of a circle are drawn at right angles to each other, which of the following
polygons inscribed in a given circle will have all of the sides at 45° to these diameters?
(a) A hexagon (b) An octagon (c) A pentagon (d) A square
xii) The included angle of a pentagon is
(a) 68º (b) 72º (c) 108º (d) 112º

Answers
(i) a (ii) c (iii) d (iv) a (v) a (vi) b (vii) a (viii) a (ix) a (x) d (xi) d
(xii) c
2

Scales
2.2 Engineering Graphics

2.1 INTRODUCTION

It is always convenient to represent an object to its actual size in drawing, if its size permits, e.g. a 50
mm diameter plain disc should be represented by a circle of 50 mm diameter on the drawing. When a
drawing is prepared to the actual size of the object, the scale is said to be a full-size scale and the draw-
ing is said to be a full-size drawing.

However, it is not possible to make drawings of machines, buildings, town plans, etc. to their actual size.
When the objects are of very large sizes, the actual dimensions of the object have to be reduced on some
regular proportion to make their drawings, e.g. a rectangular plot of size 25 m × 10 m can be represented by
a rectangle of 250 mm × 100 mm. The scale selected in the present case is 1 mm = 0.10 m. In other words,
1 mm on the drawing represents 0.10 m length of the object. When a drawing is smaller than the actual size
of the object, the scale is said to be a reducing scale and the drawing is said to be reduced-size drawing.

Similarly, very small objects such as gear mechanism of a wrist watch, components of an electronic
instrument, atoms configuration, etc., are shown by drawing them larger than their actual size. When the
drawing is larger than the actual size, the scale is said to be an enlarging scale and the drawing is said
to be enlarged-size drawing.

2.2 REPRESENTATION OF SCALES

Scales can be expressed in one of the following ways.

1. Engineering scale is represented by writing the relation between the dimension on the drawing
and the corresponding actual dimension of the object itself. It is expressed as
1 mm = 1 mm for full-size drawing
1 mm = 5 m, 1 mm = 8 km, etc. for reduce size drawing
1 mm = 0.2 mm, 1 mm = 5 μm etc. for enlarge size drawing
They are usually written on the drawings in numerical forms.
2. Graphical scale is represented by its representative fraction and is captioned on the drawing itself.
As the drawing becomes old, the drawing sheet may shrink and the engineering scale would provide
inaccurate results. However, the scale made on the drawing sheet along with drawing of object will
shrink in the same relative proportion. This will always provide an accurate result. It is the basic
advantage gained by graphical representation of a scale.

2.3 UNITS OF MEASUREMENTS

Table 2.1 provides the relationship of various units used for linear measurement.
Table 2.1
Metric system for linear measurement British system for linear measurement
1 kilometre (km) = 10 hectometre 1 league = 3 miles
1 hectometre (Hm) = 10 decametre 1 mile (mi) = 8 furlongs
 Scales 2.3

Table 2.1 (Contd.)

Metric system for linear measurement British system for linear measurement
1 decametre (Dm or dam) = 10 metre 1 furlong (fur) = 10 chains
1 metre (m) = 10 decimetre 1 chain (ch) = 22 yards
1 decimetre (dm) = 10 centimetre 1 yard (yd) = 3 feet
1 centimetre (cm) = 10 millimetre (mm) 1 foot (ft) = 12 inches
1 inch (in) = 8 eighth

The following linear and area conversions is also useful in construction of scales.

Linear conversion: 1 mile = 1.609 km

1 inches = 25.4 mm
Area conversion: 1 are (a) = 100 m2
1 hectare (ha) = 100 ares = 10000 m2
1 square mile = 640 acres
1 acre (ac) = 10 square chain = 4840 square yards

2.4 TYPES OF SCALES

Scales are classified as

a. Plain scale
b. Diagonal scale
c. Comparative scale (plain and diagonal type)
d. Vernier scale
e. Scale of chords

2.5 REPRESENTATIVE FRACTION (R.F.)

Representative fraction is defined as the ratio of the length of an element of the object in the drawing to
its actual length.
Length of the object in the drawing
R.F. =
Actual length of thhat object
Case 1: If 1 cm length of the drawing represents 5 m length of the object then in engineering scale it is
written as 1 cm = 5 m and in graphical scale it is denoted by
1 cm 1 cm 1
R.F. = = =
5 m 500 cm 500
Case 2: If a 5 cm long line in the drawing represents 3 km length of a road then in engineering scale it
is written as 1 cm = 600 m and in the graphical scale, it is denoted as
5 cm 5 cm 1
R.F. = = =
3 km 3 × 1000 × 100 cm 60000
2.4 Engineering Graphics

Case 3: If a gear of 15 cm diameter in the drawing represents an actual gear of 6 mm diameter in graphical
scale, it is expressed by
15 cm 150 mm 25
R.F. = = =
6 mm 6 mm 1
Thus, the scale 1:1 represents full-size scale, scale 1:x represents reducing scale and scale x:1 represents
enlarging scale, where x is greater than unity.

2.6 DATA REQUIRED FOR CONSTRUCTION OF SCALES

The data required for the construction of a plain or a diagonal scale are as follows:

1. R.F. of the scale

2. The maximum length which the scale can measure
3. Least count of the scale, i.e. minimum length which the scale can measure.
Length of scale is determined by Ls = R.F. × Maximum length

2.7 PLAIN SCALE

A plain scale is used to represent two consecutive units, i.e. a unit and its subdivision. For example (a)
metre and decimetre, (b) kilometre and hectometre, (c) feet and inches, etc. The second unit of the scale
should be such that it can comfortably divide the first unit (maximum 15 subdivisions).

2.7.1 Construction of Plain Scale

The following examples illustrate the method of construction of plain scales.

Example 2.1 (Fig. 2.1)

Construct a scale of 1:60 to show metres and decimetres and long enough to measure up to 6
metres. Mark on it a distance of 4.7 m. [RGPV June 2009]

4.7 m

D C

A B
10 5 0 1 2 3 4 5

DECIMETRE METRE
F = 1:60
R.F.
Fig. 2.1
 Scales 2.5

Construction: Fig. 2.1

1. Given (a) R.F. = 1/60 (b) maximum length = 6 m (c) least count = 1 dm
1
2. Length of scale, Ls = R.F. × max. length = × 6 × 100 cm = 10 cm
60
3. Draw a rectangle having length AB = 10 cm and width AD = 10 mm.
4. Here the length of scale represents 6 m. Divide it into 6 equal parts#. Each part represents 1 metre.
Mark the main units.
5. Divide first division 00A of the scale into 10 sub-divisions#. Each sub-division represents 1 decimetre.
Mark sub-units on the scale.
6. Write R.F. = 1:60 below the scale.
7. Mark a length of 4.7 m on the scale, i.e. 4 metre on the right side of the zero mark and 7 decimetre
on the left side of the zero mark.

Example 2.2 (Fig. 2.2)

Construct a scale of 1 cm = 1 m to read metres and decimetres and long enough to measure up
to 14 metres. Show on this a distance equal to 12.4 m. [RGPV Dec. 2007]

12.4 m

D C

A B
10 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
DECIMETRE F = 1:100
R.F. METRE
Fig. 2.2

Construction: Fig. 2.2

1 cm 1 cm 1
1. R.F. = = =
1 m 1 × 100 cm 100 1
2. Length of scale, Ls = R.F. × max. length = × 14 × 100 = 14 cm
100
3. Draw a rectangle having a 14 cm length and 10 mm width.
4. Divide the length of scale into 14 equal parts, each part representing 1 metre.
5. Divide first division of the scale into 10 equal parts, each representing 1 decimetre.
6. Mark units and sub-units on the scale and write the value of R.F.
7. Mark a length of 12.4 m on the scale, i.e. 12 m on the right side of the zero mark and 4 dm on the
left side of the zero mark.

#
Readers are advised to refer chapter 1 for the details of methods of dividing a straight line into equal number of parts.
2.6 Engineering Graphics

Example 2.3 (Fig. 2.3)

A length of 1 decametre is represented by 5 cm. Find the R.F. and construct a plain scale to
measure up to 2.5 decametre and mark a distance of 19 m on it.

19 m
D C

A B
5 4 3 2 1 0 5 10 15 20
METRE R.F. = 1:200 METRE
Fig. 2.3

Construction: Fig. 2.3

5 cm 5 cm 1
1. R.F. = = =
1 Dm 10 × 100 cm 200
1
2. Length of scale, Ls = R.F. × max. length = × 2.5 × 1000 = 12.5 cm
200
3. Draw a rectangle having a 12.5 cm length and 10 mm width.
4. Divide the length of scale into 5 equal parts, each part representing 5 m.
5. Divide first division of the scale into 5 equal parts, each representing 1 m.
6. Mark units and sub-units on the scale and write the value of R.F.
7. Mark a length of 19 m on the scale, i.e. 15 metres on the right side of the zero mark and 4 metres
on the left side of the zero mark.

Example 2.4 (Fig. 2.4)

Construct a scale of 1:5 to show decimetres and centimetres and long enough to measure up to
1 m. Show a distance of 6.3 dm on it.
6.3 dm
D C
A B
10 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
CENTIMETRE R.F. = 1:5 DECIMETRE
Fig. 2.4

Construction: Fig. 2.4

1. R.F. = 1:5
1
2. Length of scale, Ls = R.F. × max. length = × 1 × 100 = 20 cm
5
3. Draw a rectangle having a 20 cm length and 10 mm width.
4. Divide the length of scale in 10 equal parts, each part representing 1 dm.
5. Divide first division of the scale in 10 equal parts, each representing 1 cm.
6. Mark units and sub-units on the scale and write the value of R.F.
7. Mark a length 6.3 dm on the scale, i.e. 6 decimetres on the right side of the zero mark and 3 cen-
timetres on the left side of the zero mark.
 Scales 2.7

Example 2.5 (Fig. 2.5)

In a map of Bhopal, a distance of 36 km between two localities is shown by a line of 45 cm
long. Calculate its R.F. and construct a plain scale to read kilometres and hectometres. Show
a distance of 9.3 km on it. [RGPV April 2010]
9.3 km

10 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
HECTOMETRE R.F. = 1:80000 KILOMETRE
Fig. 2.5

Construction: Fig. 2.5

45 cm 45 cm 1
1. R.F. = = =
36 km 36 × 10 cm 80000
5

2. Here maximum length is not given. Since it is required to show a distance of 9.3 km, the maximum
length should be greater than 9.3 km. Therefore, assume the max. length = 10 km.
1
3. Length of scale, Ls = R.F. × max. length = × 10 × 105 = 12.5 cm
80000
4. Draw a rectangle having a 12.5 cm length and 10 mm width.
5. Divide the length of scale into 10 equal parts, each part representing 1 kilometre.
6. Divide first division of the scale into 10 equal parts, each representing 1 hectometre.
7. Mark units and sub-units on the scale and write the value of R.F.
8. Mark a length 9.3 km on the scale, i.e. 9 kilometre on the right side of the zero mark and 3 hecto-
metre on the left side of the zero mark.

Example 2.6 (Fig. 2.6)

A rectangular plot of 100 square kilometres is represented on a certain map by a rectangular
area of 4 square centimetres. Draw a scale to show 50 km and mark a distance of 41 km on it.
[RGPV June 2008(o)]

41 km

10 8 6 4 2 0 10 20 30 40
KILOMETRE F = 1:500000
R.F. KILOMETRE
Fig. 2.6

Construction: Fig. 2.6

4 cm 2 1 cm 1
1. We know that R.F. is the ratio of lengths, therefore R.F. = = =
100 km 2 5 km 500000
2.8 Engineering Graphics

1
2. Length of scale, Ls = R.F. × max. length = × 50 × 105 = 10 cm
500000
3. Draw a rectangle having a 10 cm length and 10 mm width.
4. Divide the length of scale into 5 equal parts, each part representing 10 km.
5. Divide first division of the scale in 10 equal parts, each representing 1 km.
6. Mark units and sub-units on the scale and write the value of R.F.
7. Mark a length 41 km on the scale as shown.

Example 2.7 (Fig. 2.7)

A cube of 5 cm side represents a tank of 8000 cubic metre volume. Find the R.F. and construct
a scale to measure up to 60 m and mark on it a distance of 47 m. Indicate R.F. of the scale.
[RGPV Dec. 2008]

47 m

10 8 6 4 2 0 10 20 30 40 50
METRE R.F. = 1:4000 METRE
Fig. 2.7

Construction: Fig. 2.7

5 cm 5 cm 1
1. We know that R.F. is the ratio of lengths, therefore R.F. = = =
3
8000 m 20 × 100 cm 4000
1
2. Length of scale, Ls = R.F. × max. length = × 60 × 100 cm = 15 cm
4000
3. Draw a rectangle having a 15 cm length and 10 mm width.
4. Divide the length of scale into 6 equal parts, each part representing 10 metre.
5. Divide first division of the scale into 10 equal parts, each representing 1 m.
6. Mark units and sub-units on the scale and write the value of R.F.
7. Mark a distance of 47 metre on the scale as shown.

Example 2.8 (Fig. 2.8)

Construct a scale of 1:14 to read feet and inches and long enough to measure 7 feet. Show a
distance of 5 feet 10 inches on it.
5 feet 10 inches

12 6 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
INCH FOOT
R.F.
F = 1:14
Fig. 2.8
 Scales 2.9

Construction: Fig. 2.8

1
1. R.F. =
14
1
2. Length of scale, Ls = R.F. × max. length = × 7 × 12 = 6 inches = 15 24 cm
14
3. Draw a rectangle of length 6 inches, i.e. 15.24 cm and width 10 mm.
4. Divide the length of scale into 7 equal parts, each part representing 1 foot.
5. Divide the first division of scale into 12 equal parts, each representing 1 inch.
6. Mark units and sub-units on the scale and write the value of R.F.
7. Mark a distance of 5 feet 10 inches on the scale as shown.

Example 2.9 (Fig. 2.9)

Construct a scale of 1:54 to show yards and feet and long enough to measure 9 yards.

3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
FOOT R.F. = 1:54 YARD
Fig. 2.9

Construction: Fig. 2.9

1
1. R.F. =
54
1
2. Length of scale, Ls = R.F. × max. length = × 9 × 3 × 12 = 6 inches = 15 24 cm
54
3. Draw a rectangle of length 6 inches, i.e. 15.24 cm and width 10 mm.
4. Divide the length of scale in 9 equal parts, each part representing 1 yard.
5. Divide the first division of scale in 3 equal parts, each representing 1 foot.
6. Mark units and sub-units on the scale and write the value of R.F.

2.8 DIAGONAL SCALE

A diagonal scale is used to represent three consecutive units, i.e. main unit, its sub-unit and further
subdivision of sub-unit. For example (a) metre, decimetre and centimetre (b) kilometre, hectometre and
decametre (c) yards, feet and inches etc.

2.8.1 Principle of Diagonal Scale

The third unit in a diagonal scale is obtained by diagonal principle which is described as follows (see
Fig. 2.10):
2.10 Engineering Graphics

A B
9' 9
8' 8
7' 7
6' 6
5' 5
4' 4
3' 3
2' 2
1' 1

C
Fig. 2.10

1. Draw a small line AB.

2. Draw BC C perpendicular to line AB taking any convenient length, say 50 mm. Join AC.
3. Divide BC into 10 equal parts and name the points as 1, 2, 3, etc.
4. Draw lines through 1, 2, 3, etc to meet line AC C at points 1′, 2′, 3′, etc. All the lines 11′, 22′, 33′,
44′,…, 99′ are parallel to AB.
5. The triangles C11′, C22′, C33′, C44′, etc, are similar to triangle CBA. Therefore, their sides are
also proportional.
1 2 3
i.e. 11′ = off AB, 22′ = off AB, 33′ = of AB, etc.
10 10 10

2.8.2 Construction of Diagonal Scale

The following example illustrates the construction of the diagonal scale.

Example 2.10 (Fig. 2.11)

A map is to be drawn with R.F. 1:40. Construct a scale to read metres, decimetres and centime-
tres and long enough to measure up to 6 m. Show on it a distance of 3.84 m. [RGPV Dec. 2008]
3.84 m
D C
10

8
CENTIMETRE

A0 B
10
08 6 4 2 0 1 2 3 4 5

DECIMETRE F = 1:40
R.F. METRE
Fig. 2.11
 Scales 2.11

Construction: Fig. 2.11

1. Given (a) R.F. = 1/40, (b) maximum length = 6 m and (c) least count = 1 cm.
1
2. Length of scale, Ls = R.F. × max. length = × 6 × 100 cm = 15 cm
40
3. Draw a rectangle of length AB = 15 cm and width AD either 40 or 50 mm.
4. As length of the scale represents 6 m, divide line AB into 6 equal parts so that each part may repre-
sent 1 metre. Erect perpendicular lines through them to meet line CD. Mark the main units on it.
5. Divide the first part 00A into 10 equal subdivisions. Each subdivision represents 1 decimetre. Mark
second unit on the scale as shown. Also, erect diagonal lines through them as shown.
6. Divide AD into 10 equal parts and draw horizontal lines through each of them meeting at BC.
Mark third unit of the scale along it as shown.
7. Write the value of R.F. below the scale.
8. Mark a length of 3.84 m on the scale. i.e. 3 metre on the right side of the zero mark, 8 decimetre
on the left side of zero mark and move up along the diagonal line by 4 divisions.

Example 2.11 (Fig. 2.12)

Construct a diagonal scale showing kilometre, hectometre and decametre in which a 2 cm long
line represents 1 kilometre, and the scale is long enough to measure up to 7 kilometres. Find
representative fraction and mark a distance of 4 kilometre 5 hectometre 3 decametre on it.

4 km 5 Hm 3 Dm
D C
10
8
DECAMETRE

6
4
2
A0 B
10 8 6 4 2 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
HECTOMETRE R.F. = 1:50000 KILOMETRE
Fig. 2.12

Construction: Fig. 2.12

2 cm 2 cm 1
1. a) R.F. = = 5
=
1 km 1 10 cm 50000
b) maximum length = 7 kilometre c) least count of the scale = 1 decametre
1
2. Length of scale, Ls = R.F. × max. length = × 7 × 105 cm = 14 cm
50000
3. Draw a rectangle ABCD of length AB = 14 cm and width AD either 40 or 50 mm.
4. Divide AB into 7 equal parts so that each part may represent 1 km. Mark the main unit as shown
and erect perpendicular lines through them to meet line CD.
2.12 Engineering Graphics

5. Divide 00A into 10 equal subdivisions, each representing 1 hectometre. Mark second unit on the
scale as shown and erect diagonal lines through them as shown.
6. Divide AD into 10 equal parts and draw horizontal lines through each of them meeting at BC.
Mark third unit of the scale along it as shown.
7. Write the value of R.F. below the scale.
8. Mark a length 4 km 5 hm 3 dm on the scale, i.e. 4 kilometres on the right side of the zero
mark, 5 hectometres on the left side of zero mark and move up along the diagonal line by 3
divisions.

Example 2.12 (Fig. 2.13)

Draw a diagonal scale of R.F. 3:100 showing metres, decimetres and centimetres and to mea-
sure up to 5 metres. Show a length of 3.69 metres on it. [RGPV June 2009]

3.69 m
D C
10
8
CENTIMETRE

6
4
2

A0 B
10 8 6 4 2 0 1 2 3 4
DECIMETRE F = 3:100
R.F. METRE
Fig. 2.13

Construction: Fig. 2.13

3
1. (a) R.F. = (b) maximum length = 5 m (c) least count = 0.01 m.
100
3
2. Length of the scale, Ls = R.F. × max. length = × 5 × 100 cm = 15 cm
100
3. Draw a rectangle ABCD of length AB = 15 cm and width AD either 40 or 50 mm.
4. Divide AB into 5 equal parts so that each part may represent 1 m. Mark the main unit as shown and
erect perpendicular lines through them to meet the line CD.
5. Divide 00A into 10 equal sub-divisions, each representing 1 decimetre. Mark second unit on the
scale as shown and erect diagonal lines through them as shown.
6. Divide AD into 10 equal parts and draw horizontal lines through each of them meeting line BC.
Mark third unit of the scale along it as shown.
7. Write the value of R.F. below the scale.
8. Mark a length 3.69 m on the scale, i.e. 3 m on the right side of the zero mark, 6 decimetre on the
left side of zero mark and move up along the diagonal line by 9 divisions.
 Scales 2.13

Example 2.13 (Fig. 2.14)

The distance between two cities A and B is 300 km, its equivalent distance on the map mea-
sures only 6 cm. What is the R.F.? Draw a diagonal scale to show hundreds of kilometres, tens
of kilometres and kilometres. Indicate on the scale, the following distances: 525 km, 313 km
and 258 km. [RGPV June 2006]

525 km

258 km

313 km
D
10 C

8
KILOMETRE

A 0 B
100 50 0 100 200 300 400 500
KILOMETRE F = 1:5×106
R.F. KILOMETRE
Fig. 2.14

Construction: Fig. 2.14

6 cm 6 cm 1
1. R.F. = = =
300 km 300 × 10 cm 5 106
5

2. Since the scale has to show a distance of 525 km, the maximum length should be at least 600 km
and the least count 1 km.
1
3. Length of scale, Ls = R.F. × max. length = × 600 × 105 cm = 12 cm
5 106
4. Draw a rectangle ABCD of 12 cm length and width either 40 or 50 mm.
5. Divide AB into 6 equal parts so that each part may represent 100 km.
6. Divide A0 into 10 equal sub-divisions, each representing 10 km. Erect diagonal lines through them
as shown.
7. Divide AD into 10 equal parts and draw horizontal lines through each of them meeting at BC.
8. Write main unit, second unit, third unit and the value of R.F.
9. Mark the distances 525 km, 313 km and 258 km as shown.

Example 2.14 (Fig. 2.15)

Construct a scale to be used with a map; the scale of which is 1 cm = 500 m. The maximum
length to be read is 5 km. Mark on the scale a distance of 3.85 km. [RGPV Aug. 2010]
2.14 Engineering Graphics

3.85 km
D
10 C

DECAMETRE
6

A0 B
10 8 6 4 2 0 1 2 3 4
HECTOMETRE F = 1:50000
R.F. KILOMETRE
Fig. 2.15

Construction: Fig. 2.15

1 cm 1 cm 1
1. R.F. = = =
500 m 500 × 10 2 cm 50000
1
2. Length of scale, Ls = R.F. × max. length = × 5 × 105 cm = 10 cm
50000
3. Draw a rectangle ABCD of 10 cm length and width either 40 or 50 mm.
4. Divide AB into 5 equal parts, each representing 1 km.
5. Divide 00A into 10 equal subdivisions, each representing 1 hectometre. Erect diagonal lines through
them as shown.
6. Divide AD into 10 equal parts and draw horizontal lines through each of them meeting at BC.
7. Write main unit, second unit, third unit and the value of R.F.
8. Mark a distance of 3.85 km as shown.

Example 2.15 (Fig. 2.16)

On a map, the actual distance of 5 m is represented by a line of 25 mm long. Calculate the R.F.
of scale used. Construct a diagonal scale long enough to read 25 m and make distance of 19 m
and 11 m. [RGPV Dec. 2007]

19 m
11 m
D
10 C
8
DECIMETRE

A0 B
5 4 3 2 1 0 5 10 15 20
METRE R.F. = 1:200 METRE
Fig. 2.16
 Scales 2.15

Construction: Fig. 2.16

25 mm 25 mm 1
1. R.F. = = 3
=
5m 5 10 mm 200
1
2. Length of scale, Ls = R.F. × max. length = × 25 × 10 2 cm = 12.5 cm
200
3. Draw a rectangle ABCD of 12.5 cm length and width either 40 or 50 mm.
4. Divide AB into 5 equal parts, each representing 5 m.
5. Divide 00A into 5 equal subdivisions, each representing 1 m. Erect diagonal lines through them as
shown.
6. Divide AD into 10 equal parts and draw horizontal lines through each of them meeting at BC.
7. Write main unit, second unit, third unit and value of R.F.
8. Mark the distances of 19 m and 11 m as shown.

Example 2.16 (Fig. 2.17)

The distance between two stations is 100 km and on a road map it is shown by 30 cm. Draw a
diagonal scale and indicate 46.8 km and 32.4 km on it.
46.8 km

32.4 km
D C
10

8
HECTOMETRE

A0 B
10 8 6 4 2 0 10 20 30 40
KILOMETRE F = 3:1000000
R.F. KILOMETRE
Fig. 2.17

Construction: Fig. 2.17

30 cm 30 cm 3
1. R.F. = = = 6
100 km 100 × 10 cm 10
5

2. Since the scale has to show a distance of 46.8 km, the maximum length should be at least 50 km
and the least count 0.1 km. 3
Length of scale, Ls = R.F. × max. length = 6 × 50 × 10 cm = 15 cm
5
3.
10
4. Draw a rectangle ABCD of 15 cm length and width either 40 or 50 mm.
5. Divide AB into 5 equal parts, each representing 10 km.
6. Divide 00A into 10 equal subdivisions, each representing 1 km. Erect diagonal lines through them
as shown.
7. Divide AD into 10 equal parts and draw horizontal lines through each of them meeting at BC.
2.16 Engineering Graphics

8. Write main unit, second unit, third unit and the value of R.F.
9. Mark 46.8 km and 32.4 km as shown.

Example 2.17 (Fig. 2.18)

Construct a scale to measure km, 1/8 km and 1/40 of a km, in which 1 km is represented by 4
cm. Mark on this scale a distance of 2.775 km. [RGPV Sep. 2009]

2.775 km

D
0.125 C

0.100
KILOMETRE

0.075
0.050
0.025
A0 B
1 0.75 0.50 0.25 0 1 2
KILOMETRE F = 1:5×106
R.F. KILOMETRE
Fig. 2.18

Construction: Fig. 2.18

4 cm 4 cm 1
1. R.F. = = 5
=
1 km 1 10 cm 25000
2. Since scale has to show a distance of 2.775 km, the maximum length should be at least 3 km.
1
3. Length of scale, Ls = R.F. × max. length = × 3 × 105 cm = 12 cm
25000
4. Draw a rectangle ABCD of 12 cm length and width either 40 or 50 mm.
5. Divide AB into 3 equal parts, each representing 1 km.
6. Divide 00A into 8 equal subdivisions, each representing 1/8 km i.e. 0.125 km. Erect diagonal lines
through them as shown.
7. Divide AD into 5 equal parts, each representing 1/40 km i.e. 0.025 km. Draw horizontal lines
through each of them meeting at BC.
8. Write main unit, second unit, third unit and the value of R.F.
9. The breakup of 2.775 km is obtained as
1 1
2.775 km 2 km 6 km 1 ×
km km
8 40
10. To mark 2.775 km, take 2 km on the right side of the zero mark, 6 sub-divisions
⎛ 1 ⎞
i.e. 6 km on the left side of zero mark and move up along the diagonal line by 1
⎝ 8 ⎠
⎛ 1 ⎞
division i.e. 1 × = 0.025 km .
⎝ 40 ⎠
 Scales 2.17

Example 2.18 (Fig. 2.19)

A rectangular plot of land measuring 1.28 hectares is represented on a map by a similar
rectangle of 8 sq. cm. Calculate R.F. of the scale. Draw a diagonal scale to read 1 m and long
enough to measure 600 m. Show a distance of 438 m on it. [RGPV June 2008]

438 m
D
10 C

8
METRE

2
A 0 B
100 50 0 100 200 300 400 500
METRE F = 1:4000
R.F. METRE
Fig. 2.19

Construction: Fig. 2.19

1. We know that R.F. is the ratio of lengths, therefore

8 cm 2 8 cm 2 1 cm 1
R.F. = = = =
1.28 hectare 1.28 × 10 m
4 2
40 m 4000
1
2. Length of scale, Ls = R.F. × max. length = × 600 × 10 2 cm = 15 cm
4000
3. Draw a rectangle ABCD of 15 cm length and width either 40 or 50 mm.
4. Divide AB into 6 equal parts, each representing 100 m.
5. Divide 00A into 10 equal subdivisions, each representing 10 m. Erect diagonal lines through them
as shown.
6. Divide AD into 10 equal parts and draw horizontal lines through each of them meeting at BC.
7. Write main unit, second unit, third unit and the value of R.F.
8. Mark a distance of 438 m as shown.

Example 2.19 (Fig. 2.20)

The area of a field is 50000 m2. The length and breadth of the field on the map is 15 cm and
8 cm respectively. Construct a diagonal scale which can read up to single metre. Mark the
length of 346 m on the scale.
[RGPV Dec. 2004, Feb. 2005]
2.18 Engineering Graphics

346 m
D
10 C
8
METRE

2
A0 B
100 80 60 40 20 0 100 200 300
METRE F. = 1:2041
R.F METRE
Fig. 2.20

Construction: Fig. 2.20

1. We know that R.F. is the ratio of lengths, therefore

15 × 8 cm
120 1 cm 1
R.F. = × =≈
50000 m 50000 100 cm 2041
2. Since the scale has to show a distance of 346 m, the maximum length should be at least 400 m and
the least count 1 m. 1
3. Length of scale, Ls = R.F. × max. length = × 400 × 100 cm = 19.6 cm
2041
4. Draw a rectangle ABCD of 19.6 cm length and width either 40 or 50 mm.
5. Divide AB into 4 equal parts, each representing 100 m.
6. Divide 00A into 10 equal subdivisions, each representing 10 m. Erect diagonal lines through them
as shown.
7. Divide AD into 10 equal parts and draw horizontal lines through each of them meeting at BC.
8. Write main unit, second unit, third unit and the value of R.F.
9. Mark a distance of 346 m as shown.

Example 2.20 (Fig. 2.21)

A room of 1728 m3 volume is shown by a cube of 4 cm side. Find the R.F. and construct a scale
to measure up to 50 m. also indicate a distance of 37.6 m on the scale.
37.6 m
D
10 C

8
DECIMETRE

A 0 B
10 8 6 4 2 0 10 20 30 40
METRE R.F. = 1:300 METRE

Fig. 2.21
 Scales 2.19

Construction: Fig. 2.21

1. We know that R.F. is the ratio of lengths,

4 cm 4 cm 1
therefore R.F. = 3 = =
1728 m 12 × 100 cm 300
1
2. Length of scale, Ls = R.F. × max. length = × 50 × 100 cm = 16.67 cm
300
3. Draw a rectangle ABCD of 16.67 cm length and width either 40 or 50 mm.
4. Divide AB into 5 equal parts, each representing 10 m.
5. Divide 00A into 10 equal subdivisions, each representing 1 m. Erect diagonal lines through them as
shown.
6. Divide AD into 10 equal parts and draw horizontal lines through each of them meeting at BC.
7. Write main unit, second unit, third unit and the value of R.F.
8. Mark a distance of 37.6 km as shown.

Example 2.21 (Fig. 2.22)

Construct a diagonal scale of 1:63360 to read miles, furlongs and chains and long enough to
measure up to 6 miles.
D
10 C
8
CHAIN

2
A 0 B
8 6 4 2 0 1 2 3 4 5
FURLONG R.F.
F = 1:63360 MILE
Fig. 2.22

Construction: Fig. 2.22

1. Given (a) R.F. = 1/63360 (b) maximum length = 6 miles (c) least count = 1 chain
2. Length of scale, Ls = R.F. × max. length
1
= × 6 × 8 × 10 × 22 × 3 × 12 inches = 6 inches = 15.24 cm
63360
3. Draw a rectangle of length AB = 15.24 cm and width AD either 40 or 50 mm.
4. Divide AB into 6 equal parts, each part may represent 1 mile. Erect perpendicular lines through
them to meet line CD. Mark the main units on it.
5. Divide 00A into 8 equal sub-divisions to represent 1 furlong each. Mark second unit on the scale as
shown. Erect diagonal lines through them as shown.
6. Divide AD into 10 equal parts to represent 1 chain each. Draw horizontal lines through each of
them meeting at BC. Mark third unit of the scale and write the value R.F. as shown.
2.20 Engineering Graphics

Example 2.22 (Fig. 2.23)

Construct a diagonal scale showing yards, feet and inches in which 2 inches long line repre-
sents 1.25 yards and is long enough to measure up to 5 yards. Find R.F. and mark a distance
of 4 yards 2 feet 8 inches.

4 yards 2 feet 8 inches

D
12 C
10
8
INCH

6
4
2
A 0 B
3 2 1 0 2 3 4
FEET F = 2:45
R.F. Y
YARD
Fig. 2.23

Construction: Fig. 2.23

2 inches 2 inches 2
1. R.F. = = =
1.25 yards 1.25 × 3 × 12 inches 45
2. Length of scale,
2
Ls = R.F. × max. length = × 5 × 3 × 12 inches = 8 inches = 20.32 cm
45
3. Draw a rectangle of length AB = 20.32 cm and width AD either 50 or 60 mm.
4. Divide AB into 5 equal parts to represent 1 yard each. Erect perpendicular lines through them to
meet line CD. Mark the main units on it.
5. Divide 00A into 3 equal subdivisions to represent 1 foot each. Mark second unit on the scale as
shown. Erect diagonal lines through them as shown.
6. Divide AD into 12 equal parts to represent 1 inch each. Draw horizontal lines through each of them
meeting at BC. Mark third unit of the scale and write the value of R.F.
7. Mark a distance of 4 yards 2 feet 8 inches as shown.

2.9 COMPARATIVE SCALE

Comparative scale is a pair of scales having a common representative fraction but graduated to read
different units. A map drawn in miles and furlongs can be measured directly in kilometres and hecto-
metres with the help of a comparative scale. Comparative scales may be either plain or diagonal scales
depending upon the requirement.

2.9.1 Construction of Comparative Scale

The following examples illustrate the construction of the comparative scales.
 Scales 2.21

xample 2.23 (Fig. 2.24)

On a railway map, an actual distance of 36 miles between two stations is represented by a 10 cm
long line. Draw a plain scale to show mile and long enough to read up to 60 miles. Also draw a com-
parative scale attached to it to show kilometre and read up to 90 km. Take 1 mile = 1609 metres.

MILE MILE
10 5 0 10 20 30 40 50

10 5 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
ILOMETRE KILOMETRE
= 1:579240
Fig. 2.24

Construction: Fig. 2.24

10 cm 10 cm 1
1. R.F.
36 miles 36 × × 10 cm 579240
2

2. Length of scales,
1
L (miles) = R.F. × max. length = × 60 × × 10 2 = 16.67 cm
579240
1
L (kilometre) R.F. × max. length × × 105 = 15.54 cm
579240
3. Draw a 16.67 cm long plain scale to represent 60 miles. Make its divisions and sub-divisions so
that its least count is 1 mile.
4. Draw another 15.54 cm long plain scale to represent 90 km. Make its divisions and sub-divisions
so that its least count is 1 km.
5. Write the main unit and the second unit for both the scales. Also write the value of R.F

xample 2.24 (Fig. 2.25)

What is the R.F. of a scale which measures one-eighth inches to a mile? Draw plain comparative
scales of two units to measure up to 60 miles and 100 km. Take 1 mile = 1.609 km.
MILE
10 5 0 10 20 30 40 50

10 5 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
KILOMETRE KILOMETRE
= 1:506880

Fig. 2.25
2.22 Engineering Graphics

Construction:
1/8 inch 1/8 inch 1
1. R.F. = = =
1 mile 1 8 10 22 3 × 12 inch 506880
2. Length of scales,
1
Ls (miles) = R.F. × max. length = × 60 × 1.609 × 105 cm = 19.04 cm
506880
1
Ls (km) = R.F. × max. length = × 100 × 105 cm = 19.72 cm
506880
3. Draw a 19.04 cm plain scale long to represent 60 miles. Make its divisions and sub-divisions so
that its least count is 1 mile.
4. Draw another 19.72 cm long plain scale to represent 100 km. Make its divisions and sub-divisions
so that its least count is 1 km.
5. Write the main unit and the second unit for both the scales. Also write the value of R.F.

Example 2.25 (Fig. 2.26)

The distance between two towns is 120 km. A passenger train covers this distance in 4 hours.
Construct a scale to measure off the distance covered by the train in a single minute and up to
1 hour. The R.F. of the scale is 1:200000. Show the distance covered by the train in 36 minutes.
[RGPV Feb 2008]

36 minutes

MINUTES
T MINUTES
10 5 0 10 20 30 40 50

5 4 0 5 10 15 20 25
KILOMETRE KILOMETRE
R.F. = 1:200000
18 km

Fig. 2.26

Construction: Fig. 2.26

1
1. R.F. =
200000
2. Length of scales,
1
Ls (minute) = R.F. × max. length = × 1 hour
200000
 Scales 2.23

1 120 × 105
= × cm = 15 cm
200000 4
1
Ls (kilometre) = R.F. × max. length = ×3 5
15 cm
200000
3. Draw a 15 cm long plain scale to represent 60 minutes km. Make its divisions and subdivisions so
that its least count is 1 minute.
4. Draw another 15 cm long plain scale to represent 30 km. Make its divisions and subdivisions so
that its least count is 1 km.
5. Write the main unit and the second unit for both the scales. Also write the value of R.F.
6. Mark a distance of 36 minute on the minute scale and compare it on the kilometre-scale to find an
equivalent length of 18 km as shown.

Example 2.26 (Fig. 2.27)

A train is running at a speed of 40 km/h. Construct a plain scale to read up to a km and a
minute. The scale should measure up to 50 km. The R.F. of the scale is 1:250000. On the scale
show the distance covered by the train in 39 minutes. [RGPV Sep. 2009]

26 km
KILOMETRE KILOMETRE
10 8 6 4 2 0 10 20 30 40

10 8 6 4 2 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
MINUTE MINUTE
R.F.
F = 1:250000
39 minutes

Fig. 2.27

Construction: Fig. 2.27

1
1. R.F. =
250000
2. Length of scales,
1
Ls (kilometre) = R.F. × max. length = × 50 × 105 cm = 20 cm
250000
1
Ls (minute) = R.F. × max. length = × 80 minutes
250000
80 40 × 105
= × cm = 21.33 cm
250000 60
2.24 Engineering Graphics

3. Draw a 20 cm long plain scale to represent 50 km. Make its divisions and sub-divisions so that its
least count is 1 km.
4. Draw another 21.33 cm long plain scale to represent 80 minutes. Make its divisions and sub-
divisions so that its least count is 1 minute.
5. Write the main unit and the second unit for both the scales. Also write the value of R.F.
6. Mark a distance of 39 minute on the minute scale and compare it on the kilometre-scale to find an
equivalent length of 26 km as shown.

Example 2.27 (Fig. 2.28)

A car is running at a speed of 50 km/hr. Construct a diagonal scale to show 1 km by 3 cm and
to measure up to 6 km. Mark also on the scale the distance covered by the car in 5 minutes 28
seconds. [RGPV June 2006]

4.56 km

10
0

8
DECAMETRE

0
10 8 6 4 2 0 1 2 3 4 5
HECTOMETRE KILOMETRE
5 minute 28 second

10
0

8
SECOND

0
60 40 20 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
SECOND MINUTE
R.F. = 3:1000000

Fig. 2.28

Construction: Fig. 2.28

3 cm 3
1. R.F. = =
1 km 100000
2. Length of scales,
 Scales 2.25

3
Ls (kilometre) = R.F. × max. length = × 6 × 105 cm = 18 cm
100000
3
Ls (minute) = R.F. × max. length = × 8 minutes
100000
3 50 × 105
= ×8× cm = 20 cm
100000 60
3. Draw an 18 cm long diagonal scale to represent 6 km. Make its divisions and sub-divisions such
that least count of the scale is 1 decametre.
4. Draw another 20 cm long diagonal scale to represent 8 minutes. Make its divisions and sub-
divisions such that its least count of the scale is 1 second.
5. Write the main unit, the second unit and third unit for both the scales. Also write the value of R.F.
6. Mark a distance of 5 minute 28 second on the minute-scale and compare it on the kilometre-scale
to find an equivalent length of 4.56 km as shown.

2.10 SCALE OF CHORDS

In absence of a protractor, a scale of chords may be used to measure the angle or to set the required
angle. The construction is based on the lengths of chords of angles measured on the same arc.

2.10.1 Construction of Scale of Chords

Fig. 2.29 shows the scale of chords. The steps of construction are as follows:

F
80 90 C
70
60
50

40

30

20

10

E B
A D
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
DEGREES
Fig. 2.29

1. Draw a line AB of any convenient length.

2. At point B, erect a line BF perpendicular to AB.
3. With centre B draw an arc AC cutting BF at point C. This arc subtends 90o angle at the centre B.
2.26 Engineering Graphics

4. Divide this arc AC into 9 equal parts, each representing 10º division at B.
5. With centre A turn down the divisions to line AB produced. Thus, the distance AE on the scale
represents the length of chord A-30, which subtends an angle 30º at the point B.
6. Similarly, mark 5º divisions on the line AB.
7. Complete the scale by drawing a rectangle below AD as shown. It may be noted that the divisions
obtained are unequal, decreasing gradually from A to D. Scale AD is the required scale of chords.

2.10.2 Application of Scale of Chords

Set-off the given angle (Fig. 2.30)

Example 2.28 (Fig. 2.29−2.30)

Construct a scale of chords showing 5º divisions and with its aid set off angles 40º, 55º and
130º. [RGPV Dec. 2006]

U
W
T
S 130
°
55
°
40°

P R Q
Fig. 2.30

Construction: Fig. 2.30

1. Draw scale of chords as shown in Fig. 2.29.

2. Draw a line PQ.
3. Draw an arc RS with P as the centre and AB as the radius.
4. Draw an arc with R as centre and radius equal to 0º– 40º chord length, to intersect arc RSS at point
T. Join PT. The ∠TPQ represents 40º.
5. Similarly, draw an arc with R as centre and radius equal to 0º–55º chord length, to intersect arc RS
at point U. Join PU. The ∠UPQ represents 55º.
6. Draw an arc with R as centre and radius equal to 0º–90º chord length, to intersect arc RS at point
V. Draw another arc with V as centre and radius equal to 0º– 40º chord length, to intersect arc VS
at point W. Join PW. The ∠WPQ represents 130º (90º + 40º = 130º).

Example 2.29 (Fig. 2.31)

Construct a scale of chords showing 6º divisions and with its aid set off an angle of 54º.
 Scales 2.27

F
84 90
72 78 C
66 S
60
54 T
48
42
36
30
24
18
12

54°
6
A B D
P R Q
0 12 24 36 48 60 72 90
Fig. 2.31(a) Scale of chords Fig. 2.31(b) Marking an angle of 54º

Construction: Fig. 2.31(a-b)

1. Draw a line AB of any convenient length.

2. At point B, erect a line BF perpendicular to AB.
3. With centre B draw an arc AC C cutting BFF at point C. This arc subtends 90o angle at the centre B.
4. Divide this arc AC into 15 equal parts, each representing 6º division at B.
5. With centre A turn down the divisions to line AB produced.
6. Complete the scale by drawing a rectangle below AD to represent the required scale of chords.
7. Draw a line PQ. Draw an arc RS S with P as the centre and AB as the radius.
8. Draw an arc with R as centre and radius equal to 0º–54º chord length, to intersect arc RS at point
T. Join PT. The ∠TPQ represents 54º.

Measure the Given Angle

Example 2.30 (Fig. 2.32)

Construct a scale of chords showing 5º divisions and with its aid measure angle PQR shown
in Fig. 2.32.
P
T
55
°

Q S R
Fig. 2.32
2.28 Engineering Graphics

Construction: Fig. 2.31

1. Draw scale of chord as shown in Fig. 2.29.

2. Draw an arc with Q as the centre and radius equal to AB the scale of chords, to meet line PQ at T
and line RQ at S.
3. Transfer the chord length ST on the scale of chords and read the angle. Here it is 55º.

EXERCISE 2

Plain Scale
1. Construct a scale of 1:50 to read metres and decimetres and to measure up to 6 metre.
[RGPV Feb. 2010]
2. Construct a scale of 1:40 to read metres and decimetres and long enough to measure up to 6
metre. Mark on it a distance of 4.7 metres.
3. Construct a scale to be used with a map, the scale of which is 1 cm = 4 m. The scale should read
in metres upto 60 m. Show on it a distance of 46 m. [RGPV Dec. 2010]
4. Construct a scale of 1:5 to show decimetres and centimetres and long enough to measure up to 1 m.
Show a distance of 6.3 dm on it.
5. Construct a scale of R.F. 1:125 to read a single metre and long enough to measure lengths up to
25 m. show the length of 16 m on this scale.
6. A 3.2 cm long line represents a distance of 4 m. Extend the line to measure up to 25 m and show
on it units of metre and 5 m. Show a length of 16 m on this scale.
[RGPV Feb 2007, April 2009]
7. Draw a plain scale to measure a maximum length of 10 km and to read in kilometre and hecto-
metre. Mark on this scale a length of 3.6 km. Take R.F. = 1:80000.
[RGPV April 2009]
8. Draw a scale of full size to read millimetre and long enough to measure up to 12 centimetre.
Show a distance of 10.3 centimetre on it.
9. Construct a scale of 7:40000 to show hectometre and decametre and long enough to measure up
to 1 kilometre. Show a distance of 0.63 kilometre on it.
10. Construct a scale of 1:6250 to read up to 1 km and to read 1 decametre on it. Show a length of 68
decametre on it.
11. A 4 cm long line on a map represents 1.5 m length. Determine the R.F. and draw a scale long
enough to measure up to 6 m. Show a distance of 4.6 m on it.
12. A line of 1 cm represents a length of 4 decimetre. Draw a plain scale and mark a distance of 6.7
m on it.
13. A rectangular plot of land of area 16 square metre is represented on a map by a similar rectangle
of 1 square centimetre. Calculate the R.F. of the scale of the map. Construct a plain scale to
read metres and long enough to measure up to 60 m. Indicate a distance of 45 m on the scale.
[RGPV Aug. 2010, Feb. 2011]
 Scales 2.29

14. A cube of 5 cm side represents a tank of 1000 m3 volume. Find the R.F. and construct a scale to
measure up to 35 m and mark a distance of 27 m on it.
15. A container of 1000 m3 volume is represented by a block of 125 cm3 volume. Fine R.F. and
construct a scale to measure up to 30 m. Measure a distance of 19 m on this scale.
[RGPV Dec. 2001]
16. Construct a scale of 1:36 to show yards and feet and long enough to measure 7 yards.
17. Construct a scale of 1:5 to read feet and inches and long enough to measure 2 feet 6 inches. Show
a distance of 1 foot 3 inches on it.

Diagonal Scale
18. Construct a diagonal scale of 1:32 to read metres, decimetres and centimetres and long enough
to measure 4 m. Show on this scale a distance of 2.46 m.
[RGPV June 2007]
19. Construct a diagonal scale of 1:48 showing metres, decimetres and centimetres and to measure
up to 6 m length. Mark a length of 3.76 m on it. [RGPV Jun. 2008(o), Dec. 2010]
20. Construct a scale to be used with a map, the scale of which is 1 cm = 40 m. The scale should read
in metres and maximum up to 500 m. Mark a distance of 456 m on it. [RGPV Feb. 2011]
21. Construct a diagonal scale of 3:200 showing metre, decimetres and centimetres and to measure
up to 6 metres. [RGPV Dec. 2006]
22. The distance between two stations by road is 200 km and it is represented on a certain map by a
5 cm long line. Find the R.F. and construct a diagonal scale showing single kilometre and long
enough to measure up to 600 km. Show a distance of 467 km on this scale.
23. On a building plan a line 15 cm long represents a distance of 300 metres. Calculate its R.F.
Construct a diagonal scale to read up to 300 metres, showing single metre by diagonal division.
Indicate the following distance on this scale: 245, 160, 70 and 8 metres.
[RGPV Dec. 2005]
24. Construct a scale of R.F. = 1:250 to show decimetre and long enough to measure up to 30 m.
Indicate a distance of 28.9 m on it.
25. The distance between two points on a map is 15 cm. The real distance between them is 20 km.
Draw a diagonal scale to measure up to 25 km and show a distance of 13.6 km on it.
26. On a map, a 30 cm long line represents a distance of 450 m. Construct a diagonal scale for this
map showing divisions of 50 m, 5 m and 0.5 m and capable of measuring 300 m. Show a distance
of 175 m on this scale. [RGPV June 2007]
27. On a map, the distance between two points is 14 cm. The real distance between them is 20 km.
Draw a diagonal scale of this map to read km hectometre and to measure up to 25 km and show
a distance of 17.6 km on this scale.
[RGPV Feb. 2007]
28. An area of 144 square cm on a map represents an area of 36 square km on the field. Find the R.F.
of the scale for this map and draw a diagonal scale to show kilometre, hectometre and decametre
so as to measure up to 10 km. Show a distance of 7.54 km on it.
[RGPV Feb. 2008]
29. An area of 400 cm2 on a map represents an area of 25 km2 on a field. Construct a scale to measure
up to 5 km and capable to show a distance of 3.56 km. Indicate this distance on the scale.
[RGPV Aug. 2010]
2.30 Engineering Graphics

30. A rectangular plot of land area 0.45 hectare is represented on a map by a similar rectangle of
5 cm2. Calculate the R.F. of the scale of the map. Also draw the scale long enough to measure up
to 400 metres and to read up to single metres from the map.
[RGPV June 2003, Dec. 2003]
31. The area of a field is 50000 m2. The length and breadth of the field on the map is 10 cm and 8 cm
respectively. Construct a diagonal scale which can read up to single metre. Mark the length of
235 m on the scale. What is the R.F. of the scale?
[RGPV June 2004]
32. A cube of 5 cm side shows a tank of 8000 m3 volume. Find the R.F. and construct a diagonal
scale to measure up to 70 m and mark a distance of 53.5 m on it.
33. Construct a diagonal scale of 1:316800 to read miles, furlongs and chains and long enough to
measure 40 miles.
34. Construct a diagonal scale of 1:27 showing yards, feet and inches and long enough to measure up
to 6 yards. Find R.F. and mark a distance of 4 yards 2 feet 10 inches.

Comparative Scale
35. The distance between Bhopal and Vidisha is 35 miles. On a railway map it is represented by a
length of 7 cm. Find the R.F. Construct a comparative plain scale to measure up to 80 miles and
read a single mile and a single kilometre. Show a distance of 67 miles and find the corresponding
distances in kilometre. Take 1 mile = 1.6 km.
36. A 4 cm long line on a map represents an actual length of 200 miles. Construct a comparative
diagonal scale to read up to a single mile and a single kilometre. Mark a distance of 653 miles
and find the corresponding length in kilometre. Take 1 mile = 1.6 km.
37. The distance between Bhopal and Indore by train is 140 miles. It is represented by a 7 cm long line
on a map. Draw a comparative diagonal scale to represent 350 miles. Mark a length of 237 miles
and with the help of the scale find the corresponding distance in kilometres. Take 1 mile = 1.6 km.
38. The distance between two towns is 150 km. A superfast train covers this distance in 5 hours.
Construct a scale to measure off the distance covered by the train in a single minute and up to 1
hour. The scale is drawn to 1/(2×105 ). Show on it the distance covered in 38 minutes.
39. The distance between two stations A and B is 144 km and is covered by train in 4 hours. Draw a
plain scale to measure the time up to single minute. R.F. of the scale is 1:240000. Calculate the
distance covered by the train in 45 minutes and show minutes on the scale.
[RGPV June 2005]
40. An aeroplane is flying at a speed of 360 km/h. Draw a diagonal scale to represent 6 km by 1 cm
and to show distance up to 60 km. Find the R.F. of the scale and find from the scale the distance
covered by the aeroplane in (i) 3 minutes 22 seconds (ii) 7 minutes 49 seconds.
[RGPV Dec. 2002]
41. The distance between Hyderabad and Bangalore is 600 kilometres. An express train takes 12
hours to cover this distance. Construct a comparative plain scale to measure the distance covered
up to 1 hour. With the help of the scale find the following: (i) the distance covered in 36 minutes,
and (ii) the time taken to travel 354 km. Take R.F. as 1:312500.
42. A train is running at a speed of 40 km/h. Construct a comparative scale to read a kilometre and
a minute and long enough to read up to 50 kilometres. The R.F. of the scale is 1:250000. On the
scale, show the distances travelled by the train in 42 minutes.
 Scales 2.31

Scale of Chords
43. Construct a scale of chords showing 10º divisions and with its aid set-off angles of 40º and 150º.
44. Construct a scale of chords showing 5º divisions and with its aid set-off angles of 35º and 110º.
45. Using the scales of chords, construct angles of 45º and 125º.
[RGPV June 2008]
46. Using the scales of chords, construct angles of 45º and 60º.
[RGPV April 2010]
47. With the help of the scale of chords and a least count of 15º, construct the following angles:
(i) 75º (ii) 105º (iii) 225º.
48. The least count of a scale of chords is 18º. With the help of this scale erect angles of 72º and 108º.
49. Taking 6º least count in a scale of chords construct the following angles: (i) 42º (ii) 108º (iii) 210º.

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Distinguish among full size, reduced size and enlarged size drawing.
2. Explain reducing scale and give two practical applications.
3. Explain enlarging scale and give two practical applications.
4. State the advantages of graphical scale over an engineering scale?
5. What is representative fraction?
6. Enlist types of scales used in engineering practices.
7. Explain the principle of diagonal scale.
8. What are the advantages of a diagonal scale over a plain scale?
9. What is a comparative scale?
10. What are the applications of the scale of chords?

MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS

Choose the most appropriate answer out of the given alternatives:

i) For drawing the components of a wrist watch, the scale used is

(a) reducing scale (b) full scale (c) enlarging scale (d) any of these
ii) The R.F. of scale is always
(a) less than 1 (b) equal to 1 (c) greater than 1 (d) any of these
iii) The unit of R.F. is
(a) cubic centimetre (b) square centimetre
(c) centimetre (d) none of these
iv) The full form of R.F. is
(a) reducing fraction (b) representative fraction
(c) rational factor (d) representative factor
2.32 Engineering Graphics

v) A map of 10 cm × 8 cm represents an area of 50000 sq. metre of a field. The R.F. of the scale is
(a) 1/25 (b) 1/625 (c) 1/2500 (d) 1/6250000
vi) An area of 36 square kilometre is represented by 144 square centimetre on a map.
What is the R.F.?
(a) 1/4 (b) 1/2 (c) 1/5000 (d) 1/50000
vii) When measurements are required in three consecutive units, the appropriate scale is
(a) plain scale (b) diagonal scale (c) isometric scale (d) scales of chords
viii) The diagonal scale is most suitable for the measurement of
(a) diameter of a circle (b) diagonal of a square
(c) side of a pentagon (d) all of these
ix) The scale used for measuring in two systems of units is
(a) plain scale (b) diagonal scale (c) comparative scale (d) vernier scale
x) The diagonal of a square can be measured by
(a) plain scale (b) diagonal scale (c) vernier scale (d) all of these
xi) The R.F. of the scale on a mini-drafter is
(a) 0 (b) 1 (c) 10 (d) none of these
xii) Which of the following scale can be used for converting miles into kilometres
(a) plain scale (b) diagonal scale (c) comparative scale (d) all of these
xiii) Comparative scale is a pair of scale having a common
(a) units (b) R.F. (c) length of scale (d) least count
xiv) An angle can be set off and measured with the help of
(a) plane scale (b) diagonal scale
(c) comparative scale (d) scale of chords
xv) The scale of chord is used to measure
(a) length of chord (b) arc length of chord
(c) angle of chord (d) all of these

Answers
(i) c (ii) d (iii) d (iv) b (v) c (vi) d (vii) b (viii) d (ix) c (x) d (xi) b
(xii) c (xiii) b (xiv) d (xv) c
 3

Co
onic
Sec
ctions

� Introduction
� Cone, Circle, Isosceles Triangle
� Ellipse, Parabola, Hyperbola
� Construction of Ellipse
� Locate Centre, Major Axis and Minor
Axis
� Tangent and Normal to the Ellipse,
Empirical Relations
� Construction of Parabola
� Axis, Focus, Directrix, Tangent and
Normal to the Parabola
� Construction of Hyperbola
� Asymptotes, Directrix, Tangent and
Normal to the Hyperbola, Empirical
Relations
3.2 Engineering Drawing

3.1 INTRODUCTION

In engineering practice, we come across a number of objects containing plane curves such as ellipses,
parabolas, hyperbolas, etc. The curve, which is obtained by cutting a right-circular cone with the help of
a plane in different positions relative to the axis, is called a conic section. This chapter deals with a few
common methods of construction of the conic sections and the field of their application.

3.2 CONE

A cone is formed if a right-angled triangle with an apex angle a is rotated about its altitude as the axis
[Fig. 3.1(a)]. The height and the radius of the base of the cone are respectively equal to the altitude and
base of the triangle. The apex angle of the cone is equal to 2 a [Fig. 3.1(b)]. Any imaginary line joining
the apex to the circumference of the base circle is called a generator.

Fig. 3.1(a) Constructing a cone Fig. 3.1(b) Cone formed

3.3 CIRCLE

When the cutting plane is perpendicular to the axis of the cone (q = 90°), the curve of intersection ob-
tained is a circle (Fig. 3.2).

Fig. 3.2 Formation of a circle by cutting a cone

 Conic Sections 3.3

Applications Circles find their application in a vast number of objects such as diaphragms, discs,
rings, plates, etc. A circle revolving around its axis forms a surface called a sphere.

3.4 ISOSCELES TRIANGLE

When the cutting plane passes through the apex and cuts the base of the cone, the curve of intersection
is an isosceles triangle (Fig. 3.3).

Fig. 3.3 Formation of an isosceles triangle by cutting a cone

3.5 ELLIPSE AND ITS APPLICATIONS

When the cutting plane is inclined to the axis and cut all the generators of the cone, the section is an
ellipse. The inclination of cutting plane for an ellipse must be greater than half of the apex angle i.e.
q > a (Fig. 3.4).

Fig. 3.4 Formation of an ellipse by cutting a cone

Applications Elliptical curves find their use in concrete arches [Fig. 3.5(a)], stone bridges, dams,
monuments (memorial structures), man-holes, glands, stuffing boxes, etc. A planet travels around the
sun in an elliptical orbit with the sun at one of its foci [Fig. 3.5(b)]. The orbits of the moon and artificial
satellites of the earth are also elliptical. On a far smaller scale, the electrons of an atom move in an ap-
proximately elliptical orbit with the nucleus at one focus [Fig. 3.5(c)].
3.4 Engineering Drawing

Fig. 3.5(a) Fig. 3.5(b) Fig. 3.5(c)

The ellipse has an important property that is used in the reflection of light and sound waves. Any light or
signal that starts at one focus will be reflected to the other focus. This principle is used in lithotripsy, a
medical procedure for treating kidney stones, [Fig. 3.5(d)]. The principle is also used in the construction
of “whispering galleries”, such as in St. Paul’s Cathedral in London, in which a person, whisper near
one focus is heard at the other focus though not at many places in between. [Fig. 3.5(e)]

Fig. 3.5(d) Fig. 3.5(e)

3.6 PARABOLA AND ITS APPLICATIONS

When the cutting plane is inclined to the axis and is parallel to one of the generators of the cone, the section
is a parabola. The inclination of the cutting plane is equal to half of the apex angle, i.e., q a (Fig. 3.6).

i 3.6 Formation a parabola by cuttin a cone

 Conic Sections 3.5

Applications One of nature’s best known approximations to parabolas is the path taken by a body
projected upward and obliquely to the pull of gravity, as in the parabolic trajectory of a golf ball.
The friction of air and the pull of gravity will change slightly the projectile’s path from that of a true
parabola, but in many cases the error is insignificant [Fig. 3.7(a) and Fig. 3.7(b)]. Many bridge designs
use parabolic supports, eg. Golden Gate Bridge, Howrah Bridge, etc. Fig. 3.7(d).

Fig. 3.7(a) Fig. 3.7(b) Fig. 3.7(c)

If a light is placed at the focus of a parabolic mirror, the light will be reflected in rays parallel
to the axis [Fig. 3.7(d)]. This principle is used for getting a straight beam of light in headlamps,
torches, etc. The opposite principle is used in giant mirrors, reflecting telescopes and antennas to
collect light and radio waves from outer space and focus them at the focal point [Fig. 3.7(e)]. A
solar furnace and solar cooker produces heat by focusing sunlight by means of a parabolic mirror
arrangement [Fig. 3.7(f)].

Fig. 3.7(d) Fig. 3.7(e) Fig. 3.7(f)

3.7 HYPERBOLA AND ITS APPLICATIONS

When the cutting plane cuts both the parts of the double cone, the section is a hyperbola. The inclination
of cutting plane for the hyperbola must be less than half of the apex angle, i.e., q < a (Fig. 3.8).
3.6 Engineering Drawing

Fig. 3.8 Formation of a hyperbola by cutting a cone

Rectangular Hyperbola When the cutting plane is parallel to the axis of the cone, the section is a
rectangular hyperbola, i.e., q = 0º (Fig. 3.9).

Fig. 3.9 Formation of a rectangular hyperbola by cutting a cone

Applications The hyperbolic curve graphically represents the Boyle’s law, i.e., PV = constant. A
comet that does not return to the sun follows a hyperbolic path. A household lamp casts hyperbolic
shadows on a wall [Fig. 3.10(a)].

Fig. 3.10(a) Fig. 3.10(b) Fig. 3.10(c)

 Conic Sections 3.7

A hyperbola revolving around its axis forms a surface called a hyperboloid. Hyperboloids are useful in design of
water channels, cooling towers, etc. Fig. 3.10(b) shows use of cooling tower for nuclear plant. The architecture
of the James S. McDonnell Planetarium of the St. Louis Science Centre is also hyperboloid [Fig. 3.10(c)].

Two hyperboloids of revolution can provide gear transmission between two skew axes. The cogs of
each gear are a set of generating straight lines [Fig. 3.10(d)]. Reflecting telescopes use hyperbolic mir-
rors [Fig. 3.10(e)]. If the centre of each of two sets of concentric circles is the source of a radio signal,
the synchronized signals would intersect one another in associated hyperbolas. This principle forms the
basis of a hyperbolic radio navigation system known as Long Range Navigation [Fig. 3.10(f)].

Fig. 3.10(d) Fig. 3.10(e) Fig. 3.10(f) Fig. 3.10(g) Wooden pot

3.8 CONSTRUCTION OF ELLIPSE

An ellipse can be constructed by the following methods:

1. Eccentricity method (general method)

2. Intersecting arcs method or arcs of circles method
3. Concentric circles method
4. Oblong method
a. Rectangle method
b. Parallelogram method

3.8.1 Eccentricity Method

An ellipse is defined as the locus of a point P moving in a plane in such a way that the ratio of its distance
from a fixed point F1 to the fixed straight line DD′ is a constant and is always less than 1 (see Fig. 3.11).

Fig. 3.11
3.8 Engineering Drawing

distance of the point from the focus ( 1 )

Eccentricity, e =
diistance of the point from the directrix (PM )
PF1
e= = constant (and less than 1 for ellipse)
e
PM
The eccentricity method for construction of ellipse is based on this definition.

Example 3.1 (Fig. 3.12)

Construct an ellipse when the distance of its focus from its directrix is equal to 50 mm and ec-
centricity is 2/3. Also draw a tangent and a normal to the ellipse at a point 70 mm away from the
directrix. [RGPV June 2007]

Fig. 3.12

Construction: Fig. 3.12

1. Draw a directrix DD′.

2. Draw principal axis AB perpendicular to directrix DD′.
3. Mark focus F on AB at a distance of 50 mm from the directrix DD′.
VF 2
F into five equal parts (e = 2/3) and mark vertex V on it such that
4. Divide AF = . Vertex V
AV 3
satisfies the condition for being a point of the curve.
 Conic Sections 3.9

5. Draw a vertical line VE

E equal to VF. Join AE and extend it to some distance. Thus, in the triangle
VE VF 2
AVE, = = .
AV AV 3
6. Mark any point 1 on the axis and through it draw a perpendicular line to meet AE produced at 1′.
11′ VE 2
Thus, = =
A1 AV 3
7. With center F and radius equal to 11′, draw arcs to intersect the perpendicular line 11′ at points
FPP1 11′ 2
P1 and P1′. These are the points on the ellipse because ratio = = .
XPP1 A1 3
8. Repeat steps 6 and 7 for points 2, 3, 4, … etc (at any convenient distances on AB which need not
be equal) and obtain points P2 and P2′, P3 and P3′, P4 and P4′, etc.
9. Join points P2′, P1′, V, P1, P2, etc. to obtain the required ellipse.

Tangent and Normal to An Ellipse

10. Mark a point P on the ellipse at the given distance 70 mm from the directrix.
11. Join PF.
12. Draw a line FT perpendicular to PF F meeting directrix at T.
P and extend it to some point T ′. TT ′ is the required tangent.
13. Join TP
14. At point P, draw a line NN ′perpendicular to TT ′. This is the required normal.

2ed
Note: Mathematically the length of the major axis = where, e is the eccentricity and d is the
1 − e2
distance of focus from directrix.

3.8.2 Intersecting Arcs Method or Arcs of Circles Method

Ellipse is a curve traced by a point P moving in a way that the sum of its distance from two fixed points
F1 and F2 is constant and is equal to the major axis (refer Fig. 3.13). Intersecting arcs method is based
on this principle. The method is also known as arcs of circles method.

Fig. 3.13
3.10 Engineering Drawing

Example 3.2 (Fig. 3.14)

A point moves in a plane in such a way that the sum of its distances from two fixed points
60 mm apart is 90 mm. Name and draw the locus of this point around the fixed points.
[RGPV Dec. 2008]

P3 C Q3
P2 Q2

P1 Q1
A1 B1

A B
F1 1 2 3 O F2

P 1′ Q 1′

P 2′ Q 2′
P 3′ D Q 3′
60
90

Fig. 3.14

Construction: Fig. 3.14

1. Draw major axis AB = 90 mm and mark its mid-point O.

2. Mark OF1 = OF2 = 60/2 = 30 mm.
3. Mark points 1, 2, 3, etc., on OF1 at any convenient distances, which need not be equal.
4. With foci F1 and F2 as the centers and radius A1, draw arcs on both sides of AB.
5. With foci F1 and F2 as the centers and radius B1, draw arcs on both sides of AB to intersect the
previous arcs at four points P1, P1′, Q1 and Q1′.
6. Repeat step 3 and step 4 with radii A2 and B2, A3 and B3, etc., and obtain points P2, P2′, Q2, Q2′,
P3, P3′, Q3, and Q3′.
7. Draw a smooth curve passing through all these points. The curve obtained is ellipse.

Corollary 1: If an arc with foci F1 and F2 and radius AO is drawn, they will intersect each other on the
perpendicular bisector through point O at points C and D. The line joining CD represents
the minor axis.

Corollary 2: If lengths of major axis AB and minor axis CD are given, then draw an arc with radius AO
and centre either C or D to meet the major axis at points F1 and F2. These points are the foci
of the ellipse.

Corollary 3: If distance between the foci F1 and F2, and the lengths of minor axis CD are given, then
draw an arc with centre O and radius CF1 (= CF2) to meet the line joining the foci at points
A and B. The line joining AB represents the major axis.
 Conic Sections 3.11

3.8.3 Concentric Circles Method

This is a special method for construction of ellipse.

Example 3.3 (Fig. 3.15)

The major axis of an ellipse is 100 mm and minor axis is 60 mm long. Draw an ellipse by con-
centric circle method. [RGPV Dec. 2004, Feb. 2005, Dec. 2006]

60

Fig. 3.15

Construction: Fig. 3.15

1. Draw major axis AB = 100 mm and minor axis CD = 60 mm. Lines AB and CD are perpendicular
bisectors of each other meeting at point O.
2. Draw two concentric circles with O as the center and diameters equal to AB and CD.
3. Divide both the circles into twelve equal parts. Mark points 1′, 2′, 3′, … etc., on the circumfer-
ence of the circle with diameter AB and points 1, 2, 3, … etc., on circumference of the circle with
diameter CD, as shown.
4. Draw vertical line through point 1′ to meet the horizontal line drawn through point 1 at point P1.
The point P1 represents a point on the ellipse.
5. Similarly, draw vertical lines through other points 2′, 3′, …, etc., to meet the corresponding hori-
zontal lines drawn through points 2, 3, … etc., at points P2, P3, … etc. The point P2, P3, … etc., lie
on the ellipse.
6. Draw a smooth curve passing through all these points to get the required ellipse.

3.8.4 Rectangle Method

It is basically a method of inscribing an ellipse in a rectangle.
3.12 Engineering Drawing

Example 3.4 (Fig. 3.16)

Inscribe the largest possible ellipse in a rectangle with 160 mm × 100 mm sides.

Fig. 3.16

Construction: Fig. 3.16

1. Draw a rectangle KLMN with sides KL = 100 mm and LM = 160 mm.

2. Mark points A, B, C and D as mid point of sides KL, MN, NK K and LM respectively.
3. Mark O as perpendicular bisectors of AB and CD.
4. Divide lines AO
O and AK O and 1′, 2′, 3′′ on AK.
K into same number of equal parts, say 4. Mark 1, 2, 3 on AO
5. Join C with points 1′, 2′, 3′.
6. Draw lines from point D, passing through 1, 2 and 3, intersecting C1′, C2′ C3′ at points P1, P2, P3
respectively.
7. Draw the curve through A, P1, P2, P3, C. This is one quarter of an ellipse.
8. As the curve is symmetric about the axes, obtain points Q1, Q2, Q3 of the curve in rectangle CNBO
by drawing horizontal lines from P1, P2, P3 and making them equal on either sides of OC.
9. Similarly, obtain points R1, R2, R3 in rectangle AODL by drawing perpendicular lines from points
P1, P2, P3 and making them equal on either sides of OA.
10. Draw horizontal lines from R1, R2, R3 and vertical lines from Q1, Q2, Q3 to meet at S1, S2, S3 to get
points of a curve in rectangle OBMD.
11. Draw a curve passing through points obtained in steps 8 to 10.

3.8.5 Parallelogram Method

It is basically a method of inscribing an ellipse in a parallelogram.

Example 3.5 (Fig. 3.17)

The sides of a parallelogram are 120 mm and 80 mm. The included angle between them is 75ç.
Inscribe an ellipse in the given parallelogram.
 Conic Sections 3.13

Fig. 3.17

Construction: Fig. 3.17

1. Draw a parallelogram KLMN with sides KL = 80 mm, LM = 120 mm and ∠KLM = 75o.
2. Mark A, B, C, D as mid-points of KL, MN, NK, LM M respectively.
3. Mark O as the perpendicular bisectors of AB and CD.
4. Divide lines OA and KA into same number of equal parts, say 4. Mark 1, 2, 3 on OA and 1′, 2′, 3′
on KA.
5. Join point C with 1′, 2′, 3′.
6. Draw lines from point D, to join points 1, 2 and 3 and produce to intersect lines C1′, C2′ C3′ at
points P1, P2, P3 respectively.
7. Draw smooth curve through A, P1, P2, P3, C. This is one quarter of an ellipse.
8. Draw lines parallel to AB through points P1, P2, P3 and make each of them equal on either sides
of CD and obtain Q1, Q2, Q3.
9. Similarly, draw lines parallel to line CD passing through points P1, P2, P3 and points Q1, Q2, Q3.
Make each of them equal on either sides of AB and obtain points R1, R2, R3, S1, S2, S3.
10. Join the points obtained in steps 8 and 9 with a smooth curve.

3.9 LOCATE CENTRE, MAJOR AXIS AND MINOR AXIS

Example 3.6 (Fig. 3.18)

Determine the center, major axis and minor axis of the given ellipse.
3.14 Engineering Drawing

minor axis
major axis

Fig. 3.18

Construction: Fig. 3.18

1. Draw any two chords 1-2 and 3-4 parallel to each other.
2. Mark P and Q as midpoints of 1-2 and 3-4 respectively.
3. Join PQ and extend it on both sides so that it meets the ellipse at points R and S.
4. Mark O as the midpoint of RS. Point O represents the centre.
5. With point O as the center and radius of any convenient length, draw a circle to cut the ellipse at
points E, F, G and H.
6. Complete the rectangle EFGH.
7. Through point O, draw a line AB parallel to EH, and line CD parallel to EF. The lines AB and CD
represent the major and the minor axes, respectively.

3.10 TANGENT AND NORMAL TO THE ELLIPSE

Example 3.7 (Fig. 3.19)

Draw tangent and normal to the ellipse through a point P, lying on it.

Fig. 3.19
 Conic Sections 3.15

Construction: Fig. 3.19

1. Let ADBCA is the given ellipse.

2. Locate its major and minor axes AB and CD. (Refer Example 3.6)
3. Let the major and the minor axes intersect at point O. Draw an arc with point C as the centre and
radius OA to meet the major axis at points F1, F2. The points F1, F2 represents the foci.
4. Locate point P on the ellipse through which tangent has to be drawn.
5. Join the point P with foci F1 and F2.
6. Draw angular bisector NN ′ of the angle F1PF2. The line NN ′ represents the normal.
7. Through point P, draw a line TT ′ perpendicular to NN′. The line TT ′ represents the tangent.

Example 3.8 (Fig. 3.20)

Draw a pair of tangents to the ellipse through a point P, lying outside.

Fig. 3.20

Construction: Fig. 3.20

1. Let ADBCA is the given ellipse.

2. Locate its major and minor axes AB and CD. (Refer Example 3.6)
3. Let the major and the minor axes intersect at point O. Draw an arc with point C as the centre and
radius OA to meet the major axis at points F1, F2. The points F1, F2 represents the foci.
4. Mark point P at the given location, through which tangent has to be drawn.
5. Draw an arc with point P as centre and radius PF2 to intersect another arc drawn with F1 as the
centre and radius AB at points G and H.
6. Join F1G and F1H. Let they intersect the ellipse at points R and S, respectively.
7. Join PR and PS and extend them to points T and T ′ respectively. The lines PRT and PST ′ repre-
sents the tangents to the ellipse.
3.16 Engineering Drawing

3.11 EMPIRICAL RELATIONS

The empirical relations among various parameters can be established as given below:

Fig. 3.21

distance of a point from the focus

We know that eccentricity is defined as, e =
distance of the point from the directrix
In Fig. 3.21 the ends A and B of the major axis are also the points lying on the ellipse, therefore,
AF
F1 BF
F1
e= and e =
AM BM
1. Therefore, eccentricity may also be given by

F1 − BF
AF F1 F1 F2 distance between the foci
e= = =
AM − BM AB length of major
a axis

2. Eccentricity may also be given by

F1 + BF
AF F1 AB AB
e= = = ( ∵ BM = AN )
AM + BM AM + BM AM + AN
length of major axis
or e =
distance between directrices

3. Eccentricity may also be given by multiplying equation (A) and equation (B).

distance between foci length of majoor axis

e2 = ×
length of major axis distance between directrices
distance between foci F1 F2
or e = =
distance between directrices MN
 Conic Sections 3.17

3.12 CONSTRUCTION OF PARABOLA

The parabola can be constructed by the following methods:

1. Eccentricity method
2. Offset method
3. Tangent method
4. Oblong method
a. Rectangle method
b. Parallelogram method

3.12.1 Eccentricity Method

A parabola is the locus of a point P moving in a plane, such that the ratio of its distance from a fixed
point F1 to the fixed straight line DD′ is a constant and is always equal to unity.
distance of the point from the focus ( )
Eccentricity, e =
diistance of the point from the directrix (PM )
PF
e= = constant = 1 (unity)
PM
The eccentricity method for construction of a parabola is based on the above definition.

Example 3.9 (Fig. 3.22)

Draw a parabola when the distance between its focus and directrix is 50 mm. Also draw a
tangent and a normal at a point 70 mm from the directrix.

Fig. 3.22
3.18 Engineering Drawing

Construction: Fig. 3.22

1. Draw principal axis AB.

2. Draw directrix DD′ perpendicular to AB.
3. Mark focus F on AB, at a distance of 50 mm from DD′, i.e., AF = 50 mm.
4. Mark vertex V at the mid of AF. This vertex V satisfies the condition for being a point of the
parabola. ⎡⎢∵ ⎤
VF
= 1⎥ .
⎣ AV ⎦
5. Mark number of points 1, 2, 3, … on VB. Through these points, erect lines perpendicular to AB.
6. With F as the center and radius equal to A1, draw arcs to intersect the perpendicular line through
1 at points P1 and P1′. It may be noted that FP1 = FP1′ = P1M. Thus, P1 and P1′ are the points of
the parabola.
7. Similarly, obtain P2 and P2′, P3 and P3′, … etc., by drawing arcs with F as the centre and A2, A3,
… as radius, to intersect perpendicular lines through 2, 3, ….
8. Join points P2′, P1′, V, P1, P2, etc., by smooth parabolic curve.
Tangent and Normal to A Parabola
9. Mark a point P on the parabola at a given distance of 70 mm from the directrix.
10. Join PF.
11. Draw a line FT perpendicular to PFF meeting DD′ at point T.
P and extend it to some point T ′. Line TT ′ is the required tangent.
12. Join TP
13. Through point P, draw line NN ′ perpendicular to TT ′. NN ′ is the required normal.

3.12.2 Offset Method

The equation for the parabola is x2 = 4ay. Thus, x2 is directly proportional to y. Therefore, a curve pass-
ing through coordinates (0, 0), (1, 1), (2, 4), (3, 9), (4, 16), etc., will generate a parabolic curve. Off-set
method is based on this principle.

Example 3.10 (Fig. 3.23)

Draw a parabola using ‘offset method’ when span and rise are 160 mm and 100 mm respectively.

Fig. 3.23
 Conic Sections 3.19

Construction: Fig. 3.23

1. Draw a rectangle ABCD, with span AB = 160 mm and rise AD = 100 mm.
2. Mark E and F as the mid-points of sides AB and CD respectively. Join EF.
3. Divide DF F and CFF into number of equal parts, say 4. Divide line DA into square of number of parts
made of line DF, i.e., 42 = 16. Number the points as shown.
4. Draw vertical lines from points 1′, 2′, 3′ of side DF and from points 1″, 2″, 3″ of side FC.
5. Draw horizontal lines from points 1, 4, 9 of side AD meeting vertical lines at points P1, P2, P3 and
R1, R2, R3 respectively.
6. Draw a smooth curve passing through all these points as shown. The curve obtained is the required
parabola.

3.12.3 Tangent Method

Example 3.11 (Fig. 3.24)

Construct a parabola given the base 100 mm and height 80 mm by Tangent method.
[RGPV Dec 2005]

7 1′

6 2′
80

5 3′

4 4′
D

3 5′

2
80

6′

1 7′

A C B
100
Fig. 3.24

Construction: Fig. 3.24

1. Draw AB = 100 mm and mark the midpoint C.

2. Draw CD = DO = 80 mm perpendicular AB.
3. Join OA and OB.
4. Divide lines OA and OB into same number of equal parts, say 8. Mark divisions of side AO as
1, 2, 3, …etc., and side OB as 1′, 2′, 3′,… etc. as shown.
3.20 Engineering Drawing

5. Join 11′, 22′, 33′, … etc. These lines are tangents to the parabola.
6. Draw a smooth curve starting from point A touching the lines 11′, 22′, 33′, … etc tangentially end-
ing at point B. The curve is the required parabola.

3.12.4 Rectangle Method

Rectangle method is basically a method of inscribing parabola in a rectangle.

Example 3.12 (Fig. 3.25)

Draw a parabola given the width and height of its enclosing rectangle as 105 mm and 75 mm
respectively. [RGPV June 2007]
75

Fig. 3.25

Construction: Fig. 3.25

1. Draw a rectangle ABCD taking AB = 105 mm and AD = 75 mm.

2. Mark E and F as the mid-points of sides AB and CD respectively. Join EF F to represent the axis.
3. Divide lines FD and DA, into equal number of parts, say 4. Mark division of side DA as 1, 2, 3 and
divisions of FD as 1′, 2′, 3′.
4. Join F with points 1, 2, 3.
5. Through 1′, 2′, 3′ draw lines parallel to the axis EF to meeting lines F1, F2, F3 at points P1, P2, P3
respectively.
6. As the curve is symmetric about axis, obtain points R1, R2, R3 of the curve by drawing horizontal
lines through points P1, P2, P3 and making them equal on the other side of axis EF.
7. Draw a smooth curve passing through A, P3, P2, P1, F, R1, R2, R3 and B. This curve is the required
parabola.
 Conic Sections 3.21

3.12.5 Parallelogram Method

Parallelogram method is basically a method of inscribing a parabola in a parallelogram.

Example 3.13 (Fig. 3.26)

Inscribe a parabola in a parallelogram of 110 mm × 80 mm sides, the included angle being
60°. Consider the longer side of the parallelogram as the base of parabola.

Fig. 3.26

Construction: Fig. 3.26

1. Draw a parallelogram ABCD, AB = 120 mm and AD = 80 mm. Let ∠DAB = 60o.

2. Mark E and F as the mid-points of AB and CD respectively.
3. Divide lines, FD and DA, into same number of equal parts, say 4. Mark divisions of DA as 1, 2, 3
and divisions of FD as 1′, 2′, 3′.
4. Connect point F with points 1, 2, 3.
5. Through 1′, 2′, 3′ draw lines parallel to axis EF to meet lines F1, F2, F3 at points P1, P2, P3
respectively.
6. Draw a curve through F, P1, P2, P3, A. This is one-half of the parabola.
7. Draw horizontal lines through points P1, P2, P3. Make their distances equal on either side of EF
and obtain points R1, R2, R3 of the curve.
8. Draw a curve to pass through points F, R1, R2, R3, B. This is other half of the parabola.

3.13 AXIS OF THE PARABOLA

Example 3.14 (Fig. 3.27)

Determine the axis of the given parabola.
3.22 Engineering Drawing

Fig. 3.27

Construction: Fig. 3.27

1. Draw two parallel chords KL and MN N across the parabola, separated by some distance.
2. Locate E and F as the mid-points of the chords KL and MN N respectively.
3. Join EF and produce it to some length.
4. Draw a line perpendicular to EF at any convenient distance to meet the parabola at points C and D.
The line CD is a new chord to the parabola.
5. Locate O as the mid-point of chord CD.
6. Draw a line AB through O parallel to EF. This line AB is the required axis of the parabola.

3.14 FOCUS AND DIRECTRIX OF THE PARABOLA

Example 3.15 (Fig. 3.28)

Determine focus and directrix of the given parabola.

Fig. 3.28
 Conic Sections 3.23

Construction: Fig. 3.28

1. Determine axis AB of the given parabola (refer Example 3.14). Let V be the vertex.
2. Mark a point P, anywhere on the parabola.
3. From point P, draw a line PM perpendicular to AB to meet at point M.
4. Mark a point T on AB produced such that TV = VM.
5. Join PT.
6. Draw a perpendicular bisector EFF of line PT, to meet axis at point F. The point F is the required
focus of the parabola.
7. Mark a point O on the axis such that VF = OV.
8. Draw a line DD′ through O perpendicular to the axis AB. This line DD′ is the required directrix of
the parabola.

3.15 TANGENT AND NORMAL TO THE PARABOLA

Example 3.16 (Fig. 3.29)

Draw a tangent and a normal to the given parabola through a point P, lying on it.

Fig. 3.29

Construction: Fig. 3.29

1. Determine axis AB of the parabola (refer Example 3.14). Let V be the vertex.
2. Mark a point P on the parabola where tangent is to be drawn.
3.24 Engineering Drawing

3. Through point P, draw a line PM perpendicular to AB.

4. Mark a point T on the axis AB produced such that TV = VM.
5. Join TP and extend it to a distance T ′. The line TT ′ is the tangent to the parabola.
6. Draw line NN ′ as the perpendicular bisector of TT ′. The line NN ′ is the required normal to the
parabola.

Example 3.17 (Fig. 3.30)

Draw a pair of tangents to the given parabola from an external point P.

Fig. 3.30

Construction: Fig. 3.30

1. Determine axis AB of the parabola (refer Example 3.14).

2. Determine the focus F and the directrix DD′ of the parabola (refer Example 3.15).
3. Mark point P through which tangents are to be drawn.
4. Draw a circle with point P as the center and radius PF. Let the circle meet the directrix DD′ at
points Q and R.
5. Draw horizontal lines through points Q and R to meet the parabola at points S and T,
respectively.
6. Join PS and PT and extend them. The lines PS and PT are the required tangents of the
parabola.
 Conic Sections 3.25

3.16 CONSTRUCTION OF HYPERBOLA

The hyperbola can be constructed by the following methods:

1. Eccentricity method
2. Intersecting arcs method
3. Oblong method
4. Intercept method
5. Orthogonal asymptotes method
6. Oblique asymptotes method

3.16.1 Eccentricity Method

Hyperbola is the locus of a point P moving in a plane, such that the ratio
of its distance from a fixed point F to the fixed straight line DD′ is a
constant and is always greater than unity.

In Fig. 3.31,

F = Focus V = Vertex
DD′ = Directrix AB = Principal axis

distance of the point from the focus ( )

Eccentricity, e =
diistance of the point from the directrix (PM )
PF
e constant and e > 1
PM

The eccentricity method for construction of hyperbola is based on the

above definition.

Fig. 3.31

Example 3.18 (Fig. 3.32)

Construct a hyperbola with the distance between the focus and the directrix as 50 mm and ec-
centricity as 3/2. Also draw normal and tangent to the curve at a point, 25 mm from the axis.
[RGPV Aug. 2010]
3.26 Engineering Drawing

Fig. 3.32

Construction: Fig. 3.32

1. Draw directrix DD′ and principal axis AB perpendicular to the DD′.

2. Mark focus F taking AF = 50 mm.
F into five (3 + 2) equal parts (since e = 3/2) and mark vertex V on it such that
3. Divide the line AF
VF 3
= . Thus, vertex V satisfies the condition for being a point of the curve.
AV 2
4. At V, draw a vertical line VE equal to VF. Join AE E and extend it to some distance. Thus, in the
VE VF 3
triangle AVE, = =
AV AV 2
5. Mark any point 1 on the axis and through it, draw a perpendicular line to meet AE produced at 1′.
11′ VE 3
Thus, = =
A1 AV 2
 Conic Sections 3.27

6. With center F and radius equal to 11′, draw arcs to intersect the perpendicular line 11′ at point P1
11′ 3
and P1′. These are the points of the hyperbola because ratio, =
AV 2
7. Similarly, mark any number of points 2, 3, 4, … on VB at any convenient distances which need
not be equal. Through these points erect lines 22′, 33′, 44′, …, perpendicular to principal axis AB.
With F as the center and radius equal to 22′, 33′, 44′, …, draw arcs to intersect the perpendicular
line 22′, 33’, 44′, … at points P2 and P2′, P3 and P3’, … etc. respectively.
8. Join points P2′, P1′, V, P1, P2, etc., to form a smooth curve. This is the required hyperbola.

Tangent And Normal to A Hyperbola

9. Mark a point P on the hyperbola at a given distance, 30 mm from the directrix.
10. Join PF.
11. Draw a line FT perpendicular to PFF meeting directrix at T.
12. Join TP and extend it to some point T ′. The line TT ′ is the required tangent.
13. Through point P, draw a line NN ′ perpendicular to TT ′. The line NN ′ is the required normal.

3.16.2 Intersecting Arcs Method

The hyperbola is a curve traced by a point P moving in such a way that the difference of its distance
from two fixed points, F1 and F2 is always constant and equal to the distance between the vertices of the
two branches of the hyperbola.

In Fig. 3.33., let F1 and F2 be the foci, V1 and V2 be the vertices. Then for hyperbola the locus of any
point P should satisfy PFF2 − PFF1 = V1V2 . The distance between the vertices V1V2 is also known as trans-
verse axis or major axis. Intersecting arc method is based on this definition.

Fig. 3.33
3.28 Engineering Drawing

Example 3.19 (Fig. 3.34)

Trace the locus of a point, such that the difference between the distances of the point from
the two fixed points 80 mm apart is constant which is equal to 60 mm. Name the curve.
[RGPV Dec 2001]

Fig. 3.34

Construction: Fig. 3.34

1. Draw the principal axis AB and mark a point O on it.

2. Mark foci F1, F2 and vertices V1, V2 on AB so that F1F2 = 80 mm, V1V2 = 60 mm and are symmetry
about O.
3. Mark points 1, 2, 3, … on AB on one side of foci, at any convenient distances which need not be equal.
4. With centre F1 and radius V11 draw arcs F1P1 and F1P2. Also with centre F2 and radius V11 draw
arcs F2Q1 and F2Q2.
5. Again with centre F1 and radius V21 draw arcs F1Q1 and F1Q2. Also with centre F2 and radius V21
draw arcs F2P1 and F2P2.
6. Repeat step 4 and step 5 with the remaining points 2, 3 and 4 and obtain P2, P2′, Q2, Q2′, P3, …. etc.
7. Draw a smooth curve passing through all the points as shown. This gives required two branches
of hyperbola.

3.16.3 Oblong Method

Oblong method is used to draw hyperbola when transverse axis, double ordinate and abscissa are given.

Transverse Axis A hyperbola has two vertices. The line joining the two vertices is called the major
axis or the transverse axis.

Double Ordinate Any chord which is perpendicular to the axis is called the double ordinate. The
chord which is perpendicular to axis and passes through the focus is called the latus rectum.
 Conic Sections 3.29

Abscissa The distance between the vertex and the double ordinate is called the abscissa. It may be
noted that a parabola or a hyperbola has unlimited number of double ordinates and for each double or-
dinate there is an abscissa.

Asymptotes Asymptotes are the straight lines that pass through the centre of the transverse axis and
tangential to the hyperbola at infinity. They approach nearer and nearer to the hyperbola while moving
away from the centre and assumed to touch the hyperbola at infinity.

When the asymptotes to the hyperbola intersect at right angles, the curve is known as rectangular hyper-
bola and its eccentricity is 2 .

Example 3.20 (Fig. 3.35)

Draw a hyperbola when half the transverse axis, double ordinate and abscissa are 50 mm, 120
mm and 40 mm long respectively.

Fig. 3.35

Construction: Fig. 3.35

1. Draw a rectangle KLMN N such that KL = 120 mm (double ordinate) and LM = 40 mm.
2. Mark C and V as the mid-points of KL and NM respectively.
3. Join CV V and extend it to point O such that VO = 50 mm (half the transverse axis).
4. Divide KN and KC into 4 equal parts. Name the points on line KN as 1, 2, 3 and on line KC as
1′, 2′, 3′.
5. Join point V with points 1, 2, 3 and join point O with 1′, 2′, 3′.
6. Locate P1, P2, P3 at the intersection of V1 and O1′, V2 and O2′, V3 and O3′, respectively.
3.30 Engineering Drawing

7. Locate Q1, Q2, Q3 such that their distance from VC C is equal to the distance of points P1, P2, P3 with
VC.
8. Join K, P1, P2, P3, V, Q1, Q2, Q3, L and obtain the required hyperbola.

3.16.4 Intercept Method

In a rectangular hyperbola if the chord of the hyperbola is extended to intersect the axes, the intercept
between the curves and the axes are equal. This principle is used to draw hyperbola using intercept
method.

Example 3.21 (Fig. 3.36)

Draw a rectangular hyperbola when the position of a point P on the curve is at a distance of 30
mm and 50 mm from two asymptotes.

Fig. 3.36

Construction: Fig. 3.36

1. Draw asymptotes OX X and OY Y at right angle to each other.

2. Mark a point P such that its distance from OX X is 30 mm and from OY is 50 mm.
3. Draw a line passing from point P to intersect the asymptotes at points A and B. Locate point Q of
the hyperbola on line AB, such that PA = BQ.
4. Similarly, draw another line from point P to intersect the asymptotes at C and D. Locate point R
of the hyperbola on line CD, such that PD = CR.
5. Draw a line passing from point Q of the hyperbola to intersect the asymptotes at points E and F.
Locate point S of the hyperbola on line EF, such that QF = ES.
 Conic Sections 3.31

6. Similarly, draw another line from point Q to intersect the asymptotes at G and H. Locate point T
of the hyperbola on line GH, such that QH = GT.
7. Proceed to mark sufficient number of points of the hyperbola. Draw a smooth curve passing
through the points P, Q, R, S, T, etc., which is the required rectangular hyperbola.

3.16.5 Orthogonal Asymptotes Method

The ‘orthogonal asymptotes method’ is used to draw rectangular hyperbolas. The included angle be-
tween asymptotes is 90º.

Example 3.22 (Fig. 3.37)

Draw a rectangular hyperbola using the ‘orthogonal asymptotes’ method when the position of
a point P on the curve is at a distance of 35 mm and 50 mm from two asymptotes.

Fig. 3.37

Construction: Fig. 3.37

1. Draw asymptotes OA and OB at right angle to each other.

2. Mark a point P such that its distance from OA is 35 mm and from OB is 50 mm.
3. Through point P, draw lines CD and EF F parallel to OA and OB respectively.
4. Mark points 1, 2, 3, …etc. along CD which need not be equidistant.
5. F at points 1′, 2′, 3′, … etc.
Join O1, O2, O3, … etc., and extend them, if necessary, to meet the line EF
6. Through 1, 2, 3, … etc., draw lines parallel to OB and through 1′, 2′, 3′, … etc parallel to OA. Let
the lines intersect each other at points P1, P2, P3, …etc., respectively.
7. Draw a smooth curve passing through points P1, P2, P3, … etc. This curve is the required rectangular
hyperbola.
3.32 Engineering Drawing

3.16.6 Oblique Asymptotes Method

The ‘oblique asymptotes’ method is used to draw hyperbolas when included angle between asymptotes
is either acute or obtuse.

Example 3.23 (Fig. 3.38)

Draw a hyperbola when its asymptotes are inclined at 60° to each other and it passes through
a point P at a distance of 40 mm and 50 mm from the asymptotes.

Fig. 3.38

Construction: Fig. 3.38

1. Draw asymptotes OA and OB with an included angle of 60o.

2. Mark a point P such that its distance from OA is 40 mm and from OB is 50 mm.
3. Through point P, draw lines CD and EF F parallel to asymptotes OA and OB respectively.
4. Mark points 1, 2, 3, … etc along CD which need not be equidistant and lying on both sides of point
P. It is advisable to mark points 1, 2, 3, at distances in increasing order.
5. Join O1, O2, O3, …etc and extend them, if necessary, until they meet the line EF at points 1′,
2′, 3′, …etc.
6. Through 1, 2, 3, …etc., draw lines parallel to OB and through 1′, 2′, 3′, …etc., draw lines parallel
to OA. Let them intersect at points P1, P2, P3, …etc. respectively.
7. Draw a smooth curve passing through points P1, P2, P3,…etc. The obtained curve is the required
hyperbola.
 Conic Sections 3.33

3.17 LOCATE ASYMPTOTES AND DIRECTRIX OF THE HYPERBOLA

Example 3.24 (Fig. 3.39)

Draw two branches of hyperbola keeping the distances between the foci as 70 mm and dis-
tances between vertices as 40 mm. Locate asymptotes and measure the angle between them.
Also draw the directrix of the hyperbola.

Fig. 3.39

Construction: Fig. 3.39

1. Draw hyperbola using ‘Intersecting Arcs method’ (refer Example 3.19).

2. With centre O and diameter F1 F2 draw a circle.
3. At V1 and V2 draw two vertical lines cutting the circle at points ABCD as shown.
4. Join AC
C and BD. Extend each of them on both sides. These are the required asymptotes. Measure
the angle between them.
5. With O as the center and V1V2 as the diameter draw a circle intersecting asymptotes at points PQRS.
6. Join PQ and RS. Extend each of them on both sides. These are the required directrices.

3.18 TANGENT AND NORMAL TO THE HYPERBOLA

Example 3.25 (Fig. 3.40)

Draw a tangent and a normal to the given hyperbola at a point P, when distance between foci
is known.
3.34 Engineering Drawing

Fig. 3.40

Construction: Fig. 3.40

1. Let AB be the axis and F1 and F2 be the foci of the given hyperbola.
2. Mark a point P at the given location on the hyperbola.
3. Join PF1 and PF2.
4. Draw TT ′ as the bisector of ∠F1PF2. This is the required tangent.
5. Through point P, draw a line NN ′ perpendicular to TT ′. The line NN ′ is the required normal.

3.19 EMPIRICAL RELATIONS

ANALYTICAL: Refer Fig. 3.33. Obtain the following analytical relations

distance of a point from the focus
Eccentricity is defined as, e =
distance of the point ffrom the directrix
distance between the foci F1F2
1. Eccentricity may also be written as e = =
distance between vertices V1V2
distance between vertices
2. Eccentricity may also be written as e =
distance between directrices
3. Eccentricity may also be given by

distance between foci distance between vertices

e2 = ×
distance between vertices distance between directrices
distance between foci
or e =
distance between directrices
 Conic Sections 3.35

3.20 MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES

Example 3.26 (Fig. 3.41)

The major and minor axes of an ellipse are 140 mm and 90 mm respectively. Find the foci and
draw the ellipse using ‘arcs of circle’ method. Draw a tangent and a normal to the ellipse at a
point 40 mm above the major axis.

Fig. 3.41

Construction: Fig. 3.41

1. Draw the major axis AB = 140 mm and minor axis CD = 90 mm bisecting each other at O.
2. Draw an arc with centre C and radius OA to meet line AB at points F1 and F2. Points F1 and F2 are
the foci.
3. Draw the ellipse using ‘arcs of circle’ method (refer Example 3.3).
4. Locate point P, 40 mm above AB and draw tangent and normal to the ellipse (refer
Example 3.7).

Example 3.27 (Fig. 3.42)

Construct an ellipse having a major axis 100 mm and minor axis 80 mm. Locate its foci, direc-
trices and find the eccentricity. [RGPV Sep. 2009]
3.36 Engineering Drawing

T'
3'
N' 2' 4'
C 3

D1 P2 3 P4 D2
P 4
2
1' 5'
N 5
P1 1 P5
T

A 12 6 P6 B

80
Q O
12' P12 F1 F2 6'

P11 11 P7
7
11' 7'
10
D 1' P10 8
9 P8 D 2'
D P9
10' 8'
9'
33.33 20
100

Fig. 3.42

Construction: Fig. 3.42

1. Draw the ellipse using ‘concentric circles’ method (refer Example 3.3).
2. Draw an arc with point C as the centre and radius OA to cut the major axis AB at points F1 and F2.
Points F1 and F2 represents the foci of the ellipse.
3. Through focus F1, draw a line F1P perpendicular to the axis AB to meet the ellipse at a point P.
4. Draw a tangent TT ′ to the ellipse through point P (refer Example 3.7).
5. Let the tangent meet the axis AB produced at point Q. Through point Q, draw a line D1D1′ perpen-
dicular to the axis AB. The line D1D1′ represents the directrix.
6. Draw a line D2D2′ parallel to D1D1′ at distance equal to OQ on the other side of ellipse. D2D2′ is
the second directrix.
AF
F 20
7. Determine the ratio of AF1 and AQ as eccentricity. Here, e = 1 = = 0.6.
AQ 33.33

Example 3.28 (Fig. 3.43)

The major axis of an ellipse is 110 mm long and the foci are at a distance of 15 mm from its
ends. Draw the ellipse, one-half of it by ‘concentric circles’ method and the other half by rect-
angle method. Determine the eccentricity of the ellipse.
 Conic Sections 3.37

A,

Fig. 3.43

Construction: Fig. 3.43

1. Draw a horizontal line and mark the vertices A and B, 110 mm apart. Also mark foci F1 and F2,
80 mm apart. Let point O be the midpoint of both AB and F1F2
2. Draw an arc with focus F1 as the centre and radius OA to meet the vertical line passing through O
at points and D. Join CD to represent the minor axis.
3. Draw left half of the ellipse using ‘concentric circles’ method (refer Example 3.3).
4. Draw a rectangle CDMN and inscribe other half of the ellipse using rectangle method (refer Example 3.4).
5. Determine the eccentricity using the relation
distance between foci F 110 × 8
e= = =
length of major axi AB 110 11

Example 3.29 (Fig. 3.44)

Draw an ellipse passing through points A, B and of a triangle having length of sides as
100 mm, 75 mm and 50 mm. Also draw a curve parallel to the ellipse and 25 mm away from it.

Fig. 3.44
3.38 Engineering Drawing

Construction: Fig. 3.44

1. Draw a triangle ABC taking AB = 100 mm, AC = 75 mm and BC = 50 mm.

2. Mark O as the midpoint of AB. Join CO and extend it to D taking OC = OD.
3. Draw a parallelogram KLMN N as shown and inscribe the ellipse (refer Example 3.5)
4. Through points p1, p2 p3, etc., of the ellipse, draw arcs of 25 mm. Pass a curve touching the arcs,
tangentially.

Example 3.30 (Fig. 3.45)

Inscribe a parabola in a rectangle having a base 80 mm and axis 60 mm. Draw a tangent to the
curve at a point 30 mm from the base. Also locate the position of the focus and directrix of the
parabola. [RGPV Jun. 2011]

E
D′ O
D ′′
D V C
P1 R1
F
P2 R2
1’

P
60

2’ P3 M
R3
30

3’

A 3 2 1 B
80
T’

Fig. 3.45

Construction: Fig. 3.45

1. Draw a rectangle of base 80 mm and height 60 mm. Inscribe a parabola in it (refer Example 3.12).
2. Mark a point P, 30 mm above AB. Draw a tangent at point P (refer Example 3.16)
3. Proceed to determine the focus and the directrix of the parabola (refer Example 3.15).

Example 3.31 (Fig. 3.46)

A shot is discharged from the ground at an inclination of 45º to the ground which is horizontal. The
shot returns to the ground at a point 120 m away from the point of discharge. Draw the path traced
by the shot. Find the direction of the shot after it has traveled a horizontal distance of 100 m.
 Conic Sections 3.39

Fig. 3.46

Construction: Fig. 3.46

1. Draw an isosceles triangle ABO with AB = 120 mm and ∠OAB = ∠OBA = 45o.
2. Mark C as the midpoint of AB. Join OC.
3. Using tangent method to draw a parabola with AB as the base and half of OC C as the altitude (refer
Example 3.11).
4. Mark point P on the parabola at a horizontal distance of 100 m from point A.
5. Through P, draw PM perpendicular to OC C to meet at M. Mark point T on the axis such that
TD = DM. Join TP and extend it to a distance T ′. This TT ′ is the tangent.
6. Measure angle made by TT ′ with AB as the direction of the shot at P.

Example 3.32 (Fig. 3.47)

Two points A and B are 110 mm apart. Point C is 90 mm and 60 mm from points A and B re-
spectively. Draw a parabola passing through points A, B and C.

Fig. 3.47
3.40 Engineering Drawing

Construction: Fig. 3.47

1. Draw a triangle ABC.
2. Mark O as its midpoint of AB. Join OC.
3. Draw a parallelogram ABEF and then draw a parabola by parallelogram method
(refer Example 3.13).

Example 3.33 (Fig. 3.48)

A ball is thrown up in air from a 6 m high building and its highest point of flight it just crosses
a 12 m high palm tree . Trace the path of the ball, if the distance between the building and the
palm tree is 3 m. Choose a suitable scale. [RGPV June 2005]
D H C
P3 P4

3′ P2 P5 4′

2′ 5′
12 m

P1 P6

1′ 6′
Point from which
ball is thrown F 8 9
E 1 2 3 O 4 5 6 7′′ P7

8′
6m

9′′ P8
Point at which ball
touches the ground

A G B T
3m 3m Scale 1 : 100
7.2 m P9

Fig. 3.48

Construction: Fig. 3.48

1. Select a scale 1 cm = 1 m.
2. Draw a rectangle ABCD of 6 m × 12 m. Mark point E at a height of 6 m above point A. The line AB
represents the ground, line AEE represents the building and point E represents the location through
which the ball is thrown.
3. Mark points G and H as the mid-points of lines AB and CD respectively. Join GH H to represent the
palm tree.
4. Draw a parabola in rectangle EFCD (refer Example 3.12). It may be noted that here sides ED, EO,
FO and FC are divided into four equal parts.
5. Mark points 8, 9, etc., on line EF
F produced such that divisions F8 and 8–9 are equal to E1. Simi-
larly, mark 8′ and 9′ on CF produced such that 7′8′ and 8′9′ are equal to C4′.
6. Join H8′ and H9′ and extend them to meet vertical lines from points 8 and 9 at points as P8 and P9,
respectively.
 Conic Sections 3.41

7. Extend the parabola to pass through points P8 and P9.

8. Locate point T of the parabola on AB produced. This is the point where ball will touch the ground.

Example 3.34 (Fig. 3.49)

The directrices of a hyperbola are 50 mm apart and the vertices are 70 mm apart. Locate the
asymptotes and foci graphically and construct two branches of the hyperbola.

Fig. 3.49

Construction: Fig. 3.49

1. Draw principal axis AB and mark point O on it.

2. Mark points V1 and V2 on AB as the vertices, 70 mm apart and equidistant from O.
3. Mark points E and F on AB, 50 mm apart and equidistant from O.
4. Through E and F, erect lines DD′ and D1D1′ perpendicular to AB as the directrices.
5. With center O and diameter V1V2, draw a circle to cut the directrices DD′ and D1D1′ at points K, L,
M and N.
6. Join KM
M and LN and extend them on both sides. These are the required asymptotes.
7. At points V1 and V2, draw vertical lines to cut the asymptotes at points P, Q, R and S.
8. With center O and radius OP, draw a circle to meet AB at points F1 and F2. These are the required
foci.
9. Draw two branches of the hyperbola using to meet ‘intersecting arcs’ method (Example 3.19).

Example 3.35 (Fig. 3.50)

The foci of a rectangular hyperbola are 70 mm apart. Draw two branches of the hyperbola
and mark its vertices and directrices.
3.42 Engineering Drawing

X Y′

Y X′

Fig. 3.50

Construction: Fig. 3.50

1. Draw principal axis AB and mark O on it.

2. Draw two asymptotes XX ′ and YY ′ at 450 to AB.
3. Mark F1 and F2 on AB taking OF1 = OF2 = 35 mm.
4. With centre O and diameter F1F2, draw a circle to cut the asymptotes at points E, F, G and H.
5. Join EF and GHH to cut the principal axis at points V1 and V2. These are the required vertices.
6. With center O and diameter V1V2 draw a circle to cut the asymptotes at point R, R′, S and S ′.
7. Join RR′ and SS ′ and extend them. These are the required directrices.
8. Draw the hyperbola using ‘intersecting arcs method’ (refer Example 3.19).

EXERCISE 3

Ellipse
1. Draw the ellipse when the distance of its focus from its directrix is equal to 60 mm and eccentricity
is 3/5. Also draw a tangent and a normal to the ellipse at a point 100 mm away from the directrix.
2. Draw an ellipse when the distance of its vertex from its directrix is 24 mm and distance of its focus
from directrix is 42 mm.
3. The major axis of an ellipse is 150 mm and minor axis 100 mm. Find the foci and draw the ellipse
by arcs of circles method. [RGPV April 2009]
4. The major axis of an ellipse is 90 mm and the minor axis is 60 mm. Find the foci and draw the
ellipse by ‘arcs of circles’ method. [RGPV June 2009]
 Conic Sections 3.43

5. The major axis of an ellipse is 120 mm long and the minor axis is 80 mm long. Draw the ellipse
by arcs of circles method.
[RGPV Feb. 2006]
6. An elliptical fish pond of largest size is to be constructed inside a rectangular plot of 150 m × 70 m.
Draw the boundary of the fish pond.
7. A plot of land is in the shape of a 170 m × 100 m parallelogram with an included angle of 60º.
Inscribe an elliptical flower bed on it.
8. Two points A and B are 120 mm apart. The third point C is 90 mm from A and 60 mm from B.
Draw an ellipse passing through points A, B and C.
9. The major and minor axes of an ellipse are 125 mm and 100 mm long respectively. Draw the
curve by any one of the standard methods and locate its foci.
[RGPV Feb. 2010]
10. The major axis of an ellipse is 150 mm long and the minor axis is 100 mm long. Draw the
ellipse and then a tangent to the ellipse at a point on it 25 mm above the major axis.
[RGPV Feb. 2008, April 2010]
11. The major and minor axes of an ellipse are 120 mm and 80 mm. Draw the ellipse and then draw
a tangent and normal at a point 30 mm away from the major axis.
[RGPV June 2008]
12. Draw an ellipse with 120 mm major axis and 80 mm minor axis. Draw a normal and tangent on
any point on ellipse.
[RGPV Dec. 2010]

Parabola
13. A fixed point is 75 mm from a straight line. Draw the locus of a point P moving such a way that
its distance from the fixed straight line is equal to its distance from the fixed point. Name the
curve generated.
[RGPV Feb. 2007]
14. Construct a parabola whose focus is at a distance of 40 mm from the directrix. Draw a tangent
and a normal to the parabola at a point, 50 mm away from the principal axis.
15. Draw the locus of a point which moves in such a manner that its distance from a fixed point is
equal to its distance from a fixed straight line. Consider the distance between the fixed point and
the fixed line as 60 mm. Name the curve.
16. Construct a parabola using ‘offset method’ when its double ordinate is 150 mm and abscissa is
75 mm. Locate the focus and directrix to the parabola.
17. A ball is thrown up in the air where it reaches a maximum height of 45 m and travels a horizontal
distance of 75 m. Trace the path of the ball assuming it to be parabolic.
[RGPV Feb. 2007]
18. A ball thrown from the ground level reaches a reaches a maximum height of 5 m and trav-
els a horizontal distance of 11 m from the point of projection. Trace the path of the ball.
[RGPV Feb. 2011]
19. A fountain jet discharges water from ground level at an inclination of 60º to the ground. The jet
travels a horizontal distance of 14 m from the point of discharge and falls on the ground. Trace
the path of the jet and name the curve.
20. Construct a parabola with 60 mm base and 40 mm length of axis. Draw a tangent to the curve at
a point, 20 mm from the base. [RGPV June 2008]
3.44 Engineering Drawing

21. Inscribe a parabola in the parallelogram of 110 mm and 70 mm long sides with longer side of it
as the normal base. Consider one of the included angles between the sides as 60º.

Hyperbola
22. The focus of a hyperbola is 60 mm from its directrix. Draw the curve when eccentricity is 5/3.
Draw a tangent and a normal to the curve at a point 45 mm from the directrix.
23. A fixed point is 90 mm from a fixed straight line. Draw the locus of a point P moving in such a
way that its distance from the fixed point is twice its distance from the fixed straight line. Name
the curve.
24. Two points are fixed at 100 mm apart. Draw the locus of a point moving in such a manner that
the difference of its distance from the points is 75 mm. Name the curve.
25. Draw two branches of a hyperbola when the distance between its foci is 90 mm and the vertices
are 15 mm from the foci. Locate the asymptotes and measure the angle between them.
26. The transverse axis of a hyperbola is 80 mm long. Its double ordinate is 90 mm long and the cor-
responding abscissa is 50 mm. Construct the hyperbola.
27. Draw a rectangular hyperbola when the position of a point P on the curve is 30 mm from the
horizontal asymptote and 50 mm from the vertical asymptote. Show at least four points on either
side of point P.
28. The asymptotes of a hyperbola are inclined at an angle of 75º. Its foci are 60 mm apart. Locate its
foci graphically and construct two branches of the hyperbola. Also draw a tangent and a normal
to the curve at a point 20 mm from one of the foci.

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. What is a conic section? Enlist its various types.

2. What is the inclination of the cutting plane in order to obtain following sections from a cone:
(a) parabola, (b) ellipse, (c) hyperbola, (d) rectangular hyperbola.
3. Give two practical applications for the following curves: (a) parabola, (b) ellipse, (c) hyperbola.
4. Define eccentricity.
5. State four common methods to draw (a) parabola, (b) ellipse, and (c) hyperbola.
6. State the principle of intersecting arcs method for construction of an ellipse.
7. How is a tangent drawn from an external point on the ellipse?
8. State the relationship among major axis, minor axis and distance between foci of an ellipse.
9. What do you understand by conjugate diameters?
10. State the principle of offset method for construction of a parabola.
11. How is a tangent drawn from an external point on a parabola?
12. Define ordinate, double ordinate, abscissa and latus rectum.
13. State the principle of intersecting arcs method for construction of a hyperbola.
 Conic Sections 3.45

MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS

Choose the most appropriate answer out of the given alternatives:

i) If a point moves in a plane in such a way that the sum of its distances from two fixed points is
constant the curve so traced is called
(a) ellipse (b) parabola (c) hyperbola (d) none of these
ii) Name the curve traced out by a point moving in a plane such that the difference between its
distances from two fixed points is constant.
(a) Ellipse (b) Parabola (c) Hyperbola (d) Any of these
iii) When a bullet is shot in air the path traversed by the bullet is called a
(a) cycloid (b) semicircle (c) parabola (d) hyperbola
iv) A right circular cone when cut by a plane parallel to its generator, the curve obtained is a/an
(a) ellipse (b) parabola (c) hyperbola (d) circle
v) When a right circular cone is cut by a plane passing through its apex, the section obtained is a/an
(a) ellipse (b) parabola (c) hyperbola (d) triangle
vi) When a right circular cone is cut which meets its axis at an angle greater than the semi cone
angle, the curve obtained is a/an
(a) ellipse (b) parabola (c) hyperbola (d) triangle
vii) When a right circular cone is cut which meets its axis at an angle less than the semi cone angle,
the curve obtained is
(a) ellipse (b) parabola (c) hyperbola (d) triangle
viii) The angle between the asymptotes of a rectangular hyperbola is
(a) 30º (b) 45º (c) 60º (d) 90º
ix) Name the curve which has zero eccentricity.
(a) Ellipse (b) Parabola (c) Hyperbola (d) Circle
x) Which of the following curves obeys Boyle’s law?
(a) Ellipse (b) Parabola (c) Hyperbola (d) Circle
xi) Which of the following applications uses a hyperbolic curve ?
(a) Solar collector (b) Cooling tower (c) Lamp reflectors (d) Monuments
xii) The eccentricity of an ellipse can be determined by
length of major axis distance between the foci
(a) (b)
distance between directrices length of major axis
3.46 Engineering Drawing

distance of a point of ellipse from the focus

(c) (d) all of these
distance of the
h same point from the directrix .
xiii) The major and minor axes of an ellipse are 100 mm and 60 mm respectively. What will be the
distance of its foci from the end of the minor axis?
(a) 30 mm (b) 40 mm (c) 50 mm (d) 60 mm

Answers
(i) a (ii) c (iii) c (iv) b (v) d (vi) a (vii) c (viii) d (ix) d (x) d
(xi) b (xii) d (xiii) c
 4

Sp
pecial
Cu
urves

� Introduction
� Cycloidal Curves
� Cycloid
� Epicycloid
� Hypocycloid
� Involute
� Spiral
� Archimedean Spiral
� Logarithmic Spiral
4.2 Engineering Graphics

4.1 INTRODUCTION

Curves generated by the rolling contact of one curve or line on another curve or line are called rou-
lettes. There are infinite varieties of roulettes. The most common types of roulettes used in engineering
applications are cycloidal curves, involutes and spirals.

4.2 CYCLOIDAL CURVES

Cycloidal curves are generated by a point lying on the circumference of a circle, when it rolls along
a fixed straight or curved path without slipping. The circle which rolls is called the rolling circle, or
generating circle, and the fixed straight line or the circle on which it rolls is called the directing line or
the directing circle. Cycloidal curves are commonly used in kinematics (the study of motion) and in
mechanisms that work with rolling contact.

4.3 CYCLOID

A cycloid is a curve traced by a point on the circumference of a circle which rolls along a fixed straight
line without slipping. Consider Fig. 4.1 where a circle with centre C rolls along a straight line PQ. The
path traced by any point P lying on the circumference of the circle is called cycloid.

Example 4.1 (Fig 4.1)

Construct a cycloid having a rolling circle of 50 mm diameter. Draw a normal and a tangent
to the curve at a point 35 mm above the base line. [RGPV Feb 2010]

T
N'

6 P6
7 P5
5
P7
8 4 P4 P8

C P3
R25 M
C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 C7 C8 X C9 C10 C12
9
f 50 3 P9
D
P2
35

10 2 T′
P1 P10
P11
11 1
P, 12 1′ 2′ 3′ 4′ 5′ 6′ 7′ 8′ N 9′ 10′ 11′ 12′ Q
157
Fig. 4.1
 Special Curves 4.3

Construction: Fig. 4.1

1. Draw a rolling circle of 50 mm diameter with C as the centre.

2. Draw the directing line PQ = p D = 157 mm, tangential to the circle at point P.
3. Divide the rolling circle into 12 equal parts and mark points 1, 2, 3, etc., as shown. Draw lines
through points 1, 2, 3, etc., parallel to line PQ.
4. Divide line PQ into 12 equal parts and mark points 1′, 2′, 3′, etc., on it.
5. Draw perpendicular lines through these points to meet the centre line CB at points C1, C2, C3,
etc.
6. Assume that the circle rolls to the right through 1/12 rotation. Thus, point 1 of the circle will get
in contacts with 1′, centre C will move to the new centre C1, and point P will move up to the
horizontal line through point 1. Take C1P1 = CP = 25 mm and draw an arc with centre C1, to cut
the horizontal line through point 1 at P1.
7. Similarly, draw arcs with centres C2, C3, C4, etc., with 25 mm radius, to meet the horizontal locus
lines through points 2, 3, 4, etc. at points P2, P3, P4, etc., respectively.
8. Draw a smooth curve passing through all the points P1, P2, P3, P4, etc. The curve obtained is the
required cycloid.

Tangent and Normal to the Cycloid

9. Mark point M on the cycloid at 35 mm from the directing line PQ.
10. With M as the centre and radius 25 mm, cut the centre line at point X.
11. Through point X, draw a line perpendicular to meet PQ at point N.
12. Join NM and produce to N′. This line NN′ is the required normal.
13. Through point M draw a line TT ′ perpendicular to NN ′. This line TT ′ is the required tangent.

4.4 EPICYCLOID

An epicycloid is a curve traced by a point on the circumference of a circle which rolls along another
circle outside it, without slipping. Consider Fig. 4.2 where a circle with centre C rolls along the
arc of circle with centre O and outside it. The path traced by a point P lying on the circumference
of the rolling circle is called epicycloid. Epicycloids are often used in rotary pumps, blowers and
superchargers.

Example 4.2 (Fig 4.2)

A circle of 50 mm diameter rolls on the circumference of another circle of 175 mm diameter
and outside it. Trace the locus of a point on the circumference of the rolling circle for one
complete revolution. Also draw a set of tangent and normal on a suitable point on the curve.
[RGPV Dec 2004, Feb 2005, Feb 2006, Apr 2009]
4.4 Engineering Graphics

P6 T
N′

P5 P7
25 M
P4 P8
C5 C6 C7 C8
X
C4
C9
5 4 P3 C3 T′
C10 P9
6 3 C2
2 5′ 6′ 7′ N
4′
4 8′′
C1 9′′ C11
7 3′
3
P2 1 10′′ P10
C 2′
2 D
P1 1 11′′ P11
8 1′
12
1 12′
f P Q
509
10 11
1

R8
7. 1
103°
5

Fig. 4.2

Construction: Fig. 4.2

A generating circle will cover an arc length PQ = 2p r in its one revolution along the directing circle.
d
The angle subtended by the arc PQ at centre O is given by θ = × 360°, where d and D are the diam-
D
eters of the generating and directing circles respectively. Here d = 50 mm and D = 175 mm, therefore,
50
θ= × 360° = 103°.
175
1. Draw an arc PQ with O as the centre and radius (175/2) mm, to subtend angle of 103o. This repre-
sents the directing path.
2. Join OPP and extend it to point C taking CP = 25 mm.
3. Draw a generating circle with C as the centre and radius CP. Divide the circle into 12 equal parts
and name its divisions as 1, 2, 3, 4, etc.
Q into 12 equal parts and mark its division as 1′, 2′, 3′, 4′, etc., as shown.
4. Also, divide the directing arc PQ
5. Draw arcs, with O as the centre and radii equals to O1, O2, O3, O4, etc., to meet line OQ Q produced.
6. Draw an arc with O as the centre and radius OC to meet OQ at point D. The arc CD is known as
the centre arc.
7. Extend lines O1′, O2′, O3′, O4′, etc., to meet arc CD at points C1, C2, C3, C4, etc.
Assume that the circle rolls to the right through 1/12 rotation. Thus, point 1 of the circle will get
in contacts with 1′, centre C will move to the new centre C1 and point P will move to arc through
point 1. Also, the distance of point P will be equal to the radius of the circle, i.e., 25 mm. There-
fore, you can do the following:
 Special Curves 4.5

8. Draw an arc with centre C1, to cut the arc through point 1 at P1.
9. Similarly, draw arcs with centres C2, C3, C4, etc., and 25 mm radius, to intersect arcs through
points 2, 3, 4, etc., at points P2, P3, P4, etc., respectively.
10. Draw a smooth curve passing through all the points P1, P2, P3, P4, etc. The curve is the required
epicycloid.
Tangent and Normal to the Epicycloid
11. Mark point M on the epicycloid where a tangent and a normal has to be drawn.
12. Draw an arc with M as the centre and 25 mm radius, to meet the centre arc CD at point X.
13. Join OX. Let it meets the arc PQ at point N.
14. Join NM and produce it to N ′. The line NN ′ is the required normal.
15. Through point M, draw a line TT ′ perpendicular to NN ′. The line TT ′ is the required tangent.

4.5 HYPOCYCLOID

A hypocycloid is a curve traced by a point on the circumference of a circle which rolls along another
circle and inside it, without slipping. Consider Fig. 4.3 where a circle with centre C rolls along the arc of
circle with centre O and inside it. The path traced by a point P lying on the circumference of the rolling
circle is called hypocycloid. Hypocycloids are also used in rotary pumps, blowers, and superchargers.

Example 4.3 (Fig 4.3)

A circle of 50 mm diameter rolls on the circumference of another circle of 175 mm diameter
and inside it. Trace the locus of a point on the circumference of the rolling circle for one com-
plete revolution. Also draw a set of tangent and normal on a suitable point on the curve.
[RGPV Jun 2011]
5′ 6′ 7′
4′ N 8′
3′ 9′

2′ 10′

1′ 1 2 C6 C7 11′
C5 X
3 C4 C8
C3
C9 12′’
P P2 C2 R P111 Q
25 C10 P10
P3 P9
P1 4 C111
C1 P8 T'
T
1
11 P7
P4 M
C D
5 P5 P6 T N′
10
5
7.
R8
6
9 103°
f5
0 8 7

O′′

Fig. 4.3
4.6 Engineering Graphics

Construction: Fig. 4.3

A generating circle will cover an arc length PQ = 2p p r in its one revolution along the directing circle.
d
The angle subtended by the arc PQ at centre O is given by θ = × 360°, where d and D are the direc-
D
tors of the generating and directing circles respectively. Here d = 50 mm and D = 175 mm, therefore,
50
θ= × 360° = 103°.
175
1. Draw an arc PQ with O as the centre and radius (175/2) mm, to subtend angle of 103o. This rep-
resents the directing path.
2. Join OP and mark point C on it taking CP = 25 mm.
3. Draw the generating circle with C as the centre and radius CP. Divide this circle into 12 equal
parts and name its divisions as 1, 2, 3, 4, etc., as shown.
4. Also, divide the directing arc PQ into 12 equal parts and mark its division as 1′, 2′, 3′, 4′, etc., as
shown.
5. Draw arcs, with O as the centre and radii equals to O1, O2, O3, etc., to meet line OQ.
6. Draw an arc with O as the centre and radius OC C to meet OQ at point D. The arc CD is known as
the centre arc.
7. Join O1′, O2′, O3′, O4′, etc., to meet arc CD at points C1, C2, C3, C4, etc., respectively. Assume
that the circle rolls to the right through 1/12 rotation. Thus, point 1 of the circle will get in con-
tacts with 1′, centre C will move to the new centre C1 and point P will move to arc through point
1. Also, the distance of point P will be equal to the radius of the circle, i.e., 25 mm. Therefore,
8. Draw an arc with centre C1, to cut arc through point 1 at P1.
9. Similarly, draw arcs with centre C2, C3, C4, etc., and 25 mm radius, to intersect arcs through
points 2, 3, 4, etc., at points P2, P3, P4, etc., respectively.
10. Draw a smooth curve passing through all the points P1, P2, P3, P4, etc., thus obtained. The curve
is the required hypocycloid.

Tangent and Normal to the Hypocycloid

11. Mark point M on the hypocycloid where a tangent and a normal has to be drawn.
12. Draw an arc with M as the centre and 25 mm radius, to meet the centre arc CD at point X.
13. Join OX. Let it meets the arc PQ at point N.
14. Join NM and produce it to N ′. The line NN ′ is the required normal.
15. Through point M, draw a line TT ′ perpendicular to NN ′. The line TT ′ is the required tangent.

4.6 INVOLUTE

An involute is a curve traced out by an end of a thread, when it is unwound from a circle or a polygon,
the thread being kept tight. An involute of a circle is used as teeth profile of a large gear wheel and a gear
reducer. In Fig. 4.4 the end of the thread is at point P of the circle. When the thread is unwound keeping
it always tight, it is always tangential to the circle and the point P will generated an involute.
 Special Curves 4.7

Example 4.4 (Fig 4.4)

Draw an involute of a circle of 50 mm diameter. Also, draw a normal and a tangent at a
point 100 mm from the centre of the circle.

D1

Fig. 4.4

Construction: Fig. 4.4

1. Draw a circle having a 50 mm diameter with O as the centre. Divide the circle into 12 equal parts
and mark them as 1, 2, 3, 4, etc.
2. Mark a point P on the circumference of the circle which is considered to be the end of thread. Also,
consider the thread is being unwound in the clockwise direction.
3. The length of thread that will get unwound in one revolution is p D = 157 mm and it will be tan-
gential to the circle at point P. Therefore, draw a line PQ = 157 mm and divide it into 12 equal
parts. Mark the point as 1′, 2′ 3′, 4′, etc.
4. Draw tangents to the circle though points 1, 2, 3, 4, etc., such that they represent the thread posi-
tion being unwound.
5. The length of thread that is unwound by 1/12 revolution will be equal to P1′. Therefore, with cen-
tre 1 and radius P1′, mark a point P1 on the tangent line.
4.8 Engineering Graphics

6. Similarly, with centres 2, 3, 4, etc., and radii P2′, P3′, P4′, etc., respectively, mark points P2, P3,
P4 etc., on their respective tangent lines.
7. Draw a smooth curve passing through all the points P1, P2, P3, P4, etc. The curve obtained is the
required involute.

Tangent and Normal to the Involute

8. Mark a point M on the involute at 100 mm from centre O.
9. Join OM. Mark O1 as its mid-point.
10. With O1 as the centre and OMM as diameter, draw a semi-circle in clockwise direction to intersect
the circle at point N.
11. Join NM and produce it to N ′. The line NN ′ is the required normal.
12. At point M, draw a line TT ′ perpendicular to NN ′. The line TT ′ is the required tangent.

Example 4.5 (Fig 4.5)

Draw an involute of a hexagon of 25 mm side.

Fig. 4.5

Construction: Fig. 4.5

1. Draw a hexagon 123456 of 25 mm side. Mark point P on it as shown.

2. Consider the thread is being unwound in clockwise direction.
3. Produce sides 12, 23, 34, 45, 56 and 61 in unidirectionally.
 Special Curves 4.9

4. With centres 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and radii in multiples of side length (i.e. 25 mm, 50 mm, 75 mm,
100 mm, 125 mm, 150 mm, respectively), mark points P1, P2, P3, P4, P5, P6 on produce sides 12,
23, 34, 45, 56, 61 respectively.
5. Draw a smooth curve passing through all the points P1, P2, P3, P4, P5, P6. The curve is the required
involute of the hexagon.

4.7 SPIRAL

If a line rotates in a plane about one of its ends and at the same time, if a point moves along the line
continuously in one direction, the curve traced out by the moving point is called a spiral. The Following
terms are used in connection with the spiral.

1. Pole It is the fixed end of the line about which the line rotates.
2. Radius Vector It is the line joining any point of the curve with the pole.
3. Vectorial Angle It is the angle between the initial position of the line and the instantaneous
position of the line.
4. Convolution Rotation of the moving line through 360º is called one convolution. A spiral make
any number of convolutions before it reaches the final destination.
Two types of spirals, namely, Archimedean and logarithmic spirals are commonly used in
engineering practice.

4.8 ARCHIMEDEAN SPIRAL

An Archimedean spiral is a curve traced out by a point moving uniformly along a straight line to-
wards or away from the pole, while the line revolves about its one of the ends with uniform angular
velocity. Consider Fig. 4.6 where point P is moving about a fixed point O such that for every increase
in its vectorial angle of 30º, point P moves away through a distance of P1. Thus, point P traces an
Archimedean spiral.

Example 4.6 (Fig 4.6)

Draw an Archimedean spiral of 1½ convolutions, the greatest and least radii being 115 mm
and 15 mm respectively. Draw a tangent and a normal to the spiral at a point 63 mm from
the pole.
[RGPV June 2003]
4.10 Engineering Graphics

3′,15′

4′,16′ 2′,14′
P15

P16
P14

5′,17′ 1′,13′
P 17
P

P4 P
P 115
P
15 P1
7 8 9 10 11 P 12′,Q
6′,18′
P18 P NP 1 2 3 4 5 6 1314 15 16 17 18

P7

P
T
P
7′ 11′
P P10

T′

N′
8′ 10 ′

9′

Fig. 4.6

Construction: Fig. 4.6

1. Draw a circle with O as the centre and 115 mm radius. Divide the circle into 12 equal parts. Mark
points as 1′, 2′, 3′, 4′, etc.
2. On a radial line OQ mark point P at a distance of 15 mm from point O.
3. Divide PQ into 18 parts (@12 parts per convolution). Mark points as 1, 2, 3, 4, etc.
4. Draw arcs with the centre O and radii O1, O2, O3, O4, etc. to meet radial lines O1′, O2′, O3′, O4′,
etc., respectively, at points P1, P2, P3, P4, etc.
5. Draw a smooth curve passing through all the points P1, P2, P3, P4, etc. The curve is the required
Archimedean spiral.
Tangent and normal to Archimedean Spiral
6. Mark point M on the spiral at a radial distance of 63 mm from the centre O.
 Special Curves 4.11

7. Join OM
115 15
8. Draw ON = 10.6 mm perpendicular to line OM
1.5 × 2
9. Join NM and produce it to N ′ The line NN ′ is the required normal.
10. Through point M draw a line TT ′ perpendicular to NN ′. The line TT ′ is the required tangent.

4.9 LOGARITHMIC SPIRAL

A logarithmic spiral is a curve traced by a point moving along a rotating line such that for equal an-
gular displacement of the line, the ratio of the lengths of consecutive radius vectors is constant Thus,
in a logarithmic spiral, vectorial angles increase in arithmetic progression and the corresponding radius
OP OP
vectors are in geometrical progression. Consider Fig. 4.7(b) where constant for
OP OP OP
uniform increase in the vectorial angle. So the curve is a logarithmic spiral.

xample 4.7 (Fig. 4.7)

Draw a logarithmic spiral of one convolution, given the shortest distance as 16 mm and ratio
of the length of radius vectors enclosing an angle of 30º is 9:8. Draw a tangent and a normal
to the curve at a point 50 mm from the pole.

Fig. 4.7(a) Fig. 4.7(b)

4.12 Engineering Graphics

Construction: Fig. 4.7

Determine length of the radius vector graphically. Fig. 4.7(a)

1. Draw an angle CAB of 30º.

2. Mark a point D on AB such that AD = 16 mm (shortest distance).
9
3. Mark point E on AC C such that AE = ratio of length of radius vectors X shortest distance = X 16
mm = 18 mm. 8
4. Join DE. With centre A and radius AE, draw an arc meet at point 1.
5. Through 1, draw a line parallel to DE to meet AC C at point 1′. With centre A and radius A1 ′, draw
an arc meet at point 2.
6. Through 2 draw a line parallel to DE to meet AC C at point 2′. With centre A and radius A2 ′, draw
an arc meet at point 3.
7. Repeat the same procedure as described in steps 5 and 6 and obtain points 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11
and 12.

Draw Logarithmic Spiral Fig. 4.7(b)

8. Draw a circle having a 50 mm, given diameter, keeping O as the centre. Divide this circle into 12
equal parts and number them as 1 ′, 2 ′, 3 ′, 4 ′, etc., (as shown).
9. Mark points P, 1, 2, 3, …, 12 on OQ such that OP = AD, O1 = A1, O2 = A2, O3 = A3 and, so on.
Thus, OQ is the copy of line AB.
10. Draw arcs with centre O and radii O1, O2, O3, O4, etc., to meet radial lines O1′, O2′, O3′, O4′,
etc., respectively, at point P1, P2, P3, P4, etc.
11. Draw a smooth curve passing through all the points P1, P2, P3, P4, etc. The curve is the required
logarithmic spiral.

Tangent and Normal to the Logarithmic Spiral

12. Mark a point M on the spiral at a radial distance of 50 mm from the centre O.
θ π /6
13. Determine a = tan−1 = tan−1 ln 9 / 8 = 77o19′.
ln r
14. Mark a point T such that angle OMT = a = 77o19′. Produce TM M to get T ′. The line TT ′ is the
required tangent.
15. At point M, draw a line NN ′ perpendicular to TT ′. The line NN ′ This is the required normal.

4.10 MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES

Example 4.8 (Fig 4.8)

A circle of 50 mm diameter rolls on a horizontal line for a half revolution and then on a verti-
cal line downwards for another half revolution. Draw the curve traced out by a point P on
the circumference of the circle. Assume that the horizontal and the vertical line constitute a
corner. [RGPV June 2004]
 Special Curves 4.13

6 P
7 P

8 P4
4
P C C
9 C 4
3

10 P1 P 2
C′
11 P ′6
12 ′ 2′ 3′ 4′ 5′ Q ′
78.5
7′ C7

8′ C

78.5
9′ C

10′ C P
P
11′ C11
P10
R,12′ C12
P12 P11

ig. 4.8

Construction: Fig. 4.8

1. Draw a generating circle having 50 mm diameter.

D
2. Draw a horizontal line PQ = = 78.5 mm (appox), tangential to the circle.
2
3. Divide the rolling circle into 12 equal parts and mark the points as 1, 2, 3, etc. Draw lines through
the points 1, 2, 3, etc., parallel to PQ
4. Divide PQ into 6 equal parts and mark 1′, 2′, 3′, 4′, 5′, 6′ on it. Draw perpendicular lines through
these points to meet the centre line CB at points C1 C2, C , etc.
5. Draw arcs with centre C1, C2, C , C4, C5, C of 25 mm radius, to meet the locus lines through
points 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 at points P1, P2, P3, P4, P5, P6 respectively.
6. Draw a smooth curve to pass through all the points P1, P2, P3, P4, P5, P6
7. It may be noted that when the circle is at point Q and rolls, the point P6 will move through one-
quarter on a circular path and reach P6′. Therefore, draw an arc with Q as the centre and raidus
QP6 to meet PQ produced at point P6′
8. Now draw a vertical line QR of 78.54 mm as the new directing line. Also, transfer the locus lines
coming from points 1, 2, 3, etc., through 90º as shown and produce them vertically downwards.
9. Divide QR into 6 equal parts and mark 7′, 8′, 9 , 10′, 11′ 12′ on it. Draw horizontal lines through
these points to meet the vertical centre line at points C , C , C9, C10 C11, C12
10. Draw arcs with centres C7, C , C9, C10 C11, C12 of 25 mm radius, to meet locus lines through
points 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12 at points P7, P8, P9 P10, P11, P12 respectively.
11. Draw a smooth curve passing through the points P7, P , P9 P10, P11 and P12

xample 4.9 (Fig 4.9)

A circle of 50 mm diameter rolls on the outside of a directing circle of the same diameter without
slipping. Draw the curve traced by a point on the rolling circle for one revolution of rolling circle.
[RGPV Sep. 2009]
4.14 Engineering Graphics

ig. 4.9

When the diameters of the generating and directing circles are equal, the angle subtended by the generating
circle at centre of the directing circle is 360º and the epicycloid traced is called a cardioid. Follow the steps of
constructions of Example 4.2, take r = R = 25 mm, q = 360o and obtain the epicycloid as shown in Fig 4.9.

xample 4.10 (Fig 4.10)

Construct a hypocycloid, taking the diameter of the generating circle and radius of directing
circle as 60 mm.

Fig. 4.10
 Special Curves 4.15

Construction: Fig. 4.10

When the diameter of the generating (rolling) circle is half the diameter of the directing circle (r = R/2),
the hypocycloid traced is a straight line.
r 60
For such hypocycloid, θ = × 360° = × 360° = 180°.
R 2 × 60
Follow the steps of constructions of Example 4.3, where r = 30 mm, R = 60 mm and q = 180o and obtain
the hypocycloid as a straight line, as shown in Fig. 4.10.

Example 4.11 (Fig 4.11)

A disc is in the form of a square of 30 mm sides surmounted by a semicircle on one of the sides
of the square and a half hexagon on the opposite side. Draw the path of the end of a string
which is unwound from the circumference of the disc.

P9

P8
P10

3
30
P7 67 8
5 R 9
15
4
3 1
10
P11
2 1 P P1 1′ 2′ 3′ 4′ 5′ 6′ 7′ 8′ 9′ 10′ 11′
P6
P2

P5 P3
P4

Fig. 4.11

Construction: Fig. 4.11

1. Draw the given disc.

2. Draw a line P-11′ equal to the perimeter of the disc.
3. Draw the involute. (refer Examples 4.4 and 4.5).
4.16 Engineering Graphics

Example 4.12 (Fig 4.12)

Draw a path traced out by an end of a piece of thread when unwound to a length of 150 mm
from a circle of 40 mm diameter, the thread being kept tight when it is being unwound. Name
the curve traced.

150

Fig. 4.12

Construction: Fig. 4.12

When the thread is wound on a circle or a polygon, the curve traced is called an involute.

As the length of thread is given as 150 mm, the angle through which the thread could be wounded can be
Length of thread 150
calculated as q = × 360° = × 360° = 429.7°. Thus, the thread could be wound
p D p × 40
through an angle of 360o + 69.7o (one revolution + 69.7o).
 Special Curves 4.17

1. Draw a circle with a 40 mm diameter and a tangential line PQ = 150 mm long.

2. Mark points 1, 2, 3, 4, etc., on PQ starting from point P such that P-1, 1-2, 2-3, 3-4, etc. are of
π×D
length equal to . Thus, length 14-15 will remain of shorter length.
12
3. Draw tangents to the circle though points 1, 2, 3, 4, etc.,
4. Draw arcs with centres 1, 2, 3, 4, etc., and radii P1′ P2′, P3′, P4′, etc., respectively, and locate
points P1, P2, P3, P4, etc., on their respective tangent lines, as discussed in Example 4.4. Continue
the procedure to locate points P13 and P14. point P15 will lie on a tangent line through a point x, lying
on the circumference of the circle such that angle oxP = 69.7o as shown.
5. Draw a smooth curve passing through all the points P1, P2, P3, P4, etc. The curve is the required
involute.

Example 4.13 (Fig 4.13)

PQ is a rope 1.4 m long, tied to a peg at Q, as shown in Fig. 4.13(a). Keeping it always tight,
the rope is wound around the pole O. Draw the curve traced out by the end P. Consider
scale 1:10. [RGPV Dec. 2003]

P Q

Fig. 4.13(a)

Fig. 4.13(b)

Construction: Fig. 4.13

1. Draw Fig 4.13. With point Q, draw a tangent to the circle of 140 mm meeting at 1′. Measure
Q-1′.
2. Divide the circle/sector into a number of parts and number them as 2, 3, 4, etc.,
3. Mark points 1′, 2′, 3′, 4′, etc., on PQ such that Q-1 = tangent = 35 mm, 1-2 = arc 1′-2′, Thereafter
2-3 = arc 2′-3′, 3-4 = arc 3′-4′, 4-5 = arc 4′-5′, and so on.
4.18 Engineering Graphics

4. Draw tangents to the circle though points 2, 3, 4, 5, etc., of lengths P-2, P-3, P-4, P-5, etc., respec-
tively.
5. Draw a smooth curve to pass through the ends of the tangents of the circle. The curve is the re-
quired involute.

Example 4.14 (Fig 4.14)

A 150 mm long link swings on a pivot O from its vertical position of rest to the right, through
an angle of 40º. After it swings to the left through an angle of 80º, it returns to its initial centre
position. During this period, a point P moving at a uniform speed along the centre line of the
link from a point at a distance of 22 mm from O, reaches the end of the link. Draw the locus
of the point P.

. 4.14

Construction: Fig. 4.14

1. Draw a vertical line OA = 150 mm.

2. Draw lines OB and OC with O as the centre subtending angle 40º taken on the right and the left
side of the vertical line respectively.
3. Mark point P along OA and at a distance of 22 mm from O.
4. Divide the angles AOB and AOC into 4 equal parts. As the point P travels through an angle of 160º
(40º + 80 º+ 40º = 160º), divide the vertical line PA into 16 equal parts.
5. With centre O and radius O1′, draw an arc to get P1 on line O1.
 Special Curves 4.19

6. Similarly, with the same centre O and radii O2′, O3′, O4′…, draw arcs to get P2, P3, P4,… on lines
O2, O3, O4,… respectively.
7. Join P1, P2, P3, P4, etc., by a smooth curve. The curve is the required locus of point P.

EXERCISE 4

Cycloid
1. A circle having a 40 mm diameter rolls along a line for one revolution clockwise. Draw and name
the locus of a point on the circle which is in contact with the line. [RGPV June 2008]
2. A circle having 50 mm diameter rolls along a straight line without slipping. Draw the curve
traced out by a point P on the circumference for one complete revolution of the circle. Name the
curve.
[RGPV June 2009, April 2010]
3. A wheel of 50 mm diameter rolls on a straight road surface without slip. Trace the path of point
of contact for one complete revolution of the wheel. [RGPV Feb. 2011]
4. Draw a cycloid given the diameter of a generating circle as 50 mm. Also draw a normal and tan-
gent at the centre point of the cycloid. [RGPV Dec. 2007]
5. A circle having a 50 mm diameter rolls on a straight line without slipping. In the initial position
the diameter AB of the circle is parallel to the line on which it rolls. Draw the loci of the points A
and B for one revolution of the circle. [RGPV June 2011]
6. A circle having a 60 mm diameter rolls on a horizontal line for half revolution and then a vertical
line upwards for another half. Draw the curve traced out by a point lying on the circumference of
the circle. Assume that the horizontal and the vertical line constitute a corner.

Epicycloid
7. Draw an epicycloid generated by a rolling circle having a 60 mm diameter for one complete
revolution. The radius of the directing circle is 100 mm. Draw a tangent and a normal to the epi-
cycloid at 150 mm from the centre of the directing circle.
8. A cycle wheel having a 50 cm diameter rolls over a culvert with 175 cm diameter. Draw the path
traced out a point on the circumference of the cycle wheel for one complete revolution.
[RGPV Dec. 2006]
9. Draw the locus of a point lying on the circumference of a wheel having a 60 mm diameter for its
one complete revolution, when it passes over a segmental arched culvert of 0.15 m radius.
10. A rolling circle having a 40 mm diameter AB, rolls on a fixed disc having a 60 mm diameter with
external contact. Draw the loci of path traced by the points A and B of the rolling circle for one
complete revolution, when one of the end points of diameter AB is in contact to the disc at the
starting position.
11. Construct a cardioid taking the diameter of the rolling and directing circles as 60 mm.
4.20 Engineering Graphics

12. A circle of 40 mm diameter rolls on the outside of a base circle of the same diameter. Draw the
curve traced by a point of the same diameter. Draw the curve traced by a point on the rolling
circle for one complete revolution of the rolling circle.
[RGPV June 2003]

Hypocycloid
13. Draw a hypocycloid generated by a rolling circle of 60 mm diameter for its one complete revolu-
tion. The radius of the directing circle is 100 mm. Draw a tangent and a normal to the hypocy-
cloid at 50 mm from the centre of the directing circle.
14. A circle of 50 mm diameter rolls within a circle of 150 mm diameter with internal contact. Draw
the locus of a point lying on the circumference of the rolling circle for its complete turn. Name
the curve. Also draw a tangent and a normal to the curve, at a point 40 mm from the centre of the
bigger circle.
15. A circus man rides on a motorcycle inside a globe of 6 m diameter. The motor cycle wheel is 1
m in diameter. Draw the locus of a point lying on the circumference of the wheel of motor cycle
for its one complete turn.
16. Draw the locus of a point lying on the circumference of a circle of 70 mm diameter, which rolls
on a circle of 140 mm diameter with internal contact for one complete rotation.

Involute
17. A coir is unwound from a drum of 30 mm diameter. Draw the locus of the free end of the coir for
unwinding through an angle of 360º. Draw also a normal and tangent at any point on the curve.
[RGPV Aug. 2010]
18. Draw the involute of an equilateral triangle of 25 mm side.
[RGPV Dec. 2010]
19. Draw an involute of a given square of 25 mm side. [RGPV June 2006]
20. A line rolls over a square of 30 mm side without slipping. Draw the curve traced out by a point
on the line. Name the curve. [RGPV Dec. 2005]
21. An elastic string of 150 mm length has its one end attached to the circumference of a circular disc
of 40 mm diameter. Draw the curve traced out by the other end of the string when it is completely
wound around the disc, keeping the string always tight.

Archimedean Spiral
22. Construct an Archimedean spiral of 1-1/2 convolution given, the greatest diameter 120 mm and
minimum 30 mm diameter. [RGPV June 2006]
23. Construct an Archimedean spiral of two convolutions given the greatest and shortest radii as 84
mm and 12 mm respectively. [RGPV Dec. 2007]
24. A point P moves towards another point O, 60 mm from it and reaches it while moving around it
once, its movement towards O being uniform with its movement around it. Draw the curve traced
out by the point P. [RGPV June 2004]
 Special Curves 4.21

25. Draw an Archimedean spiral of 1.5 convolutions, for the shortest and the greatest radii as 20 mm
and 90 mm respectively. Also, draw a tangent and a normal to the spiral at a point 65 mm from
the pole.
26. Draw an Archimedean spiral for 2 convolutions, which starts at the pole and has a radial move-
ment of 48 mm during each convolution.
27. Draw an Archimedean spiral for one convolution with a shortest distance of 125 mm and radial
increment of 5 mm for each 30º.
28. A link OA, 80 mm long rotates about O in anticlockwise direction. A point M on the link, 20 mm
away from O moves and reaches the end A, while the link has rotated through 2/5 of a revolution.
Assuming the movement of the link and the point to be uniform, trace the path of the point M.
[RGPV Dec. 2003]
29. A point moves along a bar at an uniform speed. The bar rotates about its end O at an uniform
speed. Name and construct the path of a point P starting from a position 20 mm away and move
up to 60 mm away from the fixed end of bar during its one revolution. Draw a tangent at a point
45 mm away from O.
[RGPV Dec. 2008]

Logarithmic Spiral
30. Draw a logarithmic spiral of one convolution, given the shortest distance as 10 mm and the ratio
of the length of adjacent radii enclosing 30º as 10:9. Draw a tangent and a normal to the curve at
a point 50 mm from the pole.
31. Draw a logarithmic spiral for 1.25 convolutions such that the angle between the consecutive radii
is 30º, the ratio of succeeding radii is 7:6 and the greatest radius is 120 mm. Also draw a tangent
and normal at a point 70 mm from the pole.
32. A circular disc having 120 mm diameter AB rotates with uniform angular velocity. The point P
which is at A moves with uniform linear velocity and reaches the point B, when the disk com-
pletes one revolution. Trace the locus of the point P moving from A to B.

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Differentiate between epicycloid and hypocycloid.

2. Define a cycloid? How a tangent is drawn at a point on a cycloid?
3. What is an epicycloid? Give its practical applications.
4. What is a hypocycloid? Give its practical applications.
5. Define an involute of a polygon.
6. What is an Archimedean spiral? Define the term convolution.
7. Differentiate between an Archimedean and a logarithmic spiral.
8. What is the nature of hypocycloid when radius of the directing circle is (a) equal to the diameter
of the rolling circle, and (b) twice the diameter of the rolling circle?
4.22 Engineering Graphics

MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS

Choose the most appropriate answer out of the given alternatives:

i) The locus of a point lying on the circumference of the circle which rolls on a straight line is
known as
(a) cycloid (b) hypocycloid (c) epicycloid (d) circle
ii) Name the curve traced out by a point on the circumference of a circle, which rolls outside an-
other circle of same diameter.
(a) Cycloid (b) Hypocycloid (c) Cardioid (d) None of these
iii) Name the curve traced out by a point on the circumference of a circle, which rolls on another
circle of larger diameter.
(a) Epicycloid (b) Involute (c) Spiral (d) None of these
iv) When a circle rolls inside another circle of twice its diameter, the curve traced out by a point on
the circumference of the rolling circle will be a/an
(a) straight line (b) epicycloid (c) spiral (d) none of these
v) The curve traced by a point on a straight line which rolls on a circle, without slipping is called
a/an
(a) cycloid (b) epicycloid (c) hypocycloid (d) involute
vi) When a straight line rolls on the circumference of a semicircle, the locus of its end point is
called a/an
(a) cycloid (b) epicycloid (c) hypocycloid (d) involute
vii) Involute curve is used in
(a) chains (b) gears (c) cams (d) pulleys
viii) When a pendulum oscillates, name the locus of a point moving along its string at a constant
speed.
(a) Cycloid (b) Involute (c) Spiral (d) Helix
ix) The geometrical name of the curvature of the coil used in spiral binding is
(a) archimedean spiral (b) logarithmic spiral
(c) involute (d) none of these

Answers
(i) a (ii) c (iii) a (iv) a (v) d (vi) d (vii) b (viii) c (ix) d
 5

Orthographic
Projections

� Introduction
� Multi-View Projection
� First-Angle Projection
� Third-Angle Projection
� Second-Angle and Fourth-Angle
Projections
� Symbols for Orthographic Projection
� Assumptions
� General Preparation for Multi-View
Drawings
5.2 Engineering Graphics

5.1 INTRODUCTION

An orthographic projection is a parallel projection in which the projectors are parallel to each other and
perpendicular to the plane of projection. See Fig. 5.1(a) and (b). An observer viewing a surface, a block
or an object, is considered to be at an infinite distance so that the rays of sight from the eyes are parallel
to each other and perpendicular to the plane of projection. The view of the surface, block or object on
the plane of projection will be exactly similar to its front surface. The lines from the planes to the block
(i.e., rays of sight) are called projectors.

Fig. 5.1(a) Fig. 5.1(b)

The orthographic projection technique can produce either pictorial drawings that show all the three
dimensions in one view, or multi-views that show only two dimensions of the object in each view.

5.2 MULTI-VIEW PROJECTION

The multi-view projection is an orthographic projection in which the object is preferred to be kept in a
manner that one of its faces is perpendicular to the projectors and parallel to the plane of projection. In
such a case, the image of a three-dimensional object gives the true dimension of its front face.

The orthographic projections are obtained on two principal planes (also known as reference planes) having
negligible thickness, namely, vertical plane ( V.P.) and horizontal plane ( H.P.), as shown in Fig. 5.2(a).
The principal planes are perpendicular to each other and they divide the space into four quadrants. They
are usually called angles, and the following terms are used to define them.

1. First-angle projection: It is the space in front of V.P. and above H.P.

2. Second-angle projection: It is the space behind V.P. and above H.P.
3. Third-angle projection: It is the space behind V.P. and below H.P.
4. Fourth-angle projection: It is the space in front of V.P. and below H.P.
 Orthographic Projections 5.3

Fig. 5.2(a) Principal planes Fig. 5.2(b) Profile planes

5.3 TERMINOLOGY

For multi-views, the following terms are used frequently.

Vertical plane A vertical plane, also known as ‘Front Reference Plane’, is assumed to be placed verti-
cally and is denoted by V.P. See Fig. 5.2(a) and (b).

Horizontal plane A horizontal plane, also known as ‘Horizontal Reference Plane’, is assumed to be
placed horizontally and is denoted by H.P. It is perpendicular to the V.P.

Profile plane The plane perpendicular to both the principal planes, as shown in Fig. 5.2(b), is known
as a profile plane. The plane on the right end of the principal planes is known as the right profile plane,
while the plane on the left end of the principal planes is known as the left profile plane.

Reference line The line of intersection between the principal planes is the known as reference line. It
is also popularly called an XY line.

w The view of an object obtained by observing it from the front and drawn on the V.P. is
Front view
known as the front view (FV) or elevation.

Top view The view of an object obtained by observing it from the top and drawn on the H.P. is known
as the top view (TV) or plan.

Side view The view of an object obtained by observing it from the left-hand side or right-hand side
drawn on a profile plane, is known the side view.
5.4 Engineering Graphics

5.4 FIRST-ANGLE PROJECTION

In first-angle projection, a three-dimensional object is considered, to lie in the first-angle, i.e., in front of
the V.P. and above the H.P. The observer, who is theoretically at infinite distance, looks at the object from
the front. The rays of sight are parallel to each other and perpendicular to the V.P. See Fig. 5.3(a). The
view obtained on the V.P. is similar to the front surface of the object and is known as front view. It may
be noted that the front view shows only the length and height of the object. It does not indicate the width.

Again, the observer looks at the object from the top, such that the rays of sight are parallel to each other
and perpendicular to the H.P. See Fig. 5.3(b). The view obtained on the H.P. is similar to the top surface
of the object and is known as top view. It may be noted that the top view shows only the length and
width of the object. It does not indicate the height.

Fig. 5.3(a) Rays of sight are perpendicular Fig. 5.3(b) Rays of sight are perpendicu-
to V.P. to obtain the front view lar to H.P. to obtain the top view

Fig. 5.3(c) Rays of sight are perpendicular Fig. 5.3(d) Shows co-relation
to P.P. to obtain the left-hand side view between front, top and side views
 Orthographic Projections 5.5

Fig. 5.3(e) Rays of sight are perpendicular to Fig. 5.3(f) Final orthographic projections
P.P. to obtain the left-hand side view (front, top and left-hand side views)

Now consider that the observer looks at the object from the left-hand side, such that the rays of the sight
are parallel to each other and perpendicular to the profile plane (P.P.). See Fig. 5.3(c). The view obtained
on the P.P. is similar to the side surface of the object and is known as side view. It may be noted that the
side view shows only the width and height of the object. It does not indicate the length.

The co-relation among the front, top and side views are shown in Fig. 5.3(d). The front, top and side
views formed on the planes, V.P., H.P. and P.P., respectively, are at right angle to each other and cannot
be drawn on a plain drawing sheet. Therefore, it is customary to rotate the H.P. in a clockwise direction
about the reference line XY through 90º, such that it becomes co-planer with V.P. Similarly, the profile
plane (P.P.) is rotated about X1Y1 line. Thus, top and side views become co-planer with the front view,
as shown in Fig. 5.3(e). This gives the final projection and is produced on the drawing sheet, as shown
in Fig. 5.3(f).

Figure 5.4 shows another example of first-angle projection. An attempt has been made to draw the front,
top, left-hand side, right-hand side, bottom and rear views.

Fig. 5.4(a) Object placed in Fig. 5.4(b) Box is opened for Fig. 5.4(c) Multi-view drawing
mutually perpendicular planes multi-view drawing
5.6 Engineering Graphics

5.4.1 Features of First-Angle Projection

The features of a first-angle projection are given below.

1. The object lies in the first-angle, i.e., in front of the V.P. and above the H.P.
2. The object lies between the observer and the plane of projection.
3. The top view is drawn below the front view.
4. The left-hand side view is drawn to the right side of the front view.
5. The right hand side view is drawn to the left side of the front view.

5.5 THIRD-ANGLE PROJECTION

In a third-angle projection, a three-dimensional object is considered to lie in the third-angle, i.e., behind the
V.P. and below the H.P. The observer who is theoretically at infinite distance looks at the object from the
front. The rays of sight are parallel to each other and perpendicular to the V.P. See Fig. 5.5(a). The view
obtained on the V.P. is similar to the front surface of the object and is known as front view. It may be noted
that the front view shows only the length and height of the object. It does not indicate the width.

Fig. 5.5(a) Rays of sight are Fig. 5.5(b) Rays of sight are perpendicular to
perpendicular to V.P. to obtain the front view H.P. to obtain the top view

Fig. 5.5(c) Rays of sight are perpendicular Fig. 5.5(d) The figure shows co-relation
to P.P. to obtain the left-hand side view between front, top and side views
 Orthographic Projections 5.7

Fig. 5.5(e) Rays of sight are perpendicular Fig. 5.5(f) Final orthographic projections
to P.P. to obtain the left-hand side view (front, top and left-hand side views)

Again, the observer looks at the object from the top, such that the rays of sight are parallel to each other
and perpendicular to the H.P. See Fig. 5.5(b). The view obtained on the H.P. is similar to the top surface
of the object and is known as top view. It may be noted that the top view shows only the length and
width of the object. It does not indicate the height.
Now consider that the observer looks at the object from the left-hand side such that the rays of the sight
are parallel to each other and perpendicular to the profile plane (P.P.). See Fig. 5.5(c). The view obtained
on the P.P. is similar to the side surface of the object and is known as side view. It may be noted that the
side view shows only the width and height of the object. It does not indicate the length.
The co-relation among the front, top and side views are shown in Fig. 5.5(d). The front, top and side views
formed on the planes, V.P., H.P. and P.P. respectively, are at right angle to each other and can not be drawn
on a plain drawing sheet. Therefore, it is customary to rotate the H.P. in a clockwise direction about the
reference line XY
Y through 90º such that it becomes co-planer with V.P. Similarly the profile plane (P.P.) is
rotated about X1Y1 line. Thus, the top and side views become co-planer with the front view, as shown in Fig.
5.5(e). This gives the final projection and is produced on the drawing sheet, as shown in Fig. 5.5(f).
Figure 5.6 shows another example of third-angle projection. An attempt has been made to draw the
front, top, left-hand side, right-hand side, bottom and rear views.

Fig. 5.6(a) Object is placed Fig. 5.6(b) Box is opened Fig. 5.6(c) Multi-view drawing
in mutual perpendicular planes for multi-view drawing
5.8 Engineering Graphics

5.5.1 Features of Third-Angle Projection

The features of a third-angle projection are given below.

1. The object lies in the third-angle, i.e., behind the V.P. and below the H.P.
2. The plane of projection lies between the object and the observer.
3. The top view is drawn above the front view.
4. The left-hand side view is drawn to the left side of the front view.
5. The right-hand side view is drawn to the right side of the front view.

5.6 SECOND-ANGLE AND FOURTH-ANGLE PROJECTIONS

In the second angle projection, the object is considered to lie in the second-Angle, i.e., behind the V.P.
and above the H.P., as shown in Fig. 5.7(a). In the fourth-Angle projection, the object is considered to
lie in the fourth-angle, i.e., in front of V.P. and below the H.P., as shown in Fig. 5.7(b). In both of these
cases, there is a possibility of overlapping of the front and top views after rotation of the H.P. in the
clockwise direction about the reference line XY and making co-planer with V.P. Thus, these methods of
projection are not considered useful.

Fig. 5.7(a) Object placed in second-angle Fig. 5.7(b) Object placed in fourth-angle

5.7 SYMBOLS FOR ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION 1#

It has been seen that the front view and top view will give the clear picture and will not overlap if the
object is placed in the first or the third-angle. Thus, internationally, only two methods are adopted for
drawing multi-view projections, i.e., the first-angle projection and the third-angle projection.

The symbol recommended by BIS to draw two views of the frustum of a cone is shown in Fig. 5.8(a). The
diameters of the frustum of the cone may be taken in the ratio of 1:2, while the length may be taken equal to
the diameter at the bigger end. Figure 5.8(b) shows the symbol for the first-angle projection and Fig. 5.8(c)

#
Readers are advised to refer chapter 1, Fig. 1.2 for the method of inserting symbol in the title block.
 Orthographic Projections 5.9

shows symbol for the third-angle projection. The method of projection must be indicated in the space
provided for the purpose in the title block of the drawing sheet.

Fig. 5.8(a) Frustum of Fig. 5.8(b) Symbol for first-angle Fig. 5.8(c) Symbol for third-
a cone projection angle projection

5.8 ASSUMPTIONS

1. The direction for the principal view is generally indicated on a pictorial view by an arrow. If it is
not given, the view of the object showing the important features, which may be chosen from the
point of design, assembly, sales, service or maintenance is considered as the front view. It is the
most informative view.
2. The hidden part of a symmetrical object is to be treated similar to the visible part.
3. The holes, grooves, etc., are assumed to be drilled or cut through, unless otherwise specified.
4. When the radii for small curves of the fillet are not specified, the lengths of the radii should be
assumed.

5.9 GENERAL PREPARATION FOR MULTI-VIEW DRAWINGS

1. Observe the shape and dimensions of the given object carefully and determine the overall di-
mension for each view. Take a convenient scale for drawing to accommodate the views on the
drawing sheet.
2. Decide the direction of the side view and fix the relative positions of the front, top and side
views according to the method of projection used. In the first-angle projection, the top view must
be placed below the front view, the left-hand side view must lie on the right side of the front
view, and right-hand side view must lie on the left side of the front view.
3. There should be sufficient space between the views (front, top and side views).
4. Preferably start drawing the views in which the circular parts of the object are seen as circles or
part of them. It becomes simpler to project the points of the circle in other views.
5. The front and top views always lie between the same vertical projectors.
6. The front and side views always lie between the same horizontal projectors.
7. The surface parallel to the reference plane will be seen as true shape of the surface.
8. The surface perpendicular to the reference plane will be seen as a straight line.
9. The invisible edges of the object are represented by dotted lines.
10. The method of projection should be indicated on the drawing.
11. All the views should be dimensioned as discussed in dimensioning.
12. All views should be properly labeled.
5.10 Engineering Graphics

5.10 MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES

xample 5.1 Fig. 5.9(b)

Pictorial view of an object is shown in Fig. 5.9(a). Using first angle projection, draw its
(i) front view, and (ii) top view. Use the direction X for the front view.
20 15 30 15

15

25
50
15
30 40
X Y

40
X
100
Fig. 5.9(a) Pictorial view Fig. 5.9(b) Orthographic views

xample 5.2 Fig. 5.10(b)

Draw the front view, side view from the left and top view of the block given in Fig. 5.10(a).
[RGPV June 2007]
X
20 20 25
25
12

X Y
50
12

25 25
75
Y

ig. 5.10(a) Pictorial view Fig. 5.10(b) Orthographic views

 Orthographic Projections 5.11

xample 5.3 Fig. 5.11(b)

The pictorial view of a block is given in Fig. 5.11(a). Draw the front view, the top view and the
side view looking in the direction A, B and in first-angle projection. [RGPV June 2008]
B 15 30 15 X 15

70
50

15
X Y

50
20
20

C
A Y

ig. 5.11(a) Pictorial view Fig. 5.11(b) Orthographic views

xample 5.4 Fig. 5.12(b)

The isometric view of an object is shown in Fig. 5.12(a). Draw its three views looking from the
directions shown. [RGPV Dec. 2008]
B X
60
20
80

X Y
40

80
C A Y1

ig. 5.12(a) Pictorial view Fig. 5.12(b) Orthographic views

5.12 Engineering Graphics

xample 5.5 Fig. 5.13(b)

Draw the front view, top view and right-hand side view of the object shown in Fig. 5.13(a).
[RGPV Dec. 2004, Feb. 2005]
38 X 50 25

35
75
25
9
12 12 12
X Y

19
75
32 32
100
Y

ig. 5.13(a) Pictorial view Fig. 5.13(b) Orthographic views

xample 5.6 Fig. 5.14(b)

Pictorial view of an object is shown in Fig. 5.14(a). Using first-angle projection, draw its
(i) front view looking from the direction X
X1
50 10 10
20

45
15

X Y
15
30
20

15 15 15
90
X Y

Fig. 5.14(a) Pictorial view Fig. 5.14(b) Orthographic views

 Orthographic Projections 5.13

xample 5.7 Fig. 5.15(b)

Pictorial view of an object is shown in Fig. 5.15(a). Using first-angle projection, draw its
(i) front view in the direction X
X1 30 30
15 15 15

15
20
X Y

65
30
25 25
75
X Y

ig. 5.15(a) Pictorial view Fig. 5.15(b) Orthographic views

xample 5.8 Fig. 5.16(b)

Pictorial view of an object is shown in Fig. 5.16(a). Using first-angle projection, draw its (i) front
view, (ii) top view, and (iii) side view. Assume suitable direction for the views. [RGPV Dec. 2003]
X
5 5
5

10
27

X Y
16
28

30 10 8
60
Y

Fig. 5.16(a) Pictorial view Fig. 5.16(b) Orthographic views

5.14 Engineering Graphics

xample 5.9 Fig. 5.17(b)

The pictorial view of a block is shown in Fig. 5.17(a). Draw the front view and top view in first
angle method of projection. Use the direction X for front view. [RGPV Sep. 2009]
Also, draw the end view of the block.
X1

35
20

10
R15
30 30 20
X Y
5
20
15

X 10 10 Y

Fig. 5.17(a) Pictorial view Fig. 5.17(b) Orthographic views

xample 5.10 Fig. 5.18(b)

Pictorial view of an object is shown in Fig. 5.18(a). Using first-angle projection, draw its
(i) front view in the direction of arrow, (ii) top view and (iii) left-hand side view.
70
X
25 25 15
20
60

30
5

20 20
X Y
80

25

X 15 15
Y1

Fig. 5.18(a) Pictorial view Fig. 5.18(b) Orthographic views

 Orthographic Projections 5.15

xample 5.11 Fig. 5.19(b)

Pictorial view of an object is shown in Fig. 5.19(a). Using first-angle projection, draw its
(i) front view in the direction of arrow, (ii) top view and (iii) side view.
20 20 X 35 35

60
30
20

10
15 15
X Y

80
X
20 20
90
Y

Fig. 5.19(a) Pictorial view Fig. 5.19(b) Orthographic views

xample 5.12 Fig. 5.20(b)

Draw the following views of the drawing shown in the Fig. 5.20(a). (i) front view in the direc-
tion of arrow, and (ii) top view. [RGPV June 2006]
Also, draw the right-hand side view of the object.
X
R21
42
39

12

X Y
15
12
18
12

12 12
66
X Y

ig. 5.20(a) Pictorial view Fig. 5.20(b) Orthographic views

5.16 Engineering Graphics

xample 5.13 Fig. 5.21(b)

Pictorial view of an object is shown in Fig. 5.21(a). Using first-angle projection, draw its
(i) front view in the direction X
30 X
R30

60
15

30
20

X Y

20
80
25
25 15 f 20, 2 Holes
X f 20, 2Holes 120
Y

ig. 5.21(a) Pictorial view Fig. 5.21(b) Orthographic views

xample 5.14 Fig. 5.22(b)

Pictorial view of an object is shown in Fig. 5.22(a). Using first-angle projection, draw its
(i) front view in the direction of arrow, (ii) top view and (iii) right-hand side view.

60 X 70
10 10 30 40 15

R30
15

X Y
f 30
20

40
20

X Y

ig. 5.22(a) Pictorial view Fig. 5.22(b) Orthographic views

 Orthographic Projections 5.17

xample 5.15 Fig. 5.23(b)

Draw the following views of the drawing shown in Fig. 5.23(a). (i) Front view in the direction
of arrow (ii) Side view from the right (iii) Top view. [RGPV Dec. 2006]

X 16 8 24 8

R48

64

28
16
X Y

12
42

64
16
20
X
96
Y

Fig. 5.23(a) Pictorial view Fig. 5.23(b) Orthographic views

xample 5.16 Fig. 5.24(b)

Draw the three views of the bracket shown in Fig. 5.24(a) taking direction X as the view for
front view. [RGPV Dec. 2007]

12 12 X f 48
40

16

44 118

X Y
16

X
24
Y

ig. 5.24(a) Pictorial view Fig. 5.24(b) Orthographic views

5.18 Engineering Graphics

Example 5.17 Fig. 5.25(b)

Draw the three views of the bracket shown in Fig. 5.25(a) taking direction X as the view for
front view. [RGPV Dec. 2007]

12 16 12 X1 40

f16

12
60

16 12
X Y

f16
X Y

Fig. 5.25(a) Pictorial view Fig. 5.25(b) Orthographic views

EXERCISE 5

Draw the three views of the object shown in Figs. E5.1 to E5.30 taking direction of arrow for the front
view. Use first-angle projections. Assume missing data suitably.

Fig. E5.1 Fig. E5.2

 Orthographic Projections 5.19

Fig. E5.3 Fig. E5.4

10 10

10

Fig. E5.5 Fig. E5.6

Fig. E5.7 Fig. E5.8

5.20 Engineering Graphics

35

Fig. E5.9 Fig. E5.10

Fig. E5.11 Fig. E5.12

R20
0
f2

40
60

Fig. E5.13 Fig. E5.14

 Orthographic Projections 5.21

40

f30

R30

Fig. E5.15 Fig. E5.16

5
20 10

R1
f

Fig. E5.17 Fig. E5.18

R3
0
f
R45
R30

R45
0

f16, 2 Holes
f2

Fig. E5.19 Fig. E5.20

5.22 Engineering Graphics

R30

f
10
25

25 R

Fig. E5.21 Fig. E5.22

35
R

R20
5

60
f2

12

50
0
R2

Fig. E5.23 Fig. E5.24

R25

f25

15
50

10 f16
30 8
R
R17
f 20

R24

Fig. E5.25 Fig. E5.26

 Orthographic Projections 5.23

R30

15

0
R3
R20

Ø30, 2 Holes
Fig. E5.28
Fig. E5.27

R30
30

R3
0
R15
25

12

15
10

80
0
f4
R35

Fig. E5.29 Fig. E5.30

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. What do you mean by projection? Give its classification.

2. Differentiate between a pictorial view and multi-view.
3. What is an orthographic projection?
5.24 Engineering Graphics

4. What is a multi-view projection? How does it differ from axonometric projection?

5. How a solid or an object should be placed on the planes to obtain multi-views. Explain it with
the help of necessary sketches.
6. Define vertical, horizontal and profile planes.
7. Define elevation, plan and end view.
8. Differentiate between first-angle and third-angle projection.
9. Give the symbolic representation of first- and third-angle projection.
10. What is the criterion for selection of the face of an object suitable for front view, while drawing
multi-views?

MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS

Choose the most appropriate answer out of the given alternatives:

i) Projection of an object shown by three views is known as

(a) perspective (b) isometric (c) oblique (d) orthographic
ii) Which of the following describes the theory of orthographic projection?
(a) Projectors parallel to each other and perpendicular to the plane of projection
(b) Projectors parallel to each other and parallel to the plane of projection
(c) Projectors parallel to each other and oblique to the plane of projection
(d) Projectors perpendicular to each other and parallel to the plane of projection
iii) In orthographic projection, the elevation is obtained on a plane called
(a) horizontal (b) vertical (c) profile (d) auxiliary
iv) In multi-view projections, the XY line is also known as
(a) horizontal line (b) horizontal trace (c) reference line (d) all of these
v) In first-angle projection method, the relative positions of the object, plane and observers are the
following:
(a) Object is placed in between (b) Plane is placed in between
(c) Observer is placed in between (d) May be placed in any order
vi) In first-angle projection system, the right-hand side view of an object is drawn
(a) above of the elevation (b) below of the elevation
(c) left of the elevation (d) right of the elevation
vii) If the front view of an object exhibits width and height, then what dimensions of an object are
exhibited by a right side view?
(a) Length and width (b) Length and height
(c) Height and width (d) Length and breadth
 Orthographic Projections 5.25

viii) For orthographic projections, BIS recommends the following:

(a) First-angle projection (b) Third-angle projection
(c) Second-angle projection (d) Fourth-angle projection
ix) The recommended symbol for indicating the angle of projection shows two views of the frus-
tum of a
(a) square pyramid (b) triangular pyramid
(c) cone (d) any of these
x) For the object shown in Fig. E5.31, select the correct front view:

Fig. E5.31 (a) (b) (c) (d)

xi) For the object shown in Fig. E5.32, select the correct front view:

Fig. E5.32 (a) (b) (c) (d)

Answers

(i) d (ii) a (iii) b (iv) c (v) a (vi) c (vii) b (viii) a (ix) c (x) c (xi) b
 6

Projections
of Points

� Introduction
� Location of a Point, Conventional
Representation
� Point Above the H.P. and in Front of the V.P.
� Point Above the H.P. and Behind the V.P.
� Point Below the H.P. and Behind the V.P
� Point Below the H.P. and in Front of the V.P.
� Point on the H.P. and in Front of the V.P.
� Point Above the H.P. and on the V.P.
� Point on the H.P. and Behind the V.P.
� Point Below the H.P. and on V.P.
� Point on Both H.P. and V.P.
6.2 Engineering Graphics

6.1 INTRODUCTION

A point is defined as a geometrical element that has no dimensions. In engineering drawing or graphics,
the point is represented as a dot. This chapter deals with the projections of points.

6.2 LOCATION OF A POINT

We know that the reference planes divide the space in four quadrants. A point lying in the space may be
situated in the following positions with respect to principle planes of projections.

1. Point above the H.P and in front of the V.P.

2. Point above the H.P and behind the V.P.
3. Point below the H.P and behind the V.P.
4. Point below the H.P and in front of the V.P.
5. Point on the H.P and in front of the V.P.
6. Point above the H.P and on the V.P.
7. Point on the H.P and behind the V.P.
8. Point below the H.P and on the V.P.
9. Point on the H.P and V.P both

6.3 CONVENTIONAL REPRESENTATION

1. The actual position of a point is designated by the capital letters. i.e., A, B, C, P, Q, R, … etc.
2. The front view of a point is conventionally represented by small letters with dashes. i.e. a′, b′, c′,
p′, q′, r′, …etc.
3. The top view of a point is conventionally represented by small letters. i.e., a, b, c, p, q, r, …
etc.
4. The side view of a point is conventionally represented by small letters with double dashes. i.e., a″,
b″, c″, p″, q″, r″, …etc.

The intersection of the reference planes is a line known as the reference line. It is denoted as xy. The
reference line is drawn by a thin line.

The line which connects the front view and the top view is called the projection line. It is drawn by
a thin line. The projection line is always perpendicular to the principal axis (XY).

6.4 POINT ABOVE THE H.P. AND IN FRONT OF THE V.P.

A point situated above the H.P. and in front of the V.P. would lie in the first angle.
 Projections of Points 6.3

Example 6.1 (Fig 6.1)

A point P is 50 mm above the H.P. and 70 mm in front of the V.P. Draw its projections.

Fig. 6.1(a) Fig. 6.1(b)

Visualization: Fig. 6.1(a) shows a point P situated in the first angle such that its distance above the
H.P. is 50 mm and in front of the V.P. is 70 mm. The front view of the point is obtained by drawing a
horizontal line through P to intersect V.P. at point p′. Top view is obtained by drawing a vertical line
through P to intersect the H.P. at point p.

After projecting the point P on the V.P. and the H.P., the H.P. is rotated about the XY line in a clock-
wise direction till it lies in the plane with V.P. The projections of the point after rotation of the H.P. is
shown in Fig. 6.1(b). The front view p′ is 50 mm above the XY line and the top view p is 70 mm below
the XY.

Construction: Fig. 6.1(b)

1. Draw a reference line XY.

2. Draw a projector perpendicular to the XY.
3. Mark front view p′ on the projector 50 mm above the XY.
4. Mark top view p on the projector 70 mm the below XY.
6.4 Engineering Graphics

Conclusion

1. If a point is situated above the H.P., then its front view (F.V.) is above the XY and the distance of
front view (F.V.) from the XY is equal to the distance of the given point from the H.P.
2. If a point is situated in front of the V.P., then its top view (T.V.) is below the XY and the distance
of top view (T.V.) from the XY is equal to the given distance of point from the V.P.

6.5 POINT ABOVE THE H.P. AND BEHIND THE V.P.

A point situated above the H.P. and behind the V.P. would lie in the second-angle.

Example 6.2 (Fig 6.2)

A point Q is 40 mm above the H.P. and 60 mm behind the V.P. Draw its projections.

Fig. 6.2(a) Fig. 6.2(b)

Visualization: Fig. 6.2(a) shows a point Q situated in the second angle such that its distance above
the H.P. is 40 mm and behind the V.P. is 60 mm. The front view of the point is obtained by drawing a
horizontal line through Q to intersect the V.P. at point q′. The top view is obtained by drawing a vertical
line through Q to intersect the H.P. at point q.

After projecting the point Q on the V.P. and H.P., the H.P. is rotated about XY in a clockwise direction
till it lies in the plane with the V.P. The projections of the point after rotation of the H.P. is shown in
Fig. 6.2(b). The front view q′ is 40 mm above the XY and the top view q is 60 mm above the XY.
 Projections of Points 6.5

Construction: Fig. 6.2(b)

1. Draw a reference line XY.

2. Draw a projector perpendicular to the XY.
3. Mark the front view q′ on the projector 40 mm above the XY.
4. Mark the top view q on the projector 60 mm above the XY.

Conclusion

1. If a point is situated above the H.P., then its front view (F.V.) is above the XY and the distance of
front view (F.V.) from the XY is equal to the distance of the point from the H.P.
2. If a point is situated behind the V.P., then its top view (T.V.) is above the XY and the distance of
the top view (T.V.) from the XY is equal to the distance of the given point from the V.P.

6.6 POINT BELOW THE H.P. AND BEHIND THE V.P.

A point situated below the H.P. and behind the V.P. would lie in the third-angle.

Example 6.3 (Fig 6.3)

A point R is 80 mm below the H.P. and 50 mm behind the V.P. Draw its projections.

Fig. 6.3(a) Fig. 6.3(b)

Visualization: Fig. 6.3(a) shows a point R situated in the third angle such that its distance below
the H.P. is 80 mm and behind the V.P. is 50 mm. The front view of the point is obtained by drawing a
horizontal line through R to intersect V.P. at point r′. The top view is obtained by drawing a vertical line
through R to intersect the H.P. at point r.
6.6 Engineering Graphics

After projecting the point R on the V.P. and the H.P., the H.P. is rotated about the XY in clockwise
direction till it lies in the plane with the V.P. The projections of the point after the rotation of the H.P.
is shown in Fig. 6.3(b). The front view r′ is 80 mm below the XY and the top view r is 50 mm above
the XY.

Construction: Fig. 6.3(b)

1. Draw a reference line XY.

2. Draw a projector perpendicular to the XY.
3. Mark the front view r′ on the projector 80 mm below the XY.
4. Mark the top view r on the projector 60 mm above the XY.

Conclusion

1. If a point is situated below the H.P., then its front view (F.V.) is below the XY and the distance of
front view (F.V.) from the XY is equal to distance of the point from the H.P.
2. If a point is situated behind the V.P., then its top view (T.V.) is above the XY and the distance of
top view (T.V.) from the XY is equal to distance of the point from the V.P.

6.7 POINT BELOW THE H.P. AND IN FRONT OF THE V.P.

A point situated below the H.P. and in front of the V.P. would lie in the fourth-angle.

Example 6.4 (Fig 6.4)

A point S is 80 mm below the H.P. and 50 mm in front of the V.P. Draw its projections.

Fig. 6.4(a) Fig. 6.4(b)

 Projections of Points 6.7

Visualization: Fig. 6.4(a) shows a point S situated in the fourth-angle such that its distance below the
H.P. is 80 mm and in front of the V.P. is 50 mm. The front view of the point is obtained by drawing
horizontal line through S to intersect V.P. at point s′. The top view is obtained by drawing a vertical line
through S to intersect the H.P. at point s.

After projecting the point S on the V.P. and the H.P., the H.P. is rotated about the XY in a clockwise
direction till it lies in the plane with V.P. The projection of the point after rotation of the H.P. is
shown in Fig. 6.4(b). The front view s′ is 80 mm below the XY and the top view s is 50 mm below
the XY.

Construction: Fig. 6.4(b)

1. Draw a reference line XY.

2. Draw a projector perpendicular to the XY.
3. Mark the front view s′ on the projector 80 mm below the XY.
4. Mark the top view s on the projector 60 mm below the XY.

Conclusion

1. If a point is situated below the H.P., then its front view (F.V.) is below the XY and the distance of
front view (F.V.) from the XY is equal to distance of point from the H.P.
2. If a point is situated in front of the V.P., then its top view (T.V.) is below the XY and the distance
of top view (T.V.) from the XY is equal to the distance of point from the V.P.

6.8 POINT ON THE H.P. AND IN FRONT OF THE V.P.

Example 6.5 (Fig 6.5)

A point P lies in the H.P. and 70 mm in front of the V.P. Draw its projections.

Fig. 6.5(a) Fig. 6.5(b)

6.8 Engineering Graphics

Visualization: Fig. 6.5(a) shows a point P which lies on the H.P. and is 70 mm in front of the V.P. The
front view of the point is obtained by drawing the horizontal line through P to intersect the V.P. on the
reference line at point p′. The top view p is obtained on point P as the point P lies on the H.P.

After projecting the point P, the H.P. is rotated about the XY in a clockwise direction till it lies in the
plane with V.P. The projections of the point after rotation of the H.P is shown in Fig. 6.5(b). The front
view p′ is on XY and the top view p is 70 mm below the XY.

Construction: Fig. 6.5(b)

1. Draw a reference line XY.

2. Draw a projector perpendicular to the XY.
3. Mark the front view p′ on the XY.
4. Mark the top view p on the projector 70 mm below the XY.

Conclusion

If a point is situated on the H.P., then its front view (F.V.) is on the XY.

6.9 POINT ABOVE THE H.P. AND ON THE V.P.

Example 6.6 (Fig 6.6)

A point Q is 70 mm above the H.P. and on the V.P. Draw its projections.

Fig. 6.6(a) Fig. 6.6(b)

 Projections of Points 6.9

Visualization: Fig. 6.6(a) shows a point Q which is situated 70 mm above the H.P. and on the V.P.
The front view q′ of the point is obtained on point Q, as point Q is on the V.P. The top view is obtained
by drawing a vertical line through Q to intersect the H.P. on the reference line at point q.

After projecting the point Q, the H.P. is rotated about the XY in a clockwise direction till it lies in the
plane with the V.P. The projections of the point after rotation of the H.P. is shown in Fig. 6.6(b). The
front view q′ is 70 mm above the XY and the top view q is on the XY.

Construction: Fig. 6.6(b)

1. Draw a reference line XY.

2. Draw a projector perpendicular to the XY.
3. Mark the front view q′ on the projector 70 mm above the XY.
4. Mark the top view q on the projector on XY.

Conclusion

If a point is situated on the V.P., then its top view (T.V.) is on the XY.

6.10 POINT ON THE H.P. AND BEHIND THE V.P.

Example 6.7 (Fig 6.7)

A point R is on the H.P. and 60 mm behind the V.P. Draw its projections.

Fig. 6.7(a) Fig. 6.7(b)

6.10 Engineering Graphics

Visualization: Fig. 6.7(a) shows a point R situated on the H.P. and 60 mm behind the V.P. The front
view of the point is obtained by drawing a horizontal line through R to intersect the V.P. on the reference
line at point r′. The top view r coincides with point R, as the point R lies on the H.P.

After projecting the point R, the H.P. is rotated about the XY in a clockwise direction till it lies in the
plane with the V.P. The projections of the point after rotation of the H.P. is shown in Fig. 6.7(b). The
front view r′ is on XY and the top view r is 60 mm above the XY.

Construction: Fig. 6.7(b)

1. Draw a reference line XY.

2. Draw a projector perpendicular to the XY.
3. Mark the front view r′ on the XY.
4. Mark the top view r on the projector 60 mm above the XY.

Conclusion

If a point is situated on the H.P., then its front view (F.V.) is on the XY.

6.11 POINT BELOW THE H.P. AND ON V.P.

Example 6.8 (Fig 6.8)

A point S is 70 mm below the H.P. and on the V.P. Draw its projections.

Fig. 6.8(a) Fig. 6.8(b)

Visualization: Fig. 6.8(a) shows a point S which is situated 70 mm below the H.P. and on the V.P.
The front view s′ of the point is obtained on point S, as the point S lies on the V.P. The top view is ob-
tained by drawing a vertical line through S to intersect the H.P. on the reference line at point s.
 Projections of Points 6.11

After projecting the point S, the H.P. is rotated about the XY in a clockwise direction till it lies in the
plane with the V.P. The projections of the point after rotation of the H.P. is shown in Fig. 6.8(b). The
front view s′ is 70 mm below the XY and the top view s is on the XY.

Construction: Fig. 6.8(b)

1. Draw a reference line XY.

2. Draw a projector perpendicular to the XY.
3. Mark the front view s′ 70 mm below the XY.
4. Mark the top view s on the projector on the XY.

Conclusion

If a point is situated on the V.P., then its top view (T.V.) is on the XY.

6.12 POINT ON BOTH H.P. AND V.P.

Example 6.9 (Fig 6.9)

A point T is on the H.P. and the V.P. both. Draw its projections.

Fig. 6.9(a) Fig. 6.9(b)

Visualization: Fig. 6.9(a) shows a point T situated both on the H.P. and the V.P. The Point lies on the
reference line. The front and top views of the point are obtained on the reference line itself.

After projecting the point R, the H.P. is rotated about the XY in a clockwise direction till it lies in the
plane with the V.P. The projections of the point after rotation of the H.P. is shown in Fig. 6.9(b). The
front view r′ and the top view r are on the XY.
6.12 Engineering Graphics

Construction: Fig. 6.9(b)

1. Draw a reference line XY.

2. Mark front view r′ and top view r coinciding on the XY.

Conclusion

If a point is situated both on the H.P. and the V.P., then its front and top views coincide on the XY.

6.13 MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES

Example 6.10 (Fig. 6.10)

Draw the projections of the following points on the same ground lines, keeping the projectors
15 mm apart:

(a) A in the H.P. and 20 mm behind V.P.

(b) B 25 mm below the H.P. and 25 mm behind V.P.
(c) C 15 mm above the H.P. and 20 mm in front of V.P.
(d) D 40 mm below H.P. and 25 mm in front of V.P. [RGPV April 2010]

Solution

b
a
c′
25
20

15

X Y
a′
15
20
25

25

40

c
b′
d

d′
Fig. 6.10
 Projections of Points 6.13

Example 6.11 (Fig. 6.11)

Draw the projections of the following points on a common reference line, keeping the distance
between their projectors 30 mm apart.

(a) Point A is 20 mm below the H.P. and 50 mm in front of the V.P.

(b) Point B is in the H.P. and 40 mm behind the V.P.
(c) Point C is 30 mm in front of the V.P. and in the H.P.
(d) Point D is 50 mm above the H.P. and 30 mm behind the V.P.
(e) Point E is 20 mm below the H.P. and 50 mm behind the V.P.
(f) Point F is in the V.P. and 50 mm below the H.P.

Solution

Fig. 6.11

Example 6.12 (Fig. 6.12)

Projection of various points are given in Fig. 6.12. State the position of each point with respect
to the planes of projection.

Fig. 6.12
6.14 Engineering Graphics

Solution
(a) Point A is 30 mm above the H.P. and 50 mm in front of the V.P.
(b) Point B is in the H.P and 40 mm in front of the V.P.
(c) Point C is 50 mm below the H.P and in the V.P.
(d) Point D is 20 mm above the H.P and 50 mm behind the V.P.
(e) Point E is 30 mm below the H.P and 40 mm behind the V.P.

EXERCISE 6

1. A point is 30 mm from the H.P. and 50 mm from the V.P. Draw its projections keeping it in all
possible positions.
2. Draw the projections of the following points on a common reference line keeping the distance
between their projectors 25 mm apart.
(a) Point A is 40 mm above the H.P and 25 mm in front of the V.P.
(b) Point B is 40 mm above the H.P and on the V.P.
(c) Point C is 25 mm in front of the V.P. and on the H.P.
(d) Point D is 25 mm above the H.P and 30 mm behind the V.P.
(e) Point E is on the H.P and 30 mm behind the V.P.
(f) Point F is 40 mm below the H.P and 30 mm behind the V.P.
(g) Point G is 25 mm below the H.P and 40 mm in front of the V.P.
(h) Point H is on the V.P and 30 mm below the H.P.
3. Draw the projections of the following points on a common reference line keeping the distance
between their projectors 30 mm apart.
(a) Point P is 35 mm below the H.P. and on the V.P.
(b) Point Q is 40 mm in front of the V.P. and 25 mm below the H.P.
(c) Point R is 45 mm above the H.P. and 20 mm behind the V.P.
(d) Point S is 30 mm below the H.P. and 45 mm behind the V.P.
(e) Point T is both on the H.P. and the V.P.

Fig. E 6.1
 Projections of Points 6.15

4. Projection of various points is given in Fig. E 6.1. State the position of each point with respect to
the planes of projection.
5. State the quadrants in which the following points are located:
(i) A - front view and top view are above XY.
(ii) B-front view below XY and top view above XY.
(iii) C-front view and top view below XY.
(iv) front view above XY and top view below XY. [RGPV Aug. 2010]

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. If both the views of a point coincide with each other and lie below the reference line, state the
angle in which the point lies.
2. State the similarities and dissimilarities in the projections of points which lie in the second-angle
and the fourth-angle.
3. State the position of the point, the front view of which lies 50 mm below the reference line and
the top view 30 mm above the front view.
4. State the position of the point, the top view of which lies 50 mm above the reference line and the
front view 30 mm below the top view.
5. If the front view of a point lies above the reference line, state the possible angles in which the
point may lie.
6. If the top view of a point lies above the reference line, state the possible angles in which the point
may lie.
7. If the front view of a point lies below the reference line, state the possible angles in which the
point may lie.
8. If the top view of a point lies below the reference line, state the possible angles in which the point
may lie.
9. State the relationship between front view and top view of a point.
10. State the position of the point if its both views lie on the reference line.
11. State the position of the point, the top view of which lies on the reference line and the front view
50 mm below it.
12. State the position of the point, the front view of which lies on the reference line and the top view
50 mm below it.
13. State the position of the point, the top view of which lies on the reference line and the front view
45 mm above it.
14. State the position of the point, the front view of which lies on the reference line and the top view
35 mm above it.
6.16 Engineering Graphics

MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS

Choose the most appropriate answer out of the given alternatives.

(i) The line joining the front and top views of a point is called
(a) reference line (b) projector
(c) connector (d) locus
(ii) A point lying in the H.P. has its top view above the XY. Its front view will be
(a) on XY (b) above XY
(c) below XY (d) any of these
(iii) A point whose elevation and plan are above XY is situated in
(a) first-angle (b) second-angle
(c) third-angle (d) fourth-angle
(iv) A point whose elevation is above XY may be situated in
(a) first-angle (b) second-angle
(c) vertical-plane (d) any of these
(v) A point is 20 mm below the H.P. and 30 mm behind the V.P. Its top view will be
(a) 20 mm below XY (b) 30 mm below XY
(c) 20 mm above XY (d) 30 mm above XY
(vi) If the front view of a point is 50 mm above the XY and the top view is 20 mm below the front
view, the point lies in
(a) First-angle (b) Second-angle
(c) Third-angle (d) Fourth-angle
(vii) If both the front and the top views of a point lie on opposite sides of the reference line, the point
may be situated in the following angles:
(a) First or second (b) First or third
(c) Second or fourth (d) Third or fourth
(viii) If both the front and the top views of a point lie on the same side of the reference line, the point
may be situated in following angles:
(a) First or second (b) First or third
(c) Second or fourth (d) Third or fourth
(ix) If the top view of a point is situated 60 mm below the reference line and its front view is 20 mm
above the top view, the point lies in
(a) first-angle (b) second-angle
(c) third-angle (d) fourth-angle
 Projections of Points 6.17

(x) If the front view of a point is 40 mm above the XY and the top view is 50 mm below the xy, the
position of point is
(a) 40 mm above H.P. (b) 40 mm below the H.P.
(c) 50 mm above H.P. (d) 50 mm below the H.P.
(xi) State the position of a point the front view of which lies on the reference line and the top view
is 40 mm above it.
(a) 40 mm above the H.P. and on the V.P. (b) 40 mm behind the V.P. and on the H.P.
(c) 40 mm below the H.P. and on the V.P. (d) 40 mm in front of the V.P. and on the H.P.
(xii) State the position of a point the top view of which lies on the reference line and the front view
is 30 mm below it.
(a) 30 mm above the H.P. and on the V.P. (b) 30 mm behind the V.P. and on the H.P.
(c) 30 mm below the H.P. and on the V.P. (d) 30 mm in front of the V.P. and on the H.P.

Answers
(i) (b) (ii) (a) (iii) (b) (iv) (d) (v) (d) (vi) (b) (vii) (b) (viii) (c) (ix) (d) (x) (a)
(xi) (b) (xii) (c)
 7

Projections
of Straight
Lines

� Introduction
� Orientation of a Straight Line
� Trace of a Straight Line
� Line Parallel to Both H.P. and V.P.
� Line Perpendicular to H.P. or V.P.
� Line Inclined to H.P. or V.P.
� Line Situated in the H.P., V.P. or both
� Line in the First Angle Inclined to Both the
Reference Planes
� True Length and True Inclination of Given
Line
� Trapezoid Method
� Line Inclined to Both the Reference Planes
the Ends of Which Lie in Different Angles
7.2 Engineering Graphics

7.1 INTRODUCTION

A straight line is the shortest distance between two points. The projections of straight lines can be drawn by
joining the respective projections of its end points. We have used the word ‘line’ for straight lines for the
sake of simplicity. The actual length of the line is commonly called true length and is denoted by T.L.

7.2 ORIENTATION OF A STRAIGHT LINE

A straight line may be in one of the following positions.

1. Line parallel to both H.P. and V.P.

2. Line perpendicular to H.P. (and parallel to V.P.)
3. Line perpendicular to V.P. (and parallel to H.P.)
4. Line inclined to H.P. and parallel to V.P.
5. Line inclined to V.P. and parallel to H.P.
6. Line situated in H.P.
7. Line situated in V.P.
8. Line situated in both H.P. and V.P. (i.e. on the reference line, XY)
9. Line inclined to both the reference planes
a. Line inclined to both H.P. and V.P. such that q + f < 90º.
b. Line inclined to both H.P. and V.P. such that q + f = 90º.

Let us consider the line in the first angle. Projections of a straight line lying in the first angle will have
its front view above XY and the top view below XY. A clear concept of orthographic projections and
projections of points is required to understand the projections of straight lines.

7.3 TRACE OF A STRAIGHT LINE

The point of intersection of a given straight line (extended if necessary) with the reference plane is
known as traces of that lines.

The point at which the line (extended if necessary) intersects the H.P. is known as horizontal trace
and is denoted by either H.T. or letter h. The front view of the horizontal trace lies on XY and is denoted
by h′.

The point at which the line (extended if necessary) intersects the V.P. is known as vertical trace and is
denoted by either V.T. or letter v′. The top view of the vertical trace lies on XY and is denoted by v.

7.4 LINE PARALLEL TO BOTH H.P. AND V.P.

This is the basic position of any line. Both the front and top views shall be the true lengths.
 Projections of Straight Lines 7.3

Example 7.1 (Fig. 7.1)

A 50 mm long line AB is parallel to both the H.P. and the V.P. It is 25 mm in front of the V.P.
and 60 mm above the H. P. Draw its projections and determine the trace.

b′

B
a′ b′
a′

A
Y Line has
no V.T.

b
X Y

Line has
X
a no H.T.
T
a b

Fig. 7.1(a) Fig. 7.1(b)

Visualisation Fig. 7.1(a) shows the straight line AB which is 25 mm in front of the V.P. and 60 mm
above the H.P. The front view a′b′ of the line is obtained by joining the front view of end points of line
AB. The line a′b′ shows the true length and is parallel to the XY. The top view ab of the line is obtained
by joining the top view of end points of line AB. The line ab also shows the true length and is parallel
to the XY.

Construction: Fig. 7.1(b)

1. Draw a reference line XY.

2. Mark point a′ 60 mm above XY and point a 25 mm below XY.
3. Draw a 50 mm long line a′b′ parallel to XY, to represent the front view.
4. Draw another 50 mm long line ab parallel to XY, to represent the top view.

Locate H.T. and V.T.

5. As the line is parallel to H.P., it will never intersect H.P., even if it is extended. So it has no H.T.
6. As the line is parallel to V.P., it will never intersect the V.P., even if it is extended. So it has no
V.T.
7.4 Engineering Graphics

7.5 LINE PERPENDICULAR TO H.P.

A line perpendicular to H.P. is always parallel to V.P. The front view shall be true length perpendicular
to XY whereas the top view shall be only a point.

Example 7.2 (Fig. 7.2)

A 60 mm long line AB has its end A 20 mm above the H.P. The line is perpendicular to H.P.
and 40 mm in front of the V.P. Draw its projections and locate the traces.

b′ b′

Line has
no V. T.

a′
a′

X
b H. T. is
a denoted by h

a, b
Fig. 7.2(a) Fig. 7.2(b)

Visualisation Fig. 7.2(a) shows the straight line AB whose end A is 20 mm above the H.P. and 40 mm
in front of the V.P. As the line is perpendicular to the H.P. the end b is 80 mm (20 + 60) above the H.P.
and 40 mm in front of the V.P. Obtain front and top views of A and B. Join them to obtain a′b′ as the
front view and AB as the top view.

Construction: Fig. 7.2(b)

1. Draw a reference line XY.

2. Mark point a′ 20 mm above XY and point a 40 mm below XY.
3. Draw a 60 mm long line a′b perpendicular to XY, to represent the front view.
4. Mark point b to overlap point a. This point represents the top view of the line.
 Projections of Straight Lines 7.5

Locate H.T. and V.T.

5. The line AB when produced, meets the H.P. at point h, 40 mm in front of V.P. Thus, the H.T. co-
incides with the top view. It is denoted by h.
6. As the line AB is parallel to V.P., it doesnot intersect the V.P. anywhere. Therefore it has no V.T.

7.6 LINE PERPENDICULAR TO V.P.

A line perpendicular to V.P. is always parallel to H.P. The top view shall be true length perpendicular
to XY whereas the front view shall be only a point.

Example 7.3 (Fig. 7.3)

A 60 mm long line AB has its end A at a distance of 20 mm in front of the V.P. The line is
perpendicular to the V.P. and 40 mm above the H.P. Draw the projections of the line and
determine its traces.

a′, b′

b′ V.T. is
a′ denoted by v ′
A
X Y

Y
B a

a
X
Line has no H. T.

b
Fig. 7.3(a) Fig. 7.3(b)

Visualisation Fig. 7.3(a) shows the straight line AB whose end A is 40 mm above the H.P. and 20 mm
in front of the V.P. As the line is perpendicular to the V.P. the end B is 80 mm (20 + 60) in front of the
V.P. and 40 mm above the H.P. Obtain front and top views of A and B. Join them to obtain ab as the top
view and a′b′ as the front view.

Construction: Fig. 7.3(b)

1. Draw a reference line XY.

2. Mark point a′ 40 mm above XY and point a 20 mm below XY.
7.6 Engineering Graphics

3. Mark point b′ overlap point a′. This point represents the front view of the line.
4. Draw a 60 mm long line ab perpendicular to XY, to represent the top view.

Locate H.T. and V.T.

5. As the line AB is parallel to H.P., it doesnot intersect the H.P. Therefore it has no H.T.
6. The line AB when produced, meets the V.P. at point v′, 40 mm above H.P. Thus, the V.T. coin-
cides with the front view. It is denoted by v′.

7.7 LINE INCLINED TO H.P. AND PARALLEL TO V.P.

When a line is inclined to H.P. and parallel to the V.P. its front view will be true length inclined to XY.
The top view will be projected length smaller than the true length parallel to XY.

Example 7.4 (Fig. 7.4)

An 80 mm long line AB has end A at a distance of 20 mm above the H.P. and 40 mm in front of
the V.P. The line is inclined at 30º to the H.P. and is parallel to the V.P. Draw the projections
of the line and determine its traces.

b′

B b′

a′ a′

b
X Y
A

a
X
a b
Line has no V .T.
T
Fig. 7.4(a) Fig. 7.4(b)

Visualisation Fig. 7.4(a) shows the straight line AB whose end A is 20 mm above the H.P. and 40 mm
in front of the V.P. The line is inclined at 30º to the H.P. and parallel to the V.P. As the line is parallel
to V.P., its front view is true length (80 mm) making an angle 300 with XY. The top view is projected
length parallel to XY.
 Projections of Straight Lines 7.7

oConstruction: Fig. 7.4(b)

1. Draw a reference line XY.

2. Mark point a′ 20 mm above XY and point a 40 mm below XY.
3. Through point a′, draw an 80 mm long line a′b′ making 30º with XY. This represents the front
view.
4. Through point a, draw a line parallel to XY to meet the vertical projector of b′ at b. The line ab
represents the top view.

Locate H.T. and V.T.

5. Extend line a′b′ to meet XY at point h′. Project point h′ to meet ab produced at point h. The point
h denotes the H.T.
6. As the line is parallel to V.P., it doesnot intersect the V.P. Therefore it has no V.T.

7.8 LINE INCLINED TO V.P. AND PARALLEL TO H.P.

When a line is inclined to V.P. and parallel to H.P. its top view will be true length inclined to XY. The
front view will be projected length smaller than the true length parallel to XY.

Example 7.5 (Fig. 7.5)

An 80 mm long line AB is inclined at 30º to the V.P. and is parallel to the H.P. The end A of
the line is 20 mm above the H.P. and 40 mm in front of the V.P. Draw the projections of the
line and determine its traces.

b′
Y a′ b′
a′
B
X Y
A

b
a
a
X

P
H. Line has no V .T.
T
b

Fig. 7.5(a) Fig. 7.5(b)

7.8 Engineering Graphics

Visualisation Fig. 7.5(a) shows the straight line AB whose end A is 20 mm above the H.P. and 40
mm in front of the V.P. The line is inclined at 30º to the V.P. and parallel to the H.P. As AB is parallel
to H.P., its top view is true length (80 mm) making true angle 30º with XY. The front view is projected
length parallel to XY.

Construction: Fig. 7.5(b)

1. Draw a reference line XY.

2. Mark point a′ 20 mm above XY and point a 40 mm below XY.
3. Through point a, draw an 80 mm long line ab making 30º with XY. This represents the top view.
4. Through point a′, draw a line parallel to XY to meet the vertical projector of b at b′. The line a′b′
represents the front view.

Locate H.T. and V.T.:

5. Extend line AB to meet XY at point v. Project v to meet a′b′ produced at point v′. The point v′ de-
notes the V.T.
6. As the line is parallel to H.P., it doesnot intersect the H.P. Therefore it has no H.T.

7.9 LINE SITUATED IN THE H.P.

When a line is situated in H.P., its top view will be true length. The front view will be projected length
on the reference line.

Example 7.6 (Fig. 7.6)

A 60 mm long line PQ is situated in the H.P. and is inclined at 30º to the V.P. The end P of
the line is situated 20 mm in front of the V.P. Draw the projections of the line and determine
its traces.

Y X Y
VT

p
P
X

Line has no H.T.

T
Fig. 7.6(a) Fig. 7.6(b)
 Projections of Straight Lines 7.9

Visualisation Fig. 7.6(a) shows the straight line PQ whose end P is on the H.P. and 20 mm in front of
the V.P. The line is inclined at 30º to the V.P. As the line PQ is on the H.P., the top view is true length
(60 mm) making 30º with XY. The front view is projected length and lies on XY.

Construction: Fig. 7.6(b)

1. Draw a reference line XY.

2. Mark point p′ on XY and point p 20 mm below XY.
3. Through point p, draw a 60 mm long line pq making 30º with XY. This represents the top view.
4. Through point p′, draw a line along XY to meet the projector of q at q′. The line p′q′ represents the
front view.

Locate H.T. and V.T.:

5. As the line is parallel to H.P., it doesnot intersect the H.P. Therefore it has no H.T.
6. Extend line pq to meet XY at v. This coincides with extension of p′q′ at v′. The point v′ denotes V.T.

7.10 LINE SITUATED IN THE V.P.

When a line is situated in the V.P. its front view will be true length. The top view will be of projected
length on the reference line.

Example 7.7 (Fig. 7.7)

Draw the projections of a 70 mm long line PQ, situated in V.P. and inclined at 30º to the H.P.
The end P of the line is 25 mm above the H.P. Also, determine the traces of the line.

X X Y

Line has no V.T.

Fig. 7.7(a) Fig. 7.7(b)
7.10 Engineering Graphics

Visualisation Fig. 7.7(a) shows the straight line PQ whose end P is 25 mm above the H.P. and on
the V.P. It is inclined at 30º to the H.P. As the line is on the V.P., its front view is true length (70 mm)
making true angle 30º with XY. Its top view is of projeted length and lies on XY.

Construction: Fig. 7.7(b)

1. Draw a reference line XY.

2. Mark point p′ 25 mm above XY and point p on the XY.
3. Through point p′, draw a 70 mm long line p′q′ making 30º with XY. This represents the front view.
4. Through point p, draw a line along XY to meet the vertical projector of q′ at q. The line pq repre-
sents the top view.

Locate H.T. and V.T.:

5. Extend line p′q′ to meet XY at point h′. This coincides with extension of pq at h. The point h
denotes H.T.
6. As the line is parallel to V.P., it doesnot intersect the H.P. Therefore it has no V.T.

7.11 LINE SITUATED BOTH IN H.P. AND V.P.

When a line is situated both in H.P. and V.P., it is on the reference line. Both the front and the top views
will coincide on the XY.

Example 7.8 (Fig. 7.8)

Draw the projections of a 60 mm long line PQ, which is situated in the H.P. and the V.P. both.
Also, determine the traces of the line.

p ,p ′ q,q′
X Y
X

Line has no V .T.

T or H.T.
T
Fig. 7.8(a) Fig. 7.8(b)
 Projections of Straight Lines 7.11

Visualisation Fig. 7.8(a) shows the straight line PQ situated on the reference line. Hence it is situated
on the H.P. and the V.P. both. The front and top views of the line are obtained on XY and show the true
length.

Construction: Fig. 7.8(b)

1. Draw a reference line XY.

2. Mark points p′ and p coinciding on XY.
3. Mark points q′ and q on XY at 60 mm from pp′.
4. As the line is parallel to both H.P. and V.P., it has neither H.T. nor V.T.

7.12 SUMMARY

Table 7.1
S.No. Orientation / Position of Front view or eleva- Top view or plan Horizontal Vertical Trace
line tion Trace
1. Line parallel to both H.P. True length, parallel True length, parallel Does not exist Does not exist
and V.P. to XY to XY
2. Line perpendicular to H.P. True length, perpen- Point Coincides Does not exist
dicular to XY with top view
3. Line perpendicular to V.P. Point True length, perpen- Does not exist Coincides with
dicular to XY front view
4. Line inclined at q to H.P. True length, inclined Shorter than the true Exists Does not exist
and parallel to V.P. at q to XY length, parallel to XY
5. Line inclined at f to V.P. Shorter than the true True length, inclined Does not exist Exists
and parallel to H.P. length, parallel to XY at f to XY
6. Line situated in H.P. and Shorter than the true True length, inclined Does not exist Exists on XY
inclined at f to V.P. length, lying on XY at f to XY
7. Line situated in V.P. and True length, inclined Shorter than the true Exists on XY Does not exist
inclined at q to H.P. at q to XY length, lying on XY
8. Line situated both in H.P. Both front and top views are true length and Does not exist Does not exist
and V.P. coincide on XY

7.14 MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES

Example 7.9 (Fig. 7.9)

A 50 mm long line AB has its end A 30 mm above H.P. and 20 mm in front of V.P. The front
view of the line is a point. Draw its projections.
7.12 Engineering Graphics

a′, b′

X Y

b
Fig. 7.9

Interpretation: As the front view of the line is a point, the line is perpendicular to V.P.

Construction: Fig. 7.9

1. Draw a reference line XY.

2. Mark point a′ 30 mm above XY and point a 20 mm below XY.
3. As front view of the line is a point, point b′ will overlap point a′.
4 Draw a 50 mm long line ab, perpendicular to XY. This represents the top view.

Example 7.10 (Fig. 7.10)

The line AB of 100 mm length is inclined at an angle 30º to the H.P. and parallel to V.P. The
point A is 15 mm above H.P. and 20 mm in front of V.P. Draw the front view and top view of
the line. [RGPV Feb. 2010]

b′

0
10
30°

a′
15

X Y
20

a b

Fig. 7.10
 Projections of Straight Lines 7.13

Construction: Fig. 7.10

1. Draw a reference line XY.

2. Mark point a′ 15 mm above XY and point a 20 mm below XY.
3. Draw a 100 mm long line a′b′ at 30º to XY. This represents the front view.
4. Draw a line ab parallel to XY to meet the projector from b′ at point b. Line ab represents the top
view.

Example 7.11 (Fig. 7.11)

A 60 mm long line AB is parallel to and 20 mm in front of the V.P. The ends A and B are 10
mm and 50 mm above the H.P. respectively. Draw the projections of the line and determine
its inclination with the H.P. Also, locate the traces.

b′

Line has no V. T.
60
= T is represented by h.
The H.T.
TL
Inclination of the line with
P is q = 42°
50

H.P.

a′
42°
10

h′
X Y
20

h a b

Fig. 7.11

Interpretation: As the line is parallel to the V.P., the front view is of true length and top view is
parallel to XY.

Construction: Fig. 7.11

1. Draw a reference line XY.

2. Mark point a′ 10 mm above XY and point a 20 mm below XY.
3. Draw a horizontal line 50 mm above XY. It is the locus of point b′.
4. Draw an arc of 60 mm radius with a′ as centre to intersect the locus line of point b′ at point b′. Join
a′b′ to represent the front view.
7.14 Engineering Graphics

5. Draw a line from point a parallel to XY to meet the vertical projector from point b′ at point b. The
line ab represents the top view.
6. Determine inclination of a′b′ with XY as q = 42º.
7. Produce a′b′ to meet XY at point h′. Produced line ab to meet the vertical projector of point h′ at
point h. Point h represents the H.T. of the line.
8. As the line is parallel to V.P. so it has no V.T.

Example 7.12 (Fig. 7.12)

The length of the top view of a line parallel to the V.P. and inclined at 45º to the H.P. is 50
mm. One end of the line is 12 mm above the H.P. and 25 mm in front of the V.P. Draw the
projections of the line and determine its true length. [RGPV June 2008]

b′
71
=
TL

True length of line

AB is a′b′ = 71.
a′
12

X Y

a b
50

Fig. 7.12

Interpretation: When a line is parallel to V.P. its front view is of true length and top view is parallel
to XY.

Construction: Fig. 7.12

1. Draw a reference line XY.

2. Mark point a′ 12 mm above XY and point a 25 mm below XY.
3. Draw a 50 mm long line ab parallel to XY. This represents the top view.
4. Draw a line from point a′, inclined at 45º to XY to meet the vertical projectors from point b as point
b′. Line a′b′ represents the front view.
5. Measure length a′b′, 71 mm as true length of the line.
 Projections of Straight Lines 7.15

Example 7.13 (Fig. 7.13)

The front view of a line inclined at 30º to the V.P. is 65 mm long. Draw the projections and
true length of the line when it is parallel to and 40 mm above the H.P. and its one end being
30 mm in front of the V.P. [RGPV April 2010]

65
a′ b′
40

X Y
30

30°

a True length of line

AB is ab = 75 mm

TL
=7
5

Fig. 7.13

Construction: Fig. 7.13

1. Draw a reference line XY.
2. Mark point a′ 40 mm above XY and point a 30 mm below XY.
3. Draw a 65 mm long line a′b′ parallel to XY. This represents the front view.
4. Draw a line from point a, inclined at 30º to XY to meet the projector from b′ at point b. Line ab
represents the top view.
5. Measure length a′b′, 75 mm as true length of the line.
Example 7.14 (Fig. 7.14)
A 60 mm long line is inclined at 45º to the V.P. The V.T. is 25 mm above XY and the H.T. does
not exist. Draw the projections of the line when an end is 10 mm in front of the V.P.
v′ a′ b′
25

X v Y
10

a
45°

The V.T. is
represented by v ′.
TL
=
60

b
Fig. 7.14
7.16 Engineering Graphics

Interpretation: As the line has no H.T., it is parallel to H.P. The front view of the line and the V.T. will
be equidistant from XY.

Construction: Fig. 7.14

1. Draw a reference line XY.

2. Mark point a′ 25 mm above XY and point a 10 mm below XY.
3. Draw a line ab, 60 mm long, making 45º with XY. Line ab represents the top view.
4. Draw a line from point a′ parallel to XY to meet the vertical projector from point b at point b′. The
line a′b′ represents the front view.
5. Produce ab to meet XY at point v. Produce line a′b′ to meet the vertical projector of v at v′. Point
v′ represents the V.T.

Example 7.15 (Fig. 7.15)

An electric switch and a bulb fixed on a wall are 5 m apart. The distance between them mea-
sured parallel to the floor is 4 metres. If the switch is 1.5 m above the floor, find the height of
the bulb and inclination of line joining the two with the floor. [RGPV Dec. 2007]

b′

m
5 Height of the bulb (above
the floor), bb′ = 4.5 m.
4.5 m

Inclination of line joining

the switch the bulb with
the floor, q = 37°
s′
37°
1.5 m

Scale = 1 : 50

X Y
s b
4m

Fig. 7.15

Construction: Fig. 7.15

1. Draw a reference line XY.

2. Let S represents switch and B represents the bulb. Consider scale 1:50.
3. Mark point s′ 1.5 m above XY and point s on XY.
4. Draw a 4 m long line sb along XY. This represents the top view of the line joining the switch and
the bulb.
5. Draw an arc with s′ as the centre and 5 m radius to meet the vertical projector from point b at point
b′. Join s′b′ to represents the front view.
 Projections of Straight Lines 7.17

6. Measure, bb′ = 4.5 m, as height of the bulb above the floor. Also, measure the inclination of the
line s′b′ with XY, q = 37°, as the inclination of line joining the switch the bulb with the floor.

EXERCISE 7A

1. A line 70 mm long parallel to H.P. and V.P. lies 20 mm above H.P. and 50 mm in front of V.P.
Draw its projections.
2. The end A of a 65 mm long line AB is 20 mm above the H.P. and 15 mm in front of the V.P. Draw
the projections of the line when it is perpendicular to H.P.
3. A 50 mm long line is perpendicular to the V.P. and 40 mm above the H.P. An end of the line is
10 mm in front of the V.P. Draw its projections and the traces.
4. A 70 mm long line AB is inclined at 45º to the H.P. and parallel to the V.P. The end A is 15 mm
above the H.P. and 25 mm in front of the V.P. Draw its projections and locate the traces.
5. An 80 mm long line is inclined at 60º to the V.P. and parallel to the H.P. One end of the line is 30
mm above the H.P. and 10 mm in front of the V.P. Draw its projections and locate the traces.
6. An 80 mm long line is parallel to and 20 mm above the H.P. Its one end is in the V.P. while the
other end lies 40 mm in front of the V.P. Draw its projections and determine the true inclination
of the line with the V.P. [Ans: 30º]
7. A 60 mm long line AB is parallel to and 20 mm in front of V.P. The ends A and B of the line are
10 mm and 50 mm above the H.P., respectively. Draw the projections of the line and determine
its inclination with the H.P. Also, locate the traces. [Ans: 42º]
8. A 70 mm long line AB is parallel to the V.P. and inclined to the H.P. The end A is 20 mm above the
H.P. and 30 mm in front of the V.P. The top view of the line measures 45 mm. Draw its projections.
[Ans: 50º]
9. The front view of 80 mm long line measures 50 mm. The whole line is in the H.P. and its one end
is 30 mm in front of the V.P. Draw its projections and find inclination of the line with the V.P.
[Ans: 40º]
10. The top view of an 80 mm long line measures 55 mm. The line is in the V.P. and its one end lies
20 mm above the H.P. Draw its projections and find the inclination with the H.P. [Ans: 43º]
11. The top view of a line is 60 mm long. The line is parallel to the V.P. and inclined at 45º to the
H.P. One end of the line is 25 mm in front of the V.P. and in the H.P. Draw the projections and
determine its true length. [Ans: 85 mm]
12. The front view of a line, parallel to the V.P. and inclined 60º to the H.P., is 50 mm long. One
end of the line is 20 mm in front of the V.P. and 25 mm above the H.P. Draw its projections and
determine the true length of the line. [Ans: 80 mm]
13. A 70 mm long line PQ has no H.T. and V.T. An end of the line is 30 mm in front of the V.P. and
20 mm above the H.P. Draw its projections.
14. A 70 mm long line is making 30º with the H.P. The H.T. of the line lies 15 mm below the refer-
ence line and the V.T. of the line does not exist. Draw its projections when an end of the line is
25 mm above the H.P.
7.18 Engineering Graphics

15. A 75 mm long line is inclined at 45º to the V.P. The V.T. is 30 mm above the reference
plane and H.T. does not exist. One end of the line is 20 mm in front of the V.P. Draw its
projections.
16. A line inclined at 60º to the V.P. has a 60 mm long front view. One end of the line is 20 mm in
front of the V.P. The V.T. is 15 mm above the reference line and H.T. does not exist. Draw its
projections.

7.15 LINE IN THE FIRST ANGLE INCLINED TO BOTH THE REFERENCE PLANES

Here we will understand the projections of lines inclined to both the reference planes. The line lies in
the first angle and is inclined q to H.P. and f to V.P.

7.16 PROJECTIONS OF A LINE INCLINED TO BOTH THE REFERENCE PLANES

When a line is inclined at q with H.P. and f with V.P., then both front and top views will be of projected
(reduced) length and will appear to be inclined at apparent angles, a with H.P. and b with V.P.

Example 7.16 (Fig. 7.16)

A 70 mm long line PQ has its end P 20 mm above the H.P. and 30 mm in front of the V.P.
The line is inclined at 45º to the H.P. and 30º to the V.P. Draw its projections.

Fig. 7.16(a)
 Projections of Straight Lines 7.19

Fig. 7.16(b) ig. 7.16(c)

Fig. 7.16(d) Fig. 7.16(e)

Visualisation:

1. Fig. 7.16(a) and Fig. 7.16(b): Consider a line PQ1, 70 mm long has its end P 20 mm above the H.P.
and 30 mm in front of the V.P. The line is inclined q = 45º to the H.P. and parallel to the V.P.
a. Draw the front view p′q1′ equal to the true length making q = 45º with the XY.
7.20 Engineering Graphics

b. Draw the top view pq1 of projected length and parallel to XY.
Now keeping the position of the end P fixed and the inclination q = 45º with H.P. as constant, let
the line be turned to make it inclined f to V.P. While turning the line following observations were
made.
a. Since the inclination (q = 45º) with H.P. is constant, the length of the top view will remain same.
Therefore, the point q1 will move to the new position q along an arc (known as locus of q) drawn
with p as the centre and pq1 as the radius.
b. The distance of the end Q1 from H.P. is constant (say h). In the front view q1′ will move along
the line ab parallel to XY. The line ab is called the locus of q′.
2. Fig. 7.16(c) and Fig. 7.16(d): Consider a line PQ2, 70 mm long has its end P 20 mm above the
H.P. and 30 mm in front of the V.P. The line is inclined f = 30º to the V.P. and parallel to the
H.P.
a. Draw the top view pq2 equal to the true length making f = 30º with the XY.
b. Draw the front view p′q1′ of projected length and parallel to XY.
Now keeping the position of the end P fixed and the inclination f = 30º with V.P. as constant, let
the line be turned to make it inclined q to H.P. While turning the line following observations were
made.
a. Since the inclination (f = 30º) with V.P. is constant, the length of the front view will remain same.
Therefore, the point q2′ will move to the new position q′ along an arc (known as locus of q′) drawn
with p′ as the centre and pq1 as the radius.
b. The distance of the end Q2 from V.P. is constant (say d ). In the top view q2 will move along the
line rs parallel to XY. The line rs is called the locus of point q.
3. Step 1 states point q′ lies on the locus line mn and point q lies on the locus of arc. Step 2 states
point q′ lies on the locus of arc and point q lies on the locus line rs.
Thus, on combining steps, i.e., Fig. 7.16(b) and Fig. 7.16(d) we can locate point q′ and q, as shown
in Fig. 7.16(e).

Note: The projector joining qq′ is perpendicular to XY.

Construction: Fig. 7.16(e)

1. Draw a reference line XY.

2. Mark point p′ 20 mm above XY and point p 30 mm below XY.
3. Draw a 70 mm long p′q1′ inclined at q = 45º to XY.
4. Draw another 70 mm long pq2, inclined at f = 30º to XY.
5. Project point q1′ to meet the horizontal line from point p at point q1.
6. Draw an arc with p as the centre and radius pq1 to meet the horizontal line from point q2 at
point q.
7. Join pq to represent the top view.
8. Project point q2 to meet the horizontal line from point p′ at point q2′.
9. Draw an arc with p′ as the centre and radius p′q2′ to meet the horizontal line from point q1′ at point q′.
10. Join p′q′ to represent the front view.
11. Ensure that the line qq′ is perpendicular to XY, i.e. representing a vertical projector.
 Projections of Straight Lines 7.21

Note: a is the inclination of the front view p′q′ with XY whereas b is the inclination of the top view
pq with XY. They are called apparent angles. It may be observed that a > q and b > f. Both the front and
the top views are smaller than the true length.

Notation used:

In this example the following notations have been used

PQ Actual line in space. It is equal to the true length of the line PQ = TL

q True inclination of line with the H.P.
f True inclination of line with the V.P.
PQ1 Line assumed parallel to the V.P. and inclined q to the H.P.
p′q1′ Front view of the line PQ1
pq1 Top view of the line PQ1
PQ2 Line assumed parallel to the H.P. and inclined f to the V.P.
p′q2′ Front view of the line PQ1
pq2 Top view of the line PQ1
p′q′ Final / Actual front view of the line PQ
pq Final / Actual top view of the line PQ
a Apparent angle made by the front view p′q′ with XY
b Apparent angle made by the top view pq with XY

7.17 TRUE LENGTH AND TRUE INCLINATION OF

THE GIVEN LINE

To obtain the true length and true inclination of a line, each view has to be turned to make it parallel to
the reference line XY. This is the reverse of Example 7.16.

Example 7.17 (Fig. 7.17)

A straight line PQ has its end P 20 mm above the H.P. and 30 mm in front of the V.P. and
the end Q is 80 mm above the H.P. and 70 mm in front of the V.P. If the end projectors are
60 mm apart, draw the projections of the line. Determine its true length and true inclinations
with the reference planes.
7.22 Engineering Graphics

Fig. 7.17

Construction: Fig. 7.17

Draw the projections of the line.

1. Draw a reference line XY. Mark points o and o1 on it such that they are 60 mm apart.
2. On the vertical projector through o, mark point p′ 20 mm above XY and point p 30 mm below XY.
3. On the vertical projector through o1, mark point q′ 80 mm above XY and point q 70 mm below XY.
4. Join p′q′ and pq to represent the front and the top views of the line, respectively.

Find true inclination of line with H.P. (q ) and true length of the line

5. Draw an arc with p as centre and radius pq to meet the horizontal line through point p at point q1.
6. Project point q1 to meet horizontal line ab through point q′ at point q1′.
7. Join p′q1′. The length p′q1′ represents the true length of PQ. The inclination of p′q1′ with XY rep-
resents true inclination of PQ with H.P. Here, T.L. = 94 mm and q = 40o.

Find true inclination of line with V.P. (f) and true length of the line.

8. Draw an arc with p′ as centre and radius p′q′ to meet the horizontal line through point p′ at point q2′.
9. Project point q2′ to meet horizontal line cd through point q at point q2.
10. Join pq2. The length pq2 represents the true length of PQ. The inclination of pq2 with XY repre-
sents true inclination of PQ with V.P. Here, f = 25o. Ensure length pq2 is equal to length p′q1′.
 Projections of Straight Lines 7.23

7.18 TRAPEZOID METHOD

The true length, true inclination and traces of a line can also be determined by trapezoid method as
described below.

Example 7.18 (Fig. 7.18)

A straight line PQ has its end P 20 mm above the H.P. and 30 mm in front of the V.P. and the
end Q is 80 mm above the H.P. and 70 mm in front of the V.P. If the end projectors are 60 mm
apart, draw the projections of the line. Determine its true length and true inclinations with
the reference planes by trapezoid method.

Fig. 7.18

Construction: Fig. 7.18

1. Draw a reference line XY. Mark points o and o1 on XY 60 mm apart.

2. On the vertical projector through point o, mark point p′ 20 mm above the XY and point p 30 mm
below the XY.
3. On the vertical projector through point o1, mark point q′ 80 mm above the XY and point q 70 mm
below the XY.
7.24 Engineering Graphics

4. Join p′q′ and pq to represent the front and top views of line PQ, respectively.
5. Draw perpendiculars p′P1 and q′Q1 to the line p′q′ such that p′P1 = op and q′Q1 = oq.
6. Join P1Q1. Measure its length to represent the true length and its inclination with p′q′ to represent
true inclination with V.P. (f ).
7. Draw perpendiculars pP2 and qQ2 to the line Pq such that pP2 = op and qQ2 = oq.
8. Join P2Q2. Measure its length to represent the true length and its inclination with pq to represent
true inclination with H.P. (q ).
9. Ensure that true length obtained in step 7 and step 9 are same.
10. The point at which line P1Q1 produced meets with front view p′q′ produced represents the
V.T.
11. The point at which line P2Q2 produced meets with front view pq produced represents the H.T.

7.19 TRACES OF A LINE INCLINED TO BOTH THE REFERENCE PLANES

When a line is inclined to both the reference planes, it will meet both the H.P. and the V.P. Therefore,
the line will have both the H.T. and the V.T. Consider the following example.

Example 7.19 (Fig. 7.19)

Locate the traces of a straight line PQ, kept in first angle for the following cases.

A. End P is 20 mm above the H.P. and 30 mm in front of the V.P. and the end Q is 80 mm
above the H.P. and 60 mm in front of the V.P. The end projectors are 60 mm apart.
B. End P is 30 mm above the H.P. and 20 mm in front of the V.P. and the end Q is 60 mm
above the H.P. and 80 mm in front of the V.P. The end projectors are 60 mm apart.
C. End P is 20 mm above the H.P. and 30 mm in front of the V.P. and the end Q is 60 mm
above the H.P. and 10 mm in front of the V.P. The end projectors are 60 mm apart.

Fig. 7.19(a) Fig. 7.19(b)

 Projections of Straight Lines 7.25

Fig. 7.19(c) Fig. 7.19(d)

Fig. 7.19(e) Fig. 7.19(f)

Visualisation: Case A: Fig. 7.19(a) shows the line situated in the space with respect to the reference
plane and Fig. 7.19(b) shows the corresponding projections of the given line.

Case B: Fig. 7.19(c) shows the line situated in the space with respect to the reference plane and
Fig. 7.19(d) shows the corresponding projections of the given line.

Case B: Fig. 7.19(e) shows the line situated in the space with respect to the reference plane and
Fig. 7.19(f) shows the corresponding projections of the given line.

Construction: Case A ⎯ Fig. 7.19(b), Case B ⎯ Fig. 7.19(d) and Case C ⎯ Fig. 7.19(f)

1. Draw a reference line XY. Mark points o and o1 on XY such that they are 60 mm apart.
2. On the vertical projector through point o, mark points p′ and p as the front and the top views of
point P.
7.26 Engineering Graphics

3. Similarly, on the vertical projector through point o1, mark points q′ and q as the front and the top
views of point Q.
4. Join p′q′ and pq to represent the front and the top views of the line PQ.
5. Produce the front view p′q′ to meet XY at a point h′. Draw a vertical projector through point h′ to
meet the top view pq, produced if required, at point h. The point h represents the H.T.
6. Produce the top view pq to meet XY at a point v. Draw a vertical projector through point v to meet
the front view p′q′, produced if necessary, at point v′. The point v′ represents the V.T.
7. Measure the distance of h and v′ from XY.

Conclusion: The H.T. and V.T. may lie either on the same side or on the opposite side of XY.

7.20 PROJECTIONS OF A LINE CONTAINED BY A PROFILE PLANE

(i.e. p + e = 90º)

A profile plane is a plane perpendicular to both the reference planes (H.P. and V.P.). When a line is
contained by a profile plane, the sum of its inclination with the H.P. and V.P. is 90º. (i.e. q + f = 90º). In
such a case, both the front and the top views will be perpendicular to XY and have their lengths shorter
than the true length. In other words, the apparent angles, a and b both will be 90º.

Example 7.20 (Fig. 7.20)

A 100 mm long line PQ has its end P 10 mm above the H.P. and 70 mm in front of the V.P.
The line is inclined at 60º to the H.P. and 30º to the V.P. Draw its projections.

Fig. 7.20(a) Position of line Fig. 7.20(b) Method 1 Fig. 7.20(c) Method 2
 Projections of Straight Lines 7.27

Visualisation: Fig. 7.20(a) shows the position of the line PQ kept on the reference planes. The ex-
ample can be solved by two methods as follows:
Method 1: Change of position of line. (Similar to Example 7.16):
Construction: Fig. 7.20(b)
1. Draw a reference line XY.
2. Mark point o on the reference line and draw a vertical projector through it.
3. On the vertical projector mark p′ 10 mm above XY and p 70 mm below XY.
4. Draw 100 mm long p′q1′ inclined at q = 60º to XY.
5. Draw another 100 mm long pq2 inclined at f = 30º to XY.
6. Project point q2 to meet the horizontal line through point p′ at point q2′. Draw an arc with p′ as the
centre and radius p′q2′ to meet the horizontal line through point q1′ at point q′. Join p′q′ to represent
the front view.
7. Project point q1′ to meet the horizontal line through point p at point q1. Draw an arc with p as the
centre and radius pq1 to meet the horizontal line through point q2 at point q. Join pq to represent
the top view.
Method 2: Use of profile plane / auxiliary plane.
Visualisation: Consider the line is kept in the reference planes as shown in Fig. 7.20(a). Let there be
a profile plane on the right side of the line. The line is parallel to the profile plane such that it is inclined
60º to the H.P. and 30º with the V.P. It can be clearly seen that for such line, the front and the top views
will appear as a line perpendicular to XY.
Construction: Fig. 7.20(c)
1. Draw a reference line XY.
2. Draw another reference line X1Y1, perpendicular to the XY to represent the profile plane.
3. Mark point p′′ such that it is 10 mm above XY and 70 mm right to X1Y1.
4. Draw p′′q′′ inclined at 60º to XY. The line would also be inclined at 30º to X1Y1.
5. Draw horizontal lines from points p′′ and q′′, and locate points p′ and q′ such that they lay on a line
perpendicular to XY. Join p′q′ to represent the front view of the line.
6. Draw vertical projectors from p′′ and q′′ to meet XY. Rotate the points obtained with o as the centre
to meet X1Y1. Draw horizontal lines from them, known as locus lines for the top view.
7. Draw vertical projectors from p′ and q′ to meet the locus lines of the top view at points p and q.
Join pq to represent the top view.
Conclusion: When a line is inclined to the reference planes such that q + f = 90º then apparent angles
a = b = 90º. i.e. final front and top views are perpendicular to XY.

7.21 TRACES OF A LINE CONTAINED BY A PROFILE PLANE

When a line is inclined at q to H.P. and f to V.P. such that q + f = 90º, then the line is said to be con-
tained by a profile plane. To determine the H.T. and V.T. we can not follow the procedure of the Ex-
ample 7.19. To locate H.T. and V.T. in such case consider the following example.
7.28 Engineering Graphics

Example 7.21 (Fig. 7.21)

The ends of a straight line PQ are on the same projectors. Locate its traces when

A. End P is 20 mm above the H.P. and 30 mm in front of the V.P. and the end Q is 80 mm
above the H.P. and 70 mm in front of the V.P.
B. End P is 80 mm above the H.P. and 20 mm in front of the V.P. and the end Q is 30 mm
above the H.P. and 70 mm in front of the V.P.

Fig. 7.21(a) Fig. 7.21(b)

Visualisation: As ends of the line lies on the common projector the line is parallel to the profile plane,
i.e. q + f = 90. First draw the projections of the line and then determine the traces of the line in each of
the cases. Fig. 7.21(a) and Fig. 7.21(b) shows the final result. Follow steps 1 to 7 to locate H.T. and V.T.
for both the cases.

Construction: Fig. 7.21(a) and Fig. 7.21(b)

1. Draw a reference line XY.

2. Mark points p′, p, q′ and q for each cases as given in the example. Join p′q′ and p-q to represent
the front and the top views of line PQ, respectively.
3. From points p′ and q′, draw lines p′p1 and q′q1 such that p′p1 = op, q′q1 = oq and they are perpen-
dicular to p′q′. Points p1 and q1 must lie on the same side of p′q′.
4. Join p1q1 and produce it to meet front view p′q′ produced at point v′. Point v′ denotes the V.T. of the
line. The angle made by p1q1 with p′q′ represents the true inclination (f ) of the line PQ with V.P.
5. From points p and q, draw lines pp2 and qq2 such that pp2 = op′, qq2 = oq′ and they are perpendicu-
lar to pq. Points p2 and q2 must lie on the same side of pq.
 Projections of Straight Lines 7.29

6. Join p2q2 and produce it to meet top view pq produced at point h. Point h denotes the H.T. of the
line. The angle made by p2q2 with pq represents the true inclination (q ) of line PQ with H.P.
Conclusion: When q + f = 90º then the H.T. and the V.T. lies on the common projector that of the line
PQ itself.

7.22 MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES

Example 7.22 (Fig. 7.22)

A line CD, 80 mm long is inclined at 45º to H.P. and 30º to the V.P., its end C is in H.P. and 40
mm in front of V.P. Draw the projections. [RGPV Dec. 2004, Feb 2005]

Locus of d ′
d′ d 1′
80
=
TL
45°

c′ d 2′
X Y
40

d1
30°

c
TL
=8
0 Locus of d

d2
d
Fig. 7.22

Given data Interpretation

CD = 80 mm c′d1′ = cd2 = 80 mm
CD is inclined at 45º to H.P. (q = 45º) c′d1′ is inclined at 45º to XY
CD is inclined at 30º to V.P. (f = 30º) cd2 is inclined at 30º to XY
C is in H.P. Point c′ is on XY
C is 40 mm in front of V.P. Point c is 40 mm below XY
7.30 Engineering Graphics

Construction: Fig. 7.22

1. Draw the reference line XY.

2. Mark point c′ on XY and point c 40 mm blow XY.
3. Draw an 80 mm long line c′d1′ making 45º with XY.
4. Draw another 80 mm long line cd2 making 30º with XY.
5. Project d1′ to meet horizontal line from c at point d1. Draw an arc with c as the centre and radius
cd1 to meet the horizontal line through d2 at point d. Join cd to represent the top view.
6. Project d2 to meet horizontal line through c′ at point d2′. Draw an arc with c′ as the centre and c′d2′ as
the radius to meet the horizontal line through d1′ at point d ′. Join c′d ′ to represent the front view.
7. Join d ′d. If d ′d is exactly perpendicular to XY, it indicates that the drawing is accurate.

Example 7.23 (Fig. 7.23)

A 100 mm long line PQ is inclined at 30º to H.P. and 45º to the V.P. Its mid-point is 35 mm
above the H.P. and 50 mm in front of V.P. Draw its projections.

q′ q′
1
30°

p′ m′
2
q′
2
35

p′
1 p′
x y
p2 p
50

p1 q
m
45°

q q2

Fig. 7.23

Given data Interpretation

PQ = 100 mm and M is the mid-point p1′m′ = m′q1′ = 50 mm, p2m = mq2 = 50 mm
Mid-point M is 35 mm above the H.P. m′ is 35 mm above XY
Mid-point M is 50 mm in front of V.P. m is 50 mm below XY
Line is inclined at 30º to H.P. (q = 30º) p′m′q1′ is making 30º with XY
Line is inclined at 45º to V.P. (f = 45º) p2mq2 is making 45º with XY
 Projections of Straight Lines 7.31

Construction: Fig. 7.23

1. Draw a reference line XY. Mark point m′ 35 mm above XY and point m 50 mm below XY.
2. Draw a 50 mm long line m′q1′ inclined at 30º to XY. Produce it such that p1′q1′ = 100 mm.
3. Draw another 50 mm line mq2 inclined at 45º to XY. Produce it such that p2q2 = 100 mm.
4. Project points p1′ and q1′ to meet the horizontal line through point m at points p1 and q1 respectively.
Draw an arc with m as the centre and radius mp1 (or mq1) to meet the horizontal lines through points
p1′ and q1′ at points p and q, respectively. Join pmq to represent the top view.
5. Draw vertical projectors from points p2 and q2 to meet the horizontal line through point m′ at points
p2′ and q2′ respectively. Draw an arc with m′ as the centre and radius m′p2′ (or m′q2′ ) to meet the
horizontal lines through points p2 and q2 at points p′ and q′, respectively. Join p′m′q′ to represent
front view.
6. Join p′p and q′q and ensure that these are perpendicular to XY.

Example 7.24 (Fig. 7.24)

An 80 mm long line PQ has its end P 15 mm from both H.P. and V.P. The other end Q is 40
mm above H.P. and 50 mm in front of V.P. Draw the projections of the line and determine
the inclinations with H.P. and V.P.
[RGPV June 2008, Feb. 2010, Aug. 2010]

q ′ q1′
80
18°

40

q2′ Inclination with

p′
15

H.P., q = 18°
X Y Inclination with
15

V.P., f = 26°
p
q1
26°

50

80

q q2

Fig. 7.24

Given data Interpretation

PQ = 80 mm p′q1′ = pq2 = 80 mm
P is 15 mm above H.P. Point p′ is 15 mm above XY
P is 15 mm in front of V.P. Point p is 15 mm below XY
Q is 40 mm above H.P. Points q′ and q1′ are 40 mm above XY
Q is 50 mm in front of V.P. Points q and q2 are 50 mm below XY
7.32 Engineering Graphics

Construction: Fig. 7.24

1. Draw a reference line XY. Mark point p′ 15 mm above XY and point p 15 mm below XY.
2. Draw a horizontal line 40 mm above XY as locus line of point q′ and q1′.
3. Draw another horizontal line 50 mm below XY as locus line of point q and q2.
4. Draw an arc with p′ as the centre and radius 80 mm to intersect locus of q1′ at point q1′.
Measure the inclination of line p′q1′ with XY. It is the required inclination q of the line with
H.P. Here q = 18º.
5. Draw an arc with p as the centre and 80 mm radius to intersect locus of q2 at point q2. Mea-
sure the inclination of line pq2 with XY. It is the required inclination f of the line with V.P.
Here f = 26º.
6. Project q1′ to meet horizontal line through p at point q1. Draw an arc with p as the centre and radius
pq1 to intersect the locus of q at point q. Join pq to represent the top view.
7. Project q2 to meet horizontal line through p′ at point q2′. Draw an arc with p′ as the centre and
radius p′q2′ to intersect locus of q′ at point q′. Join p′q′ to represent the front view.
8. Join q′q and ensure that it is perpendicular to XY.

Example 7.25 (Fig. 7.25)

Draw projections and find out the true length of a line AB, with end B on H.P. and 40 mm
in front of V.P. AB is inclined at 30º to H.P. and 45º to V.P. and its plan measures 50 mm.
[RGPV April 2009]

= 58
a′ a1′
TL
30°

a2 ′
X Y
b′ 50
True length of line AB,
40

a1′b ′ = a 2b = 58 mm

b a1
45°
50
TL
=
58

a a2

Fig. 7.25
 Projections of Straight Lines 7.33

Given data Interpretation

End B is on H.P. Point b′ is on XY
End B is 40 mm in front of V.P. Point b is 40 mm below XY
AB is inclined at 30º to H.P. (q = 30º) b′a1′ is inclined at 30º to XY
AB is inclined at 45º to V.P. (f = 30º) ba2 is inclined at 45º to XY
Plan measures 50 mm ba = ba1 = 50 mm

Construction: Fig. 7.25

1. Draw a reference line XY. Mark point b′ on XY and point b 40 mm below XY.
2. Draw a 50 mm long line ba1 parallel to XY.
3. From point b′, draw a line inclined at 30º to meet the vertical projector through point a1 at point
a1′. Measure length b′a1′ = 58 mm as true length of the line.
4. From point b, draw a line ba2 equal to b′a1′, inclined at 45º to XY.
5. Draw an arc with b as the centre and radius ba1 to meet the horizontal line through point a2 at point
a. Join ba to represent the top view.
6. Project a2 to meet horizontal line through b′ at point a2′. Draw an arc with b′ as the centre and radius
b′a2′ to meet the horizontal line through point a1′ at point a′. Join b′a′ to represent the front view.
7. Join a′a and ensure that it is perpendicular to XY.

Example 7.26 (Fig. 7.26)

The top view of a 80 mm long line AB measures 65 mm, while the length of its front view is 55
mm. Its one end A is in the H.P. and 12 mm in front of the V.P. Draw the projections of AB
and determine its inclination with the H.P. and V.P. [RGPV June 2009]
b′ b1′
55

80
36°

b2′ Inclination with

X Y H.P., q = 36°
a′
12

b1 Inclination with
a V.P., f = 47°
47°
80
65

b b2

Fig. 7.26
7.34 Engineering Graphics

Given data Interpretation

AB = 80 mm a′b1′ = ab2 = 80 mm
Top view measures 65 mm ab = ab1 = 65 mm
Length of front view is 55 mm a′b′ = a′b2′ = 55 mm
End A is in the H.P. a′ is on XY
End A is 12 mm in front of the V.P. a is 12 mm below XY

Construction: Fig. 7.26

1. Draw a reference line XY. Mark point a′ on XY and point a 12 mm below XY.
2. Draw a 65 mm long line ab1 parallel to XY.
3. Draw another 55 mm long line a′b2′ parallel to XY.
4. Draw an arc with a′ as the centre and 80 mm radius to meet the vertical projector from point b1
at point b1′. Join a′b1′. Measure the inclination of the line a′b1′ with XY. Here q = 36º which is the
required inclination of line with H.P.
5. Draw an arc with a as the centre and 80 mm radius to meet the vertical projector from b2′ at point
b2. Join ab2. Measure the inclination of the line ab2 with XY. Here f = 47º which is the required
inclination of line with V.P.
6. Draw an arc with a′ as centre and radius a′b2′ to meet the horizontal line through point b1′ at point
b′. Join a′b′ to represent the front view.
7. Draw an arc with a as centre and radius ab1 to meet the horizontal line through point b2 at point b.
Join ab to represents the top view.
8. Join b′b and ensure that it is perpendicular to XY.

Example 7.27(Fig. 7.27)

The front view and top view of a straight line PQ measures 50 mm and 65 mm respectively.
Point p is in the H.P. and 20 mm in front of the V.P. and the front view of the line is inclined
at 45º to the reference line. Determine the true length of PQ, true angles of inclination with
the reference planes and the trace.

q′ q1′
50

True length, p′q1′ = pq2 = 74 mm

28°
45°

v p′ q2′ Inclination with H.P., q = 28°

X Y
h′ Inclination with V.P., f = 47°
20

v′
The H.T. is represented by h.
h
q1 The V.T. is represented by v ′
p
47°
65

q q2

Fig. 7.27
 Projections of Straight Lines 7.35

Given data Interpretation

Front view = 50 mm p′q′ = p′q2′ = 50 mm
Top view = 65 mm pq = pq1 = 65 mm
End P is in the H.P. Point p′ is on the XY
End P is 20 mm in front of the V.P. Point p is 20 mm below the XY
Front view is inclined 45º to XY a = 45º (i.e. p′q′ makes 45º with XY)

Construction: Fig. 7.27

1. Draw a reference line XY. Mark point p′ on XY and point p 20 mm below XY.
2. From point p′, draw a 50 mm long line p′q′ such that it is inclined at a = 45º with XY. Line p′q′
represents the front view.
3. Draw an arc with p as the centre and radius 65 mm to meet the vertical projector from point q′ at
point q. Join pq to represent the top view.
4. Draw an arc with p′ as the centre and radius p′q′ to meet the horizontal line through p′ at point
q2′. Project q2′ to meet the horizontal line through point q at point q2. Join pq2 to represent the true
length. The inclination of pq2 with XY represents the inclination of line with V.P. Here f = 47º.
5. Draw another arc with p as the centre and radius PQ to meet the horizontal line through p at point
q1. Project q1 to meet the horizontal line through point q′ at point q1′. Join p′q1′ to represent the true
length. The inclination of p′q1′ with XY represents the inclination of line with H.P. Here q = 28º.
6. Ensure that true lengths of the line p′q1′ = pq2 = 74 mm.
7. Line p′q′ meet XY at point h′. Project point h′ to meet line pq at point h. Point h represents the H.T.
Here, point h coincides with point p.
8. Produce line pq to meet XY at point v. Project point v to meet line p′q′ produced at point v′. Point
v′ represents the V.T.

Example 7.28 (Fig. 7.28)

A 70 mm long line PQ is inclined at 45º to the V.P. Its end P lies in the H.P. and 15 mm in front
of the V.P. The top view of the line measures 60 mm. Draw its projections and determine true
inclination with H.P.
q′ q1′

70
31°

p′ q2′
X Y
15

q1
p
45°

Inclination with
H.P., q = 31°
70
60

q q2

Fig. 7.28
7.36 Engineering Graphics

Given data Interpretation

PQ = 70 mm p′q1′ = pq2 = 70 mm
Line is inclined at 45º to V.P. (f = 45º) pq2 is inclined at 45º to XY
End P is in the H.P. Point p′ is on XY
End P is 15 mm in front of the V.P. Point p is 15 mm below XY
Top view measures 60 mm pq = pq1 = 60 mm

Construction: Fig. 7.28

1. Draw a reference line XY. Mark point p′ on XY and point p 15 mm below XY.
2. From point p, draw a 70 mm long line pq2 such that it is inclined at f = 45º with XY.
3. Draw an arc with p as the centre and 60 mm radius to meet the horizontal line through point q2 at
point q. Join pq to represent the top view.
4. Draw an arc with p as the centre and radius pq to meet the horizontal line through p at point q1.
Draw another arc with p′ as the centre and 70 mm radius long to meet the vertical projector from
point q1 at point q1′. Join p′q1′ to represents the true inclination of line with H.P. Here, q = 31º
5. Draw a vertical line from point q2 to meet the horizontal line through p′ at point q2′. Draw an arc
with p′ as the centre and radius p′q2′ to meet the horizontal line through point q1′ at point q′. Join
p′q′ to represent the front view.
6. Join q′q and ensure that it is perpendicular to XY.

Example 7.29 (Fig. 7.29)

A line AB, 90 mm long is inclined at 30º to the H.P. Its end A is 12 mm above H.P. and 20 mm
in front of the V.P. Its front view measures 65 mm. Draw the top view of AB and determine
its inclination with the V.P. Also, locate the V.T. and H.T. of the line. [RGPV Feb. 2007]

b′ b1′

65
90
30°

a′
b2′
12

v h′ Y
X
v ′h
20

a b1
44°

Inclination with
90 V.P., f = 44°

b b2
Fig. 7.29
 Projections of Straight Lines 7.37

Given data Interpretation

AB is 90 mm long a′b1′ = ab2 = 90 mm
Line is inclined at 30º to H.P. (q = 30º) a′b1′ is making 30º with XY
End A is 12 mm above H.P. a′ is 12 mm above XY
End A is 20 mm in front of the V.P. a is 20 mm below XY
Front view measures 65 mm a′b′ = a′b2′ = 65 mm

Construction: Fig. 7.29

1. Draw XY. Mark point a′ 12 mm above XY and point a 20 mm below XY.

2. From point a′, draw a 90 mm long line a′b1′ at q = 30º with XY.
3. Draw an arc with a′ as the centre and 65 mm radius to meet the horizontal line through point b1′ at
point b′. Join a′b′ to represent the front view.
4. Draw an arc with a′ as the centre and radius a′b′ to meet the horizontal line through a′ at point b2′.
Draw another arc with a as the centre and 90 mm radius to meet the vertical projector from point
b2′ at point b2. Join ab2 and measure its inclination with V.P. as f = 44º.
5. Draw a vertical line from point b1′ to meet the horizontal line through point a at point b1. Draw an
arc with a as the centre and radius ab1 to meet the horizontal line through point b2 at point b. Join
ab to represent the top view.
6. Join b′b and ensure that it is perpendicular to XY.
7. Produce a′b′ to meet XY at point h′. Project point h′ to meet extended line ab at point h. Point h
represents the H.T.
8. Produce line ab to meet XY at point v. Project point v to meet extended line a′b′ at point v′. Point
v ′ represents the V.T.

Example 7.30 (Fig. 7.30)

The front view and top view of a 80 mm long line PQ measures 70 mm and 60 mm respec-
tively. End P is in the H.P. and Q in the V.P. Draw the projections and determine true inclina-
tions with H.P. and V.P. Also, locate the traces.
q′ q1′
v′

80
70
41°

p′ q q1′′ q2′
X Y
h′ v q2
Inclination with H.P., q = 41°
60 Inclination with V.P., f = 29°
80
The H.T. is represented by h.
The V.T. is represented by v ′
29°

ph q1

Fig. 7.30
7.38 Engineering Graphics

Given data Interpretation

PQ = 80 mm p′q1′ = pq2 = 80 mm
Front view measures 70 mm p′q′ = p′q2′ = 70 mm
Top view measures 60 mm pq = pq1 = 60 mm
End P is in the H.P. Point p′ is on XY
End Q is in the V.P. Point q is on XY

Construction: Fig. 7.30

1. Draw a reference line XY. Mark point p′ on XY.
2. From point p′, draw a 60 mm long line p′q1″ long. Draw an arc with p′ as the centre and 80 mm
radius to meet the vertical projector from point q1″ at point q1′. Join p′q1′. Measure the inclination
of line p′q1′ with XY as inclination with H.P. Here q = 41º.
3. Draw an arc with p′ as the centre and 70 mm radius to meet the horizontal line through point q1′ at
point q′. Join p′q′ to represent the front view.
4. Project point q′ to meet XY at point q (because q lies on XY).
5. From point q, draw an arc of 60 mm radius to meet the vertical projector from point p′ at point p.
Join pq to represents the top view.
6. Draw an arc with p′ as the centre and radius p′q′ to meet the horizontal line through p′ at point q2.
Join pq2. Measure the inclination of pq2 with XY as inclination of line with V.P. Here f = 29º.
7. Ensure that length pq2 is equal to 80 mm.
8. Line p′q′ meets XY at point h′. Project point h′ to meet line pq at point h. Point h represents the
H.T. Here, point h coincides with point p.
9. Similarly, line pq meets XY at point v. Project point v to meet line p′q′ at point v′. Point v′ repre-
sents the V.T. Here, point v′ coincides with point q′.

Example 7.31 (Fig. 7.31)

A line AB has its end A 12 mm above H.P. and 10 mm in front of V.P. The end B is 50 mm
above the H.P. and the line is inclined at 30º to the H.P. The distance between the end projec-
tors of the line is 50 mm. Draw the projections of the line, find its inclination with V.P. and
locate its traces. [RGPV June 2009]
b′ b1′
50
30°

a′
b2′
10 12

h v′
X o o1 Y
h′v
b1
a Inclination with V.P., f = 34°
34°

The H.T.
T is represented by h.
The V.T. is represented by v ′
True length, a′b1′ = ab2 = 76 mm

b b2
50

Fig. 7.31
 Projections of Straight Lines 7.39

Given data Interpretation

A is 12 mm above H.P. a′ is 12 mm above XY
A is 10 mm in front of V.P. a is 10 mm below XY
B is 50 mm above the H.P. b′ is 50 mm above XY
Line is inclined at 30º to H.P. (q = 30º) a′b1′ is inclined at 30º to XY
distance between end projectors = 50 mm oo1 = 50 mm,

Construction: Fig. 7.31

1. Draw a reference line XY. Mark points o and o1 on XY such that oo1 = 50 mm.
2. On the vertical projector through point o, mark point a′ 12 mm above XY and point a 10 mm below XY.
3. On the vertical projector through point o1, mark point b′ 50 mm above XY.
4. Join a′b′ to represent the front view.
5. Draw a line from point a′ inclined at 30º with XY to meet horizontal line through point b′ at point b1′.
6. Project point b1′ to meet the horizontal line through point a at point b1. Draw an arc with point
a as the centre and radius ab1 to meet the vertical projector from point b′ at point b. Join ab to
represent the top view.
7. Draw an arc with a′ as centre and radius a′b′ to meet the horizontal line through point a′ at point
b2′. Project point b2′ to meet the horizontal line through point b at point b2. Join ab2. Measure the
inclination of ab2 with XY as the inclination of line with V.P. Here f = 34º.
8. Ensure that true length represented by line a′b1′ and line ab2 are equal. Here, T.L. = 76 mm.
9. Produce line a′b′ to meet XY at point h′. Project point h′ to meet line ab produced at point h. Point
h represents the H.T.
10. Produce line ab to meet XY at point v. Project point v to meet line a′b′ produced at point v′. Point
v′ represents the V.T.

Example 7.32 (Fig. 7.32)

A line AB, 90 mm long is inclined at 45º to H.P. and its top view makes an angle of 60º with
V.P. The end A is in the H.P. and 12 mm in front of V.P. Draw its front view and find its true
inclination with V.P. Also, locate its traces. [RGPV Dec. 2005, June 2007]
b′ b 1′
90
45°

v a′ b 2′
X Y
h′
12

h b1
v ′a
3 8°
°
60

P f = 38°
Inclination with V.P.,
90 The H.T.
T is represented by h.
The V.T. is represented by v ′

b b2

Fig. 7.32
7.40 Engineering Graphics

Given data Interpretation

AB = 90 mm a′b1′ = ab2 = 90 mm,

Line is inclined at 45º to H.P. (q = 45º) a′b1′ is inclined at 45º to XY

Top view makes an angle of 60º with V.P. (b = 60º) ab is inclined at 60º to XY

A is in the H.P. Point a′ is on XY

A is 12 mm in front of the V.P. Point a is 12 mm below XY

Construction: Fig. 7.32

1. Draw a reference line XY. Mark point a′ on XY and point a 12 mm below XY.
2. Draw a 90 mm long line a′b1′, inclined at 45º with XY.
3. Project point b1′ to meet horizontal line through point a at point b1. Draw an arc with point a as the
centre and radius ab1.
4. Draw a line from point a inclined at 60º with XY to intersecting the arc from ab1 at point b. Join
AB to represent the top view.
5. Draw a horizontal line from point b as the locus of b2. Cut an arc with a as the centre and 90 mm
radius to meet locus of b2 at point b2. Join ab2. Measure the inclination of line ab2 with XY. This is
the inclination f of line with V.P. Here f = 38º.
6. Project point b2 to meet the horizontal line through a′ at point b2′. Draw an arc with a′ as the centre
and radius a′b2′ to meet the horizontal line through point b1′ at point b′. Join a′b′ to represent the
front view.
7. Join b′b and ensure that it is perpendicular to XY.
8. Line a′b′ meet XY at point h′. Project point h′ to meet line ab at point h. Point h represents the H.T.
Here, point h coincides with point a.
9. Produce line ab to meet XY at point v. Project point v to meet line a′b′ produced at point v′. Point
v′ represents the V.T.

Example 7.33 (Fig. 7.33)

A line AB inclined at 40º to H.P. has its front view 60 mm long and inclined at 60º to the ref-
erence line. One end is 20 mm away from both the reference planes in first angle. Locate the
position of end B. Find true length and true inclination of the line with V.P. Also, show its
traces.

[RGPV Dec. 2008]

 Projections of Straight Lines 7.41

b′ b 1′

81

60

40°
60
a′

°
b 2′
20

h v′
X Y
h′ v
20

True length a′b1′ = ab2 = 81mm

a b1 P f = 42°
Inclination with V.P.,
42°

The H.T. is represented by h.

The V.T. is represented by v ′
81

b b2

Fig. 7.33

Given data Interpretation

Line is inclined at 40º to H.P. (q = 40º) a′b1′ is inclined at 40º to XY
Front view is 60 mm long a′b′ = a′b2′ = 60 mm
Front view is inclined at 60º with V.P. (a = 60º) a′b′ is inclined at 60º to XY
End A is 20 mm from H.P. a′ is 20 mm above XY
End A is 20 mm from V.P. a is 20 mm below XY

Construction: Fig. 7.33

1. Draw a reference line XY. Mark point a′ 20 mm above XY and point a 20 mm below XY.
2. Draw a 60 mm long line a′b′, inclined at 60º to XY to represent the front view.
3. From point a′, draw a line inclined at 40º to XY to meet the horizontal line through point b′ at point
b1′. Measure a′b1′ as true length of the line. Here T.L. = 81 mm.
4. Draw an arc with a′ as the centre and radius a′b′ to meet the horizontal line through point a′ at
point b2′. Draw another arc with a as the centre of 81 mm radius to meet the vertical projector from
point b2′ at point b2. Join ab2. Measure its inclination with XY. This is the inclination f of line with
V.P. Here, f = 42º.
5. Project point b1′ to meet the horizontal line through a at point b1. Draw an arc with a as the centre and
radius ab1 to meet the horizontal line through point b2 at point b. Join ab to represent the top view.
7.42 Engineering Graphics

6. Join b′b and ensure that it perpendicular to XY.

7. Produce line a′b′ to meet XY at point h′. Project point h′ to meet line ab produced at point h. Point
h represents the H.T.
8. Produce line ab to meet XY at point v. Project point v to meet line a′b′ produced at point v′. Point
v′ represents the V.T.

Example 7.34 (Fig. 7.34)

A 80 mm long line PQ has its end P 10 mm above the H.P. and 25 mm in front of the V.P. The
line is inclined at 30º to the H.P. and 60º to the V.P. Draw its projections.

q' q 1′

30° 80

p′
q 2′
10

X Y
25

q1
p
°
60
80

q q2
Fig. 7.34

Given data Interpretation

PQ = 80 mm p′q1′ = pq2 = 80 mm,
P is 10 mm above the H.P. p′ is 10 above XY
P is 25 mm in front of the V.P. p is 25 mm below XY
Line is inclined at 30º to H.P. (q = 30º) p′q1′ is inclined at 30º to XY
Line is inclined at 60º to V.P. (f = 60º) pq2 is inclined at 60º to XY

Construction: Fig. 7.34

1. Draw a reference line XY. Mark point p′ on XY and point p 25 mm below XY.
2. Draw 80 mm long line p′q1′ inclined at 30º to XY.
3. Draw another 80 mm long line pq2 inclined at 60º to XY.
 Projections of Straight Lines 7.43

4. Project q1′ to meet horizontal line through p at point q1. Draw an arc with p as the centre and radius
pq1 to meet the horizontal line through q2 at point q. Join pq to represent the top view.
5. Project q2 to meet horizontal line through p′ at point q2′. Draw an arc with p′ as the centre and
p′q2′ as the radius to meet the horizontal line through q1′ at point q′. Join p′q′ to represent the front
view.
6. Join q′q and ensure that it is perpendicular to XY. Here, it may be noted that here q + f = 90º, hence
both the front and the top views are perpendicular to XY.

Example 7.35 (Fig. 7.35)

A 75 mm long line PQ has its end P 15 mm above the H.P. and 20 mm in front of the V.P.
The front and top views are 45 mm and 60 mm long, respectively. Draw its projections and
determine the true inclinations with the reference planes.

q′ q1′

75
45

37°

q 2′
15

p′
X Y
20

q1 Inclination with H.P., q = 37°

p
53°

Inclination with V.P., f = 53°

60

75

q q2

Fig. 7.35

Given data Interpretation

PQ = 75 mm p′q1′ = pq2 = 75 mm,
P is 15 mm above the H.P. Point p′ is 15 above XY
P is 20 mm in front of the V.P. Point p is 20 mm below XY
Front view is 45 mm long p′q′ = p′q2′ = 45 mm
Top view is 60 mm long pq = pq1 = 60 mm

Construction: Fig. 7.35

1. Draw a reference line XY. Mark point p′ 15 mm above XY and point p 20 mm below XY.
2. Draw a 45 mm long line p′q2′ and 60 mm long line pq1, parallel to XY.
7.44 Engineering Graphics

3. Draw an arc with p′ as the centre and 75 mm radius to meet the vertical projector from point q1 at
point q1′. Join p′q1′. Measure the inclination of line p′q1′ with XY as true inclination of line with
H.P. Here q = 37º.
4. Draw another arc with p as the centre and 75 mm radius to meet the vertical projector from point
q2′ at point q2. Join pq2. Measure the inclination of line pq2 with XY as true inclination of line with
V.P. Here, f = 53º.
5. Draw an arc with p′ as the centre and radius p′q2′ to meet the horizontal line through q1′ at point
q′. Join p′q′ to represent the front view.
6. Draw an arc with p as the centre and radius pq1 to meet the horizontal line through q2 at point q.
Join PQ to represent the top view.
7. Join q′q and ensure that it is perpendicular to XY. Here, it may be noted that 452+602 = 752, hence
both the front and the top views are perpendicular to XY.

Example 7.36 (Fig. 7.36)

A 80 mm long line PQ Q has its end P 15 mm above the H.P. and 50 mm in front of the V.P. while
the end Q in the V.P. Draw the projections of the line when the sum of its inclination with the
H.P. and V.P. is 90º. Determine the true inclination with the reference planes and its traces.
v′, q′ q1′
b
80
51°

a q2′
p′
15

d q
X Y
q2

80
50

Inclination with H.P., q = 51°

Inclination with V.P., f = 39°
The H.T.
T is represented by h.
39°

The V.T. is represented by v ′

c q1
p

h
Fig. 7.36

Given data Interpretation

PQ = 80 mm p′q1′ = pq2 = 80 mm,
End p is 15 mm above the H.P. p′ is 15 above XY
End p is 50 mm in front of the V.P. p is 50 mm below XY
End q is in the V.P. q is on XY
q + f = 90º a = b = 90º, p′q′ and PQ are perpendicular to XY
 Projections of Straight Lines 7.45

Construction: Fig. 7.36

1. Draw a reference line XY. On a vertical projector, mark point p′ 15 mm above XY, point p 50 mm
below XY and point q on XY. Join pq to represent the top view.
2. Draw an arc with p as the centre and 80 mm radius to meet the horizontal line through q at point q2.
Join pq2. Measure the inclination of line pq2 with XY as true inclination with V.P. Here, f = 39º.
3. Draw an arc with p as the centre and radius pq to meet the horizontal line through p at point q1. Draw
another arc with p′ as the centre and 80 mm radius to meet the vertical projector from point q1 at point q1′.
Join p′q1′. Measure the inclination of line p′q1′ with XY as the true inclination with H.P. Here, q = 51º.
4. Draw a vertical line from q2 to meet the horizontal line through p′ at point q2′. Draw an arc with p′
as the centre and radius p′q2′ to meet the horizontal line through q1′ at point q. Join p′q′ to represent
front view.
5. Draw lines p′a and q′b perpendicular to p′q′ on the same side of p′q′ such that p′a = op, q′b = oq.
Join ab and produce it to meet line p′q′ produced at point v′. Point v′ represents the V.T.
6. Draw lines pc and qd perpendicular to pq on the same side of pq such that pc = op′, qd = oq′. Join
cd and produce it to meet line pq produced at point h. Point h represents the H.T.

Example 7.37 (Fig. 7.37)

A line AB, inclined at 40º to the V.P. has its ends 50 mm and 20 mm above the H.P. The length
of its front view is 65 mm and its V.T. is 10 mm above the H.P. Determine the true length of
AB, its inclination with the H.P. and its H.T. [RGPV Feb. 2006]

85
.=
T.L b′ b1′
65
21°

50

h a′
v′
20

b2′
10

X Y
4 0°

h′ v

a b1 True length a′b1′ = 85 mm

P q = 21°
Inclination with H.P.,
The H.T.
T is represented by h.

b b2
Fig. 7.37

Given data Interpretation

AB inclined at 40º to the V.P. (f = 40º) a′b1′ is inclined at 40º to XY
B is 50 mm above the H.P. b′ is 50 mm above XY
A is 20 mm above the H.P. a′ is 20 mm above XY
Length of front view is 65 mm a′b′ = p′q2′ = 65 mm
V.T. is 10 mm above the H.P. v′ is 10 mm above XY, vv′ = 10 mm
7.46 Engineering Graphics

Construction: Fig. 7.37

1. Draw a reference line XY. Mark point a′ 20 mm above XY.

2. Draw a horizontal line 50 mm above XY as the loci of b′ and b1′. Draw an arc with a′ as the centre
and 65 mm radius long to intersect the locus of b′ at point b′. Join a′b′ to represent the front view.
3. Draw a line 10 mm above XY as the locus of v′. Produce a′b′ to meet the locus of v′ at point v′.
Point v′ represents the V.T. Project point v′ to meet XY at point v.
4. Draw an arc with v′ as the centre and radius v′b′ to meet the horizontal line through v′ at point b2′. Draw
a line from point v inclined at 40º to XY to meet the vertical projector from b2′ at point b2. Join vb2.
5. Project point b′ to meet the horizontal line through b2 at point b. Join vb. Project point a′ to meet
line vb at point a. Join ab to represent the top view.
6. Draw an arc with a as the centre and radius ab to meet the horizontal line through a at point b1.
Project point b1 to meet the horizontal line through point b1′ at point b1′. Join a′b1′. Measure a′b1′
as true length. Here T.L. = 85 mm.
7. Produce a′b′ to meet XY at point h′. Project h′ to meet ab produced at point h. Point h represents
the H.T.

Example 7.38 (Fig. 7.38)

A line AB has its ends A and B 20 mm and 45 mm in front of V.P. respectively. The end projec-
tors of the line are 50 mm apart. The H.T. of the line is 10 mm in front of the V.P. The line is
inclined at 35º to H.P. Draw the projections of the line and determine the true length of line and
locate its V.T. of the line from H.P. and inclination of the line with V.P. [RGPV June 2008]
b′ b1′

a′ b2′
35°

v h′
X o1 Y
o
10
20

b1
h
v′ True length ab2 = 68 mm
45

a
21°

Inclination with V.P., f = 21°

The V.T. is represented by v ′.
T.L.
= 68
b b2
50

Fig. 7.38

Given data Interpretation

A is 20 mm in front of V.P. a is 20 mm below XY
B is 45 mm in front of V.P. b is 45 mm below XY
End projectors are 50 mm apart oo1 = 50 mm
H.T. is 10 mm in front of V.P. h is 10 mm below XY, hh′ = 10 mm
Line is inclined at 35º to H.P. (q = 35º) a′b1′ is inclined at 35º to XY
 Projections of Straight Lines 7.47

Construction: Fig. 7.38

1. Draw a reference line XY. Mark points o and o1 on XY such that oo1 = 50 mm.
2. On the vertical projector of point o, mark point a 20 mm below XY. Similarly, on the vertical pro-
jector of point o1, mark point b 45 mm below XY. Join ab to represent the top view.
3. Draw a horizontal line 10 mm below XY as the locus of h. Produce ab to meet the locus of h at
point h. Point h represents the H.T. Project point h to meet XY at point h′.
4. Draw an arc with h as the centre and radius hb to meet the horizontal line through h at point b1. Draw
a line from point h′ inclined at 35º to XY to meet the vertical projector from b1 at point b1′. Join h′b1′.
5. Project point b to meet the horizontal line through b1′ at point b′. Join h′b′. Project point a to meet
line h′b′ at point a′. Join a′b′ to represent the front view.
6. Draw an arc with a′ as the centre and radius a′b′ to meet the horizontal line through a′ at point b2′.
Project point b2′ to meet the horizontal line through b at point b2. Join ab2. Measure ab2 as true
length and its inclination with XY as true inclination with V.P. Here, T.L. = 68 mm and f = 21º.
7. Produce ab to meet XY at point v. Project v to meet a′b′ produced at point v′. Point v′ represents
the V.T.

Example 7.39 (Fig. 7.39)

The front view of a line AB measures 65 mm and makes an angle of 45º with XY. A is in the
H.P. and the V.T. of the line is 15 mm below the H.P. The line is inclined at 30º to the V.P.
Draw the projections of AB and find its true length and inclination with the H.P. Also, locate
its H.T. [RGPV Feb. 2006]

b′ b1′
75
L .=
T.
65

38°
45°

True length, a′b1 ′ = 75 mm

v h ′ a′
X Y Inclination with H.P., q = 38°
30°
15

The H.T.
T is represented by h.
h,a b1
b2′
v′

b b2

Fig. 7.39

Given data Interpretation

Front view measures 65 mm a′b′ = 65 mm
Front view makes 45º with XY (a = 45º) a′b′ is inclined at 45º to XY
A is in the H.P. a′ is on XY
V.T. is 15 mm below the H.P. v′ is 15 mm below XY, vv′ = 15 mm
Line is inclined at 30º to the V.P. (f = 30º) ab2 is inclined at 30º to XY
7.48 Engineering Graphics

Construction: Fig. 7.39

1. Draw a reference line XY. Mark point a′ on H.P.

2. Draw a 65 mm long line a′b′ inclined at 45º to XY. This represents the front view.
3. Produce a′b′ to meet at a point v′, 15 mm below XY. Point v′ denotes V.T. Project v′ to meet XY at point v.
4. Draw an arc with v′ as the centre and radius v′b′ to meet the horizontal line through v′ at point b2′. From
point v, draw a line inclined at 30º to XY to meet the vertical projector from point b2′ at point b2. Join vb2.
5. Project point b′ to meet the horizontal line from point b2 at point b. Join vb. Project a′ to meet vb
at point a. Join ab to represent the top view.
6. Draw an arc with a as the centre and radius ab to meet the horizontal line through point a at point b1.
Project point b1 to meet the horizontal line from point b′ at point b1′. Join a′b1′. Measure a′b1′ as true
length and its inclination with XY as true inclination with H.P. Here, T.L. = 75 mm and q = 38º.
7. Front view a′b′ meets XY at h′ which coincides with a′. Project h′ to meet ab at point h which also
coincides with a. Point h denotes the H.T.

Example 7.40 (Fig. 7.40)

A line AB measures 100 mm. The projectors through its V.T. and the end A are 40 mm apart.
The end A is 30 mm above H.P. and 20 mm in front of V.P. The V.T. is 10 mm below the H.P.
Draw the projections of the line and determine H.T. and inclination of line with H.P. and V.P.
[RGPV June 2004]

b′ b1′

0
10

Inclination with H.P., q = 42°

42°

Inclination with V.P., f = 19°

a′ a1′ The H.T.
T is represented by h.
30

v h′ a1
X o Y
10

h a2′
20

19°

v′
a a2
100
40

b b2

Fig. 7.40
 Projections of Straight Lines 7.49

Given data Interpretation

AB measures 100 mm a′b1′ = a2b2= 100 mm

Projector through V.T. and end A are 40 mm apart ov = 40 mm

A is 30 mm above the H.P. a′ is 30 mm above XY

A is 20 mm in front of the V.P. a is 20 mm below XY

V.T. is 10 mm below the H.P. v′ is 10 mm below XY

Construction: Fig. 7.40

1. Draw a reference line XY. Mark points o and v on XY such that ov = 40 mm.
2. On the projector through o mark point a′ 30 mm above XY and a 20 mm below XY. On the projector
through v mark point v′ 10 mm below XY. Join v′a′ and va.
3. Consider lines v′a′ and va as the front and top views of line VA and determine its true
length.
4. Draw an arc with v as the centre and radius va to meet the horizontal line through v at point a1.
Draw a vertical projector from a1 to meet the horizontal line from a′ at point a1′. Join v′a1′ and
produce it to b1′ such that a1′b1′ = 100 mm. Measure the inclination of the line a1′b1′ with XY. This
is true inclination q of AB with H.P. Here q = 42º.
5. Draw an arc with v′ as the centre and radius v′a′ to meet the horizontal line through v′ at point a2′.
Project a2′ to meet the horizontal line from a at point a2. Join va2 and produce it to b2 such that
a2b2 = 100 mm. Measure the inclination of the line a2b2 with XY. This is true inclination f of AB
with V.P. Here f = 19º.
6. Draw a horizontal line from b1′ to meet v′a′ produced at point b′. Line a′b′ represents the front
view.
7. Draw another horizontal line from b2 to meet va produced at point b. Line ab represents the top view.
8. Join b′b to ensure that it is perpendicular to XY.
9. Produce a′b′ to meet XY at point h′. Project h′ to meet ab produced at point h. Point h represents
the H.T.

Example 7.41 (Fig. 7.41)

The front view of a line AB makes an angle of 30º with XY line. The H.T. of the line is 45 mm
in front of V.P., while its V.T. is 30 mm below the H.P. End A is 12 mm above H.P. and end
B is 105 mm in front of V.P. Draw the projections of the line and find its true length, inclina-
tions with H.P. and V.P.

[RGPV Dec. 2003]

7.50 Engineering Graphics

b′ b1′
70

24°
a′ b2′
12

30°
v h′
X o Y
30
45

v′
True length, a′b1′ = ab2 = 70 mm
h

105
P q = 24°
Inclination with H.P.,
b1 P f = 37°
Inclination with V.P.,
a

37°
70

b b2

Fig. 7.41

Given data Interpretation

Front view makes 30º with XY (a = 30º) a′b′ is inclined at 30º to XY
H.T. is 45 mm in front of V.P. h is 45 mm below XY, h′h = 45 mm
V.T. is 30 mm below the H.P. v′ is 30 mm below XY, vv′ = 30 mm
A is 12 mm above H.P. a′ is 12 mm above XY
B is 105 mm in front of V.P. b is 105 mm below XY

Construction: Fig. 7.41

1. Draw a reference line XY.

2. Draw a line inclined at 30º to XY and mark on it; point a′ 12 mm above XY, point h′ on XY and
point v′ 30 mm below XY.
3. Project v′ to meet XY at point v.
4. Project h′ to meet point h 45 mm below XY.
5. Join vh and produce it to meet a point b, 105 mm below XY.
6. Project point a′ to meet line vhb at point a. Line ab represents the top view.
7. Project point b to meet line v′h′a′ produced at point b′. Line a′b′ represents the front view.
8. Draw an arc with a′ as the centre and radius a′b′ to meet the horizontal line through point a′ at
point b2′. Project point b2′ to meet the horizontal lines through point b at point b2. Join ab2. Mea-
sure the inclination of line ab2 with XY which is the true inclination f with V.P. Here f = 37º.
9. Draw an arc with a as the centre and radius ab to meet the horizontal line through point a at point
b1. Project b1 to meet the horizontal lines through point b′ at point b1′. Join a′b1′. Measure the
inclination q of line a′b1′ with XY. Here q = 24º.
10. Measure a′b1′ = ab2 = 70 mm as true lengths.
 Projections of Straight Lines 7.51

Example 7.42 (Fig. 7.42)

The end projectors of a line AB are 50 mm apart, while those drawn for its H.T. and V.T.
are 90 mm apart. The H.T. is 40 mm in front of the V.P. and the V.T. is 80 mm above the
H.P. Draw the projections of AB, if its end A is 10 mm above the H.P. Also, determine its true
length and inclinations with the reference planes.
90
50
v′

b′ b1′
True length, a′b1′ = ab2 = 70 mm
70 P q = 39°
Inclination with H.P.,
.=
.L

80
T P f = 18°
Inclination with V.P.,
39°

a′ b 2′
10

h′
X o Y
o1 v
b b2
40

18°

b1
a 0
=7
h T.L.

Fig. 7.42

Given data Interpretation

End projectors are 50 mm apart oo1 = 50 mm
Projectors of H.T. and V.T. are 90 mm apart h′v = 90 mm
H.T. is 40 mm in front of the V.P. h is 40 mm below XY, h′h = 40 mm
V.T. is 80 mm above the H.P. v′ is 80 mm above XY, vv′ = 80 mm
End A is 10 mm above the H.P. a′ is 10 mm above XY

Construction: Fig. 7.42

1. Draw a reference line XY. Mark points h′ and v on XY such that h′v = 90 mm.
2. On the vertical projector through h′, mark point h 40 mm below XY. Similarly, on the the vertical
projector through v, mark point v′ 80 mm above XY.
3. Join h′v′ and hv, to show inclinations of front and top views, respectively.
4. On line h′v′ mark point a′ such that it is 10 mm above XY. Draw a vertical projector through a′ to
meet XY at point o and line hv at point a.
5. Mark point o1 on XY such that oo1 = 50 mm. Draw a vertical projector through o1 to meet line h′v′ at
point b′ and line hv at point b. Lines a′b′ and ab represent the front and the top views, respectively.
7.52 Engineering Graphics

6. Draw an arc with a as centre and radius ab to meet the horizontal line through point a at point b1.
Project point b1 to meet the horizontal lines through point b′ at point b1′. Join a′b1′. Measure the
inclination of line a′b1′ with XY as true inclination with H.P. Here, q = 39º.
7. Draw an arc with a′ as centre and radius a′b′ to meet the horizontal line through point a′ at point
b2′. Project point b2′ to meet the horizontal lines through point b at point b2. Join ab2. Measure the
inclination of line ab2 with XY true inclination with V.P. Here f = 18º.
8. Measure lengths a′b1′ = ab2 = 70 mm as true lengths.

Example 7.43 (Fig. 7.43)

A 100 mm long line PQ, has its end P at 50 mm in front of the V.P. The H.T. is 60 mm in front
of the V.P. and V.T. is 80 mm above the H.P. The distance between the H.T. and V.T. is 130
mm. Draw the projections of the line PQ, and determine its inclinations with the H.P. and
the V.P.

130
v′

q′
q 1′
P q = 29°
Inclination with H.P.,
80 P f = 21°
Inclination with V.P.,
2 9°

p′
qv′
h′
X v Y
q
q2
50
60

100
21°

p q1
h
Fig. 7.43

Given data Interpretation

PQ = 100 mm p′q1′ = pq2 = 100 mm
P is 50 mm in front of the V.P. p′ is 50 mm below XY
H.T. is 60 mm in front of the V.P. h is 60 mm below XY, h′h = 60 mm
V.T. is 80 mm above the H.P. v′ is 80 mm above XY, vv′ = 80 mm
Distance between the H.T. and V.T. is 130 mm h′v = 130 mm

Construction: Fig. 7.43

1. Draw a reference line XY. Mark points h′ and v on XY such that h′v = 130 mm.
 Projections of Straight Lines 7.53

2. On the vertical projector through h′, mark point h at 60 mm below XY. Similarly, on the vertical
projector through v, mark point v′ at 80 mm above XY.
3. Join h′v′ and hv to show inclinations of front and top views, respectively.
4. On line hv, mark point p such that it is 50 mm below XY. Draw a vertical projector through point
p to meet line h′v′ at point p′.
5. Draw an arc with p′ as centre and radius p′v′ to meet the horizontal line through p′ at a point qv′.
Project qv′ to meet the horizontal line from v at point qv. Join pqv. Measure the inclination of pqv
with XY as true inclination with V.P. Here, f = 21º.
6. Mark point q2 on line pqv such that pq2 = 100 mm. Draw a horizontal line from q2 to meet line pv
at point q. Join pq to represent the top view.
7. Project point q to meet line p′v′ at point q′. Join p′q′ to represent the front view.
8. Draw an arc with p as the centre and radius pq to meet the horizontal line through point p at point q1.
Project q1 to meet the horizontal line from point q′ at a point q1′. Join p′q1′. Measure the inclination
of line p′q1′ with XY as true inclination with H.P. Here q = 29º. Also, ensure p′q1′ is 100 mm long.

Example 7.44 (Fig. 7.44)

The distance between the end projectors of a line AB is 70 mm and the projectors through the
traces are 110 mm apart. The end A of the line is 10 mm above H.P. If the top and the front
views of the line make 30º and 60º with XY line respectively, draw the projections of the line
and determine (i) the traces, (ii) the angles with the H.P. and the V.P., and (iii) the true length
of the line. [RGPV Dec. 2002, June 2004]

110
70
v′

b′ b1′

True length, a′b1′ = ab2 = 146 mm

Inclination with H.P., q = 56°
6

Inclination with V.P., f = 16°

14

The H.T.
T is represented by h.
The V.T. is represented by v′.
56
60
°

a′
a
°

b2′
10
0

X h′ Y
o o1 v
b b2
30°
16°

b1
a
h 146

Fig. 7.44
7.54 Engineering Graphics

Given data Interpretation

Distance between End projectors is 70 mm oo1 = 70 mm
Projectors through traces are 110 mm apart h′v = 110 mm
A is 10 mm above the H.P. a′ is 10 mm above XY
Top view makes 30º with XY (b = 30º) ab is inclined at 30º to XY
Front view makes 60º with XY (a = 60º) a′b′ is inclined at 60º to XY

Construction: Fig. 7.44

1. Draw a reference line XY. Mark points o and o1 on XY such that oo1 = 70 mm.
2. On the vertical projector through point o, mark point a′ at 10 mm above XY.
3. Through point a′, draw a line inclined at 60º to XY. Let it meets XY at point h′ and vertical projector
from point o1 at point b′.
4. Mark point v on XY such that h′v = 110 mm. Project point v to meet the line h′a′b′ produced at
point v′.
5. Through point v, draw a line inclined at 30º to XY. Let it meets vertical projectors through points h′,
a′ and b′ at points h, a and b respectively. Lines a′b′ and ab represent the front and the top views.
6. Draw an arc with a as centre and radius ab to meet the horizontal line through point a at point b1.
Project point b1 to meet the horizontal lines through point b′ at point b1′. Join a′b1′. Measure the
inclination of line a′b1′ with XY. This is true inclination q with H.P. Here, q = 56º.
7. Draw an arc with a′ as centre and radius a′b′ to meet the horizontal line through point a′ at point
b2′. Project point b2′ to meet the horizontal lines through point b at point b2. Join ab2. Measure the
inclination of line ab2 with XY. This is true inclination f with V.P. Here f = 16º.
8. Measure lengths a′b1′ = ab2 = 146 mm as true lengths.

Example 7.45 (Fig. 7.45)

Two straight lines PQ and QR make an angle of 120ç between them in their front view and
top view. PQ is 60 mm long and is parallel to and 15 mm from both H.P. and V.P. Determine
the true angle between PQ and QR, if point R is 50 mm above H.P.
R

r ′ r1′ r2′

94
53

2°
11 0°
50

12
P True length PQ = p′q′ = 60 mm
p′ q′ Q True length PR = p′r 1′ = 94 mm
True length QR = q ′r 2′ = 53 mm
15

60
True angle PQR = 112°
X Y
15

p q r1 r2
12
0°

Fig. 7.45
 Projections of Straight Lines 7.55

Given data Interpretation

Angle between PQ and QR in front and top views is 120º. Angle p′q′r′ = angle pqr = 120º
PQ is 60 mm long and parallel to both H.P. and V.P. p′q′ = PQ = 60 mm
PQ is and 15 mm from both H.P. and V.P. p′q′ and pq are 15 mm from XY
R is 50 mm above H.P. r′ is 50 mm above XY

Construction: Fig. 7.45

1. Draw a reference line XY. Mark point p′ at 15 mm above XY and point p at 15 mm below XY.
2. Draw 60 mm long lines p′q′ and pq, parallel to XY.
3. Through point q′, draw a line inclined at 120º to XY such that it meets the horizontal line at 50 mm
above XY at point r′. Join q′r′ and p′r′.
4. From point q draw a line inclined at 120º to XY such that it meets the projector from point r′ at a
point r. Join qr and pr.
5. As lines pq and p′q′ are parallel to XY, they represent the true length of side PQ. Here, PQ = 60 mm.
6. Draw an arc with p as the centre and radius pr to meet the horizontal line through point p at point
r1. Project point r1 to meet horizontal lines from point r′ at point r1′. Join p′r1′. This is true length
of line PR. Here, PR = p′r1′ = 94 mm.
7. Draw an arc with q as the centre and radius qr, to meet the horizontal line through point q at point
r2. Project point r2 to meet horizontal lines from point r′ at point r2′. Join q′r2′. This is true length
of line QR. Here, QR = q′r2′ = 53 mm.
8. Draw actual triangle PQR taking true lengths i.e. 60 mm, 94 mm and 53 mm. Measure the in-
cluded angle PQR as the actual angle between sides PQ and QR. Here, it is 112º.

Example 7.46 (Fig. 7.46)

A room is 4.8 m × 4.2 m × 3.6 m high. Determine graphically the distance between a top cor-
ner and the bottom corner diagonally opposite to it. [RGPV Feb. 2006]
b′ b1′

b′ 2
. =9
T.L
3.6 m

B
Y b2′ b1
X a′ Y
a o

T.
L.
4.2 m

b =9
A
2

b b2
4.8 m

Scale 1: 50
Distance between the diagonally
opposite corners = AB = a′b1′ = ab2 = 92 mm

Fig. 7.46(a) Fig. 7.46(b)

7.56 Engineering Graphics

Visualization: Fig. 7.46(a) shows the 3-dimensional view of the given room. We need to determine true
length of body diagonal AB.

Construction: Fig. 7.46(b)

1. Take scale 1:50. Draw a reference line XY. Mark points a′ and a coinciding on XY.
2. Also mark point o on XY at a distance 4.8 m from point a′.
3. Project point o and mark on it point b′ at 3.6 m above XY and point b 4.2 m below XY. Join a′b′
and ab to represent the front and the top views respectively.
4. Draw an arc with a as the centre and radius ab, to meet the horizontal line through a at point b1.
Project point b1 to meet horizontal lines from b′ at b1′. Join a′b1′ to represent the true length. Here,
T.L. = 92 mm.
5. Draw an arc with a′ as the centre and radius a′b′, to meet the horizontal line through point a′ at
point b2′. Project b2′ to meet horizontal lines from b at b2. Join ab2 and ensure that it is equal to a′b2′
i.e. 92 mm.

Example 7.47 (Fig. 7.47)

A room is 6 m ë 5 m ë 3.5 m high. An electric bulb B is above the centre of the longer wall
and 1 m below the ceiling. The bulb B is 3.5 m away from the longer wall. The switch S for
the light is 1.25 m above the floor on the centre of the adjacent wall. Determine graphically,
the shortest distance between the bulb B and the switch S. [RGPV Dec. 2003]

3m
1m

m b′ b1′
3.4
3.5 m

s′
b2′
1.25 m

b′ Y
X Y
B
2.5 m

s′
3.5 m

5m

S b b1
s
X s
3.4 m b b2

6m
Scale 1:50
Distance between the bulb and the switch is 3.4 m
Fig. 7.47(a) Fig. 7.47(b)

Visualization: Consider a room of the given measurement in Fig. 7.47(a). Points S and B are switch and
bulb respectively.
 Projections of Straight Lines 7.57

Construction: Fig. 7.47(b)

1. Take scale 1:50. Draw a reference line XY.

2. Mark point s′ 1.25 m above XY and point s 2.5 m below XY.
3. Draw a vertical projector 3 m away from s′s. Mark on it, point b′ 2.5 m above XY and point b 3.5 m below
XY. Join s′b′ and sb to represent the front and the top views of the line joining the switch and the bulb.
4. Draw an arc with s as the centre and radius sb, to meet the horizontal line through s at point b1.
Project b1 to meet horizontal lines from b′ at point b1′. Join s′b1′to represent the true length. Here,
T.L. = 3.4 m.
5. Draw an arc with s′ as the centre and radius s′b′, to meet the horizontal line through s′ at point b2′.
Project b2′ to meet horizontal lines from b at point b2. Join sb2 and ensure it is equal to length a′b2′,
i.e. 3.4 m.

Example 7.48 (Fig. 7.48)

A wireless aerial tower 20 m high is tied at top by two guy ropes having angles of depression
of 30º and 45º. The other end of guy ropes are connected to two poles at heights of 5 m are
2.5 m respectively. The two poles are 12 m apart. Draw projections of the arrangement and
determine lengths of guy ropes. [RGPV June 2003]

a′ a1′ a2′
m

m
30
.7
24

20 m
30°

b′
45°

c′
5m

2.5

X Y
12 m
c a1 a2
b

Scale 1:100
Lengths of guy rope, BA = b′a1′ = 30 m
Lengths of guy rope, CA = c′a 2′ = 24.7 m

a
Fig. 7.48
7.58 Engineering Graphics

Given data Interpretation

Tower is 20 m high. a′ is 20 mm above XY.
Angles of depression are 30º and 45º (q1 = 30º, q2 = 45º). b′a1′ and c′a2′ are at 30º and 45º with XY, respectively.
Height of pole are 5 m are 2.5 m. b′ and c′ are 5 m are 2.5 m above XY.
Poles are 12 m apart. bc = 12 m.

Construction: Fig. 7.48

1. Take scale 1:100. Draw a reference line XY.

2. Draw line bc = 12 m parallel to XY in the top view.
3. On the vertical projector through point b, mark point b′ 5 m above XY. Similarly, on the vertical
projector through point c, mark point c′ 2.5 m above XY.
4. Draw a line from point b′, inclined at 30º to XY such that it meets a point a1′ 20 mm above XY.
5. Draw another line from point c′, inclined at 45º to XY such that it meets a point a2′ 20 mm above XY.
6. It may be noted that b′a1′ and c′a2′, represent true length of the ropes BA and CA, respectively.
Here, b′a1′ = 30 m and c′a2′ = 24.7 m.
7. Project points a1′ and a2′ to meet the horizontal line through line bc at points a1 and a2
respectively.
8. Draw arc with b as the centre and radius ba1′ to meet another arc drawn with c as the centre and
radius ca2′ at point a. Join b-a and c-a to represent the top views of the ropes.
9. Project point a to meet the horizontal line through points a1′ and a2′ at point a′. Join b′-a′ and c′-a′
to represent the front views of the ropes.

EXERCISE 7B

1. A line AB, 50 mm long has its end A in both H.P. and V.P. It is inclined at 30º to the H.P. and 45º
to the V.P. Draw its projections. [RGPV June 2005]
2. A straight line AB, 55 mm long makes an angle of 30º with H.P. and 45º with the V.P. The end A
is 12 mm in front of V.P. and 15 mm above H.P. Draw the projections. [RGPV June 2005]
3. End A of a line AB is 30 mm above H.P. and 5 mm in front of V.P. and end B is 10 mm above H.P.
and 25 mm in front of V.P. The distance between the end projectors is 40 mm. Draw the projec-
tions of the line and locate its traces. [RGPV Dec. 2007]
4. The distance between the projectors of two ends of a straight line is 40 mm. One end is 15 mm
above H.P. and 10 mm in front of the V.P. The other end is 40 mm above H.P. and 40 in front of
the V.P. Find the true length and true inclination of the line.
[Ans: 56 mm, 27º, 32º] [RGPV Feb. 2011]
5. The end A of a line AB is in the H.P. and 25 mm in front of V.P. The end B is in the V.P. and 50
mm above H.P. Distance between the end projectors is 75 mm. Draw the projections of the line
AB and determine its true length, traces and inclinations with the planes.
[Ans: 94 mm, 32º, 16º] [RGPV June 2007]
 Projections of Straight Lines 7.59

6. Draw projections and find out the true length of a line AB with end B on H.P. and 40 mm in front
of V.P. AB is inclined at 45º to H.P. and 30º to V.P. and its plan measures 50 mm.
[Ans: 71 mm] [RGPV June 2008]
7. The top view of a 75 mm long line AB measures 65 mm, while the length of its front view is 50
mm. Its one end A is in the H.P. and 12 mm in front of the V.P. Draw the projections of the line
AB and determine its inclination with H.P. and V.P.
[Ans: 30º, 48º] [RGPV Dec. 2006]
8. A line AB, 75 mm long has one of its ends 50 mm in front of V.P. and 15 mm above H.P. The top
view of the line is 50 mm long. The other end is 15 mm in front of V.P and is above H.P. Draw
the views and determine its true inclinations.
[Ans: 48º, 28º] [RGPV Dec. 2001]
9. A line AB, 65 mm long has its end A 20 mm above the H.P. and 25 mm in front of the V.P. The
end B is 40 mm above H.P. and 65 mm in front of the V.P. Draw the projections of AB. Show its
inclination to H.P. and V.P. Locate its traces.
[Ans: 18º, 38º] [RGPV June 2006]
10. The front view of a 75 mm long line PQ measures 50 mm, while its top view measures 60 mm.
If end P of the line is 35 mm above the H.P. and 15 in front of the V.P., draw its projections and
the traces. Determine the true inclinations of the line PQ with H.P. and V.P.
[Ans: 37º, 48º]
11. The top view of line AB, 70 mm long measures 55 mm and front view measures 45 mm. Its end
A is 10 mm from H.P. and 15 mm from V.P. Draw the projections of the line and determine its
inclination with the H.P. and V.P. Also draw its traces if the line is in first quadrant.
[RGPV Dec. 2010]
12. A 70 mm long line PQ is inclined at 30º to the H.P. Its end P is 15 mm in front of the V.P. and
25 mm above the H.P. The front view of the line measures 45 mm. Draw its projections and de-
termine true angle of inclination with V.P. [Ans: 50º]
13. A line AB is inclined at 40º to H.P. Its one end A is 25 mm above H.P. and 30 mm in front of V.P.
The top view of the line is 70 mm and is inclined at 30º to XY. Draw the projections of the line
and determine its true length and inclination with V.P.
[Ans: 91 mm, 23º] [RGPV Feb. 2011]
14. The distance between the end projectors of a line PQ is 50 mm. The end P is 50 mm in front of
the V.P. and 25 mm above the H.P. The end Q is 10 mm in front of the V.P. and above the H.P.
The line is inclined at 30º to the V.P. Draw its projections. Determine its true length and true
angle of inclination with the H.P.
[Ans: 80 mm, 37º]
15. A 90 mm long line AB has the end A at 15 mm above the H.P. and 25 mm in front of the V.P. The
line is inclined at 60º to the H.P. and 30º to the V.P. Draw its projections.
16. A 75 mm long straight line PQ lying in the first angle has its end P in the H.P. and end Q in the
V.P. The line is inclined at 45º to the H.P. and 30º to the V.P. Draw its projections.
17. A line PQ 75 mm long has its end P in the V.P. and the end Q in the H.P. The line is inclined at
30º to the H.P. and at 60º to the V.P. Draw its projections.
[RGPV June 2008]
18. A 100 mm long line AB has the end A at 15 mm above the H.P. and 20 mm in front of the V.P.
The front and top views are 80 mm and 60 mm long, respectively. Draw its projections and de-
termine the true inclinations with the reference planes. [Ans: 53º, 37º]
7.60 Engineering Graphics

19. A 90 mm long line AB has its end A is in the H.P. and 70 mm in front of the V.P. while the end
B is 10 mm in front of the V.P. Draw the projections of the line when the sum of its inclination
with the H.P. and V.P. is 90º. Determine the true inclination with the reference planes and locate
its traces. [Ans: 48º, 42º]
20. A line PQ is in first angle. Its ends P and Q are 15 mm and 45 mm in front of the V.P. respectively.
The distance between the end projectors is 55 mm. The line is inclined at 30º to the H.P. and its
H.T. is 8 mm above XY line. Draw the projections of the line PQ and find its true length and locate
its V.T.
[Ans: 72 mm] [RGPV June 2007]
21. A line PQ inclined at 30º to the V.P. has its end P at 15 mm above the H.P. Its front view mea-
sures 70 mm and makes an angle of 45º with the reference line. The V.T. of the line is 25 mm
below the H.P. Draw the projections of the line and determine its true length and the H.T.
[Ans: 80 mm]
22. A line AB inclined at 40º to the V.P. has its ends 50 mm and 20 mm above the H.P. The length
of its front view is 65 mm and its V.T. is 10 mm above H.P. Determine the true length of AB, its
inclination with H.P. and its H.T.
[RGPV Dec. 2006]
23. A line PQ measures 70 mm. The projectors through its V.T. and the end P are 40 mm apart. The
point P is 30 mm above the H.P. and 40 mm in front of the V.P. The V.T. is 10 mm above the
H.P. Draw the projections of the line and determine its H.T. and inclinations with the H.P. and
the V.P.
[Ans: 19º, 42º]
24. The front view of a line makes an angle of 30º with the reference line. The H.T. of the line is 30
mm in front of the V.P. while the V.T. is 20 mm below the H.P. One end of the line is 15 mm
above the H.P. and the other end of the line is 100 mm in front of the V.P. Draw the projections
of the line and determine its true length and true angles of inclination with the reference planes.
[Ans: 80 mm, 24º, 37º]
25. Find the length of a solid diagonal of a cube of side 30 mm graphically and measure it.
[Ans: 52 mm] [RGPV June 2002]
26. Find graphically the length of a largest rod that can be kept inside a hollow cuboid of 60 mm ×
40 mm × 30 mm.
[Ans: 78 mm]
27. An object is placed 2.4 m above the ground and in the centre of the hall of 8.4 m × 7.2 m × 7.2 m.
Determine its distance from one of the corners between the roof and two adjacent walls by graphi-
cal method.
[Ans: 7.3 m] [RGPV June 2002]
28. Three wires AB, CD and EF are tied at points A, C, E on a 14 m long vertical pole at height 12 m,
10 m and 8 m from the ground, respectively. The lower ends of the wires are tied to hooks at points
B, D and F on the ground level, all of which lie at the corners of an equilateral triangle of 7.5 m
side. If the pole is situated at the centre of the triangle, determine the length of each rope and its
inclination with the ground.
[Ans: 128 mm AB at 70º, 109 mm CD at 67º, 91 mm EF at 62º]
 Projections of Straight Lines 7.61

7.23 LINE INCLINED TO BOTH THE REFERENCE PLANES THE ENDS OF WHICH
LIE IN DIFFERENT ANGLES

This part deals with the projections of straight lines inclined to one or both the reference planes and the
ends of the line lie in different angles.

Example 7.49 (Fig. 7.49)

A line PQ, 75 mm long is inclined at 30º to the V.P. and parallel to the H.P. Draw its projections
when whole line lies in the same angle and end P is (a) 25 mm in front of the V.P. and 40 mm
above the H.P., (b) 25 mm behind the V.P. and 40 mm above the H.P., (c) 25 mm behind the
V.P. and 40 mm below the H.P., and (d) 25 mm in front of the V.P. and 40 mm below the H.P.

q
75 75
p′ q′ p′
q′

30°
30°
40

40

p p
25

25

x yx y y y
25

25
40
40

p p

30°
30°

q′
75 p′ q′ p′ 75

q q

Fig. 7.49(a) Fig. 7.49(b) Fig. 7.49(c) Fig. 7.49(d)

Construction:

Follow the following steps of construction for each of the cases.

1. Draw a reference line XY.

2. Locate front and top views of point p as points p′ and p, respectively.
3. Draw the top view PQ such that PQ = 75 mm, inclined 30º to XY and lie on one side of XY.
4. Project point q to meet the horizontal line through point p′ at point q′. Join p′-q′ which represents
the front view of the line.

Example 7.50 (Fig. 7.50)

A line PQ, 90 mm long is inclined at 30º to the H.P. and 45º to the V.P. Its end P is 15 mm
above the H.P. and 25 mm in front of the V.P. Draw its projections. Assume end Q in the (a)
first angle, (b) second angle, (c) third angle, and (d) fourth angle.
7.62 Engineering Graphics

q′ q1′ q′ q1′

90
90 q2
q

30°
45°

30°
p′

45°
q2′ p′
15 q2′

15

90
X o Y X Y
25

25

45°
55°
p q1
q1
55°

p
45°
90

q q2

Fig. 7.50(a) Fig. 7.50(b)

q q2′

p′ p′ q2′
45°

q2
30°

45°
15

15

30°
90

X 90 Y X 90 Y
25

25
45°
55°

q1
q1
p p q1′
55°

q1′
4 5°

q′ q′
90

q q2
Fig. 7.50(c) Fig. 7.50(d)

Construction:

1. Mark p′, 15 mm above XY and p, 25 mm below XY.

2. Through p′, draw line p′q1′ equal to 90 mm, inclined at 30º to XY. Draw a line through point q1′,
parallel to XY as the locus of q′.
As q1′ represents the locus of q′, it may be noted that (i) For the end Q to lie above H.P., q1′ should
lie above XY, and (ii) For the end Q to lie below H.P., q1′ should lie below XY.
3. Through p, draw pq2 equal to 90 mm, inclined at 45º to XY. Draw a line through point q2, parallel
to XY as the locus of q.
As q2 represents the locus of q, it may be noted that (i) For the End Q to lie in front of the V.P., q2
should lie below XY, and (ii) For the end Q to lie behind the V.P., q2 should lie above XY.
4. Project q1′ to meet the horizontal line through p at point q1. Draw an arc with p as the centre and
radius pq1 to intersect the locus of q at point q. Join pq representing the top view.
5. Project qq2 to meet the horizontal line from p′ at point q2′. Draw an arc with p′ as the centre and
radius p′q2′ to meet the locus of q′ at point q′. Join p′q′ representing the front view.
 Projections of Straight Lines 7.63

The following may be noted:

1. When Q lies in the first angle, point q1′ is marked above XY and point q2 is marked below XY.
Fig. 7.50(a)
2. When Q lies in the second angle, points q1′ and q2 are marked above XY. Fig. 7.50(b)
3. When Q lies in the third angle, point q1′ is marked below XY and point q2 is marked above XY.
Fig. 7.50(c)
4. When Q lies in the fourth angle, points q1′ and q2 are marked below XY. Fig. 7.50(d)

7.24 MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES

Example 7.51 (Fig. 7.51)

The front view of a 75 mm long line measures 55 mm. The line is parallel to H.P. and one of
its ends is in the V.P. and 25 mm below the H.P. Draw the projections of line and determine
its inclination with the V.P. [RGPV June 2005]

b
a
Top view
T X Y
75

43°

25
a′ b′
43°

Front view
X Y
a 75
Top view
T
25

55 b
Front view Inclination with
a′ b′ V.P., f = 43°
55
Fig. 7.51 When the line is situated in the (a) third angle (b) fourth angle

Interpretation: When a line is parallel to H.P. and 25 mm below H.P., the top view will represent the
true length. The line may be situated either in the third or the fourth angle. Readers need to draw any
one of these figures.

Construction: Fig. 7.51(a) or (b)

1. Draw a reference line XY.

2. Draw a 55 mm long line a′b′, parallel to and 25 mm below XY.
3. Project point a′ to meet XY at point a.
4. Draw an arc of 75 mm radius with point a′ as the centre to meet the vertical projector from point
b′ at point b.
5. Join ab to represent the top view. Measure its inclination with XY as f = 43º.
7.64 Engineering Graphics

Example 7.52 (Fig. 7.52)

The front view of a line is 70 mm long. The line is parallel to H.P. and inclined at 45º to the
V.P. One end of the line is 20 mm behind the V.P. and 30 mm below the H.P. while the other
end is in the fourth angle. Draw its projections and determine the traces.
a

45°
20

v
X Y
30

V.T. is represented by v ′.
H.T.
T does not exist
a′ v′ b′

b
70

Fig. 7.52

Construction: Fig. 7.52

1. Draw a reference line XY. Mark point a′ 30 mm below XY and point a 20 mm above XY.
2. Draw 70 mm long line a′b′ parallel to XY.
3. Draw line pq inclined at 45º to XY such that it meets the vertical projector from point b′ at a point
b, below XY. Line ab represents the top view.
4. Mark v at the intersection of line pq with XY. Project v to meet p′q′ at point v′. It represents the
V.T. As the line is parallel to H.P., the H.T. does not exist.

Example 7.53 (Fig. 7.53)

A 90 mm long line AB has 60 mm long front view parallel to XY. The end A is 25 mm from the
V.P, 40 mm from the H.P. and lies in the second angle. The other end B lies in the first angle.
Draw its projections and determine the true inclination with V.P. and the traces.
60
a′ v′
b′

a
V.T. is represented by v ′.
40

H.T.
T does not exist
25

f = 48°
v
X Y
°
48
90

b
Fig. 7.53
 Projections of Straight Lines 7.65

Construction: Fig. 7.53

1. Draw a reference line XY. As point A lies in second angle, mark point a′ 40 mm above XY and
point a 25 mm above XY.
2. Draw 60 mm long line a′b′, parallel to XY, to represent the front view.
3. Draw an arc with a as the centre and 90 mm radius to meet the vertical projector from point b′ at
point b, below XY. Join ab to represent the top view.
4. Mark point v at the intersection of line ab with XY. Project point v to meet line p′q′ at point v′.
Point v′ represents the V.T. As the front view line is parallel to XY, it does not have H.T.

Example 7.54 (Fig. 7.54)

The end A of a 100 mm long line AB is in the V.P. and 30 mm above the H.P. The end B is
below the H.P. and behind the V.P. The line is inclined at 45º to the H.P. and 30º to the V.P.
Draw its projections and locate its H.T. and V.T.

b b2

v
0
10

a′,v ′
b2′
H.T.
T is represented by h
30°

V.T. is represented by v′
30

10
45°

0
b1
X Y
a′,v ′ h′

b′ b1′

Fig. 7.54

Given data Interpretation

Line AB is 100 mm long a′b1′ = ab2 = 100 mm
End A is in the V.P. a on XY
End A is 30 mm above the H.P. a′ is 30 mm above XY
The line is inclined at 45º to the H.P. (q = 45º) a′b1′ is inclined at 45º to XY
The line is inclined at 30º to the V.P. (f = 30º) ab2 is inclined at 30º to XY

Construction: Fig. 7.54

1. Draw the reference line XY. Mark p′ 30 mm above XY and p on XY.

2. Draw p′q1′ 100 mm long making 30º with XY such that q1′ is below XY. Draw a horizontal line
through q1′ as the locus of q′.
3. Draw pq2 100 mm long making 60º with XY such that q2 is above XY. Draw a horizontal line
through q2 as the locus of q.
7.66 Engineering Graphics

4. Projector q1′ to meet horizontal line through p at point q1. Draw an arc with p as the centre and
radius pq1 to meet the locus of q at point q. Join pq.
5. Project q2 to meet horizontal line through p′ at point q2′. Draw an arc with p′ as the centre and p′q2′
as the radius to meet the locus of q′ at point q′. Join p′q′.
6. Join q′-q to check that it represent a projector perpendicular to XY.
7. Line p′q′ meets XY at point h′. Project h′ to meet pq at point h. Point h is the H.T.
8. Line pq meets XY at point v. Project v to meet p′q′ at point v′. Point v′ is the V.T.

Example 7.55 (Fig. 7.55)

A 100 mm long line PQ, is inclined at 30º to the H.P. and at 45º to the V.P. Its mid-point is in
the V.P. and 20 mm above H.P. Draw its projections if its end P is in the third angle and Q in
the first angle. [RGPV Feb. 2007]

q′ q1′
p2 p 0
10

m′ 30°
q2′
p2′
20

q1 q1
X Y
m
45°

p1′ p′
10
0

q q2
Fig. 7.55

Given data Interpretation

Line PQ is 100 mm long, M is the mid-point p1′m′ = m′q1′ = p2m = mq2 = 50 mm
The line is inclined at 30º to the H.P. (q = 30º) p1′m′q1′ is inclined at 30º to XY
The line is inclined at 45º to the V.P. (f = 45º) p2mq2 is inclined at 45º to XY
Mid-point M is in the V.P. m is on XY
Mid-point M is 20 mm above H.P. m′ is 20 mm above XY

Construction: Fig. 7.55

1. Draw a reference line XY. Mark point m′ 20 mm above XY and point m on XY.
2. Draw a 50 mm long line m′q1′ inclined at 30º to XY. Produce it such that p1′q1′ = 100 mm.
3. Draw another 50 mm line mq2 inclined at 45º to XY. Produce it such that p2q2 = 100 mm.
4. Project points p1′ and q1′ to meet the horizontal line through point m at points p1 and q1 respectively.
Draw an arc with m as the centre and radius mp1 (or mq1) to meet the horizontal lines through points
p1′ and q1′ at points p and q, respectively. Join pmq to represent the top view.
 Projections of Straight Lines 7.67

5. Draw vertical projectors from points p2 and q2 to meet the horizontal line through point m′ at points
p2′ and q2′ respectively. Draw an arc with m′ as the centre and radius m′p2′ (or m′q2′) to meet the
horizontal lines through points p2 and q2 at points p′ and q′, respectively. Join p′m′q′ to represent
front view.
6. Join p′p and q′q and ensure that they are perpendicular to XY.

Example 7.56 (Fig. 7.56)

The projectors of the ends of a line AB are 60 mm apart. The end A is 20 mm above H.P. and
30 mm in front of the V.P. The end B is 10 mm below H.P. and 40 mm behind the V.P. Deter-
mine the true length and traces of AB and its inclinations with the two planes.
[RGPV April 2010]

60
b b2

a′ b 2′
40

h
18°

True length, a′b1′ = ab2 = 97 mm

20

97 Inclination with H.P., q = 18°

v′ Inclination with V.P., f = 46°
X v Y
h′ T is represented by h.
The H.T.
10

The V.T. is represented by v ′

b′ b1′
30

46°

a b1

Fig. 7.56

Given data Interpretation

The projectors of the ends are 60 mm apart Distance between a′a and bb′ is 60 mm
The end A is 20 mm above H.P. a′ is 20 mm above XY
The end A is 30 mm in front of the V.P. a is 30 mm below XY
The end B is 10 mm below H.P. b′ is 10 mm below XY
The end B is 40 mm behind the V.P. b is 40 mm above XY

Construction: Fig. 7.56

1. Draw a reference line XY. Mark point a′ 20 mm above XY and point a 30 mm below XY.
2. Draw a vertical projector on XY at a distance 50 mm from the projector aa′. On it, mark point b′
10 mm below XY and point b 40 mm above XY.
3. Join a′b′ and ab to represent the front and the top views, respectively.
4. Draw an arc with a as centre and radius AB to meet the horizontal line through point a at point b1.
Project point b1 to meet the horizontal line through point b′ at point b1′. Join a′b1′ which is true
length and its inclination with XY is true inclination with H.P. Here, T.L. = 97 mm, q = 18º.
7.68 Engineering Graphics

5. Draw an arc with a′ as centre and radius a′b′ to meet the horizontal line through point a′ at point
b2′. Project point b2′ to meet the horizontal line through point b at point b2. Join ab2 which is true
length and its inclination with XY is true inclination with V.P. Here, f = 46º.
6. Mark point h′ at the intersection of line a′b′ with XY. Project point h′ to meet line ab at point h.
Point h represents the H.T.
7. Mark point v at the intersection of line ab with XY. Project point v to meet line a′b′ at point v′.
Point v′ represents the V.T.

Example 7.57 (Fig. 7.57)

A straight line AB, equally inclined to H.P. and V.P. has its end A in the front of V.P. and 20
mm above the H.P. End B is behind the V.P. and 40 mm below H.P. A point on this line is in
V.P. and 10 mm below H.P. Draw the projections and find true length and inclination of the
line with H.P., if distance between projectors of the ends is 60 mm.
[RGPV June 2003, Sep. 2009]

60
b b2
a′
b2′ True length, a′b1′ = ab2 = 104 mm
45°
35°

4 Inclination with H.P., q = 35°

20

10 Inclination with V.P., f = 35°

p
X o o1 Y
10

p′ 10
4
40
35°
45°

a b1′

b′ b1

Fig. 7.57

Given data Interpretation

Line AB is equally inclined to H.P. and V.P. q = f and a = b
End A in the front of V.P. is 20 mm above H.P. a is below XY and a′ is 20 mm above XY
End B is behind the V.P. and 40 mm below H.P. b is above XY and b′ is 40 mm below XY
Point P on the line is in V.P. and 10 mm below H.P. p is above XY and p′ is 10 mm below XY
Distance between projectors of the ends is 60 mm. oo1 = 60 mm

Construction: Fig. 7.57

1. Draw a reference line XY. Mark point o on XY and on its projector mark point a′ at 20 mm above XY.
2. Mark point o1 on XY such that oo1 = 60 mm. On the vertical projector from point o1, mark point b′
40 mm below XY. Join a′b′ to represent the front view. Measure its inclination with XY as a = 45º.
3. Mark point p′ on line a′b′, 10 mm from XY. Project it to meet XY at point p.
When a line is equally inclined to H.P. and V.P. (q = f), then the apparent angles will be also
equally inclined to XY (a = b).
 Projections of Straight Lines 7.69

4. Through point p, draw a line inclined at a (= 45º) angle to XY to meet the vertical projectors from
points a′ and b′ at points a and b. Line apb represents the top view.
5. Draw an arc with a as centre and radius ab to meet the horizontal line through point a at point b1.
Project point b1 to meet the horizontal line through point b′ at point b1′. Join a′b1′. Measure its length
as true length and inclination with XY as true inclination with H.P. Here, T.L. = 104 mm, q = 35º.
6. Draw an arc with a′ as centre and radius a′b′ to meet the horizontal line through point a′ at point
b2′. Project point b2′ to meet the horizontal line through point b at point b2. Join ab2. Measure its
length as true length and inclination with XY as true inclination with V.P. Here, f = 46º.

Example 7.58 (Fig. 7.58)

The top view of a line PQ 75 mm long measures 54 mm. The mid-point of the line is 50 mm
from V.P. and 15 mm from H.P. The point Q is 24 mm from the V.P. Draw its projections and
find inclinations with the H.P. and V.P. Also, locate its traces. [RGPV Dec. 2007]

v′

q′ q1
75
44°

p1′ m′ q1′
Inclination with H.P., q = 44°
15

h′ Inclination with V.P., f = 44°

X v Y
The H.T.
T is represented by h.
The V.T. is represented by v ′
24

p1
p′
q q2
50

44°

q2′ m q2′
54

h
75
p2 p

Fig. 7.58

Given data Interpretation

Line PQ is 75 mm long, M is the mid-point p1′m′ = m′q1′ = p2m = mq2 = 75/2 mm
The top view measures 54 mm. p′m′ = m′q′ = 54/2 mm
The mid-point M is 50 mm from V.P. m is 50 mm below XY
The mid-point M is 15 mm from H.P. m′ is 15 mm above XY
The end Q is 24 mm from the V.P. q is 24 mm below XY
7.70 Engineering Graphics

Construction: Fig. 7.58

1. Draw a reference line XY. Mark point m′ 15 mm above XY and point m 50 mm below XY. This
represents the front and top view of the mid-point of the line.
2. Draw a line parallel to 24 mm from XY as loci of points q and q2. Draw an arc with p as centre and
radius 27 mm (=54/2) to meet the locus of point q at point q. Join qm and produce it to point p such
that pmq = 54 mm. Line pq represent the top view.
3. Similarly, draw another arc with p as centre and 37.5 mm radius (=75/2) to meet the locus of point
q2 at point q2. Join q2m and produce it to mark point p2 such that p2q2 = 75 mm. Measure its inclina-
tion with XY as true inclination with V.P. Here, f = 44º.
4. Draw an arc with m as the centre and radius mq (=mp) to meet horizontal line through point m at
points p2′ and q2′. Draw another arc with point m′ as centre and 37.5 mm (=75/2) radius to meet the
vertical projectors from points p2′ and q2′ at points p1 and q1. Join p1q1 and measure its inclination
with XY as inclination with H.P. Here, q = 44º.
5. Project points p2 and q2 to meet horizontal line from point m′ at points p1′ and q1′. Draw an arc with
m′ as centre and radius m′q1′ (=m′p1′) to meet horizontal line from points p1 and q1 at points p′ and
q′, respectively. Join p′q′ to represent the front view.
6. Line p′q′ to meet XY at point h′. Project h′ to meet line pq at point h. Point h represents H.T.
7. Produce line pq to meet XY at point v. Project point v to meet line p′q′ at point v′. Point v′ repre-
sents V.T.

Example 7.59 (Fig. 7.59)

The front view of a line AB is 50 mm long and it makes an angle of 35º with XY. The point A
lies 10 mm above H.P. and 25 mm behind V.P. The difference between the distances of A and
B from V.P. is 25 mm. The line AB is in second angle. Draw the projections of the line and
determine its true length and inclinations with the H.P. and V.P. [RGPV Aug. 2010]

b b2
56
b′ b1′
25

True length, a′b1′ = ab2 = 56 mm

27° 3

a Inclination with H.P., q = 31°

b1
31°

Inclination with V.P., f = 27°

5°
25

a′ b2′
10

X Y
50
56

Fig. 7.59
 Projections of Straight Lines 7.71

Given data Interpretation

Front view of a line AB is 50 mm long a′b′ = 50 mm
Front view makes an angle of 35º with XY (a = 35º) a′b′ is inclined at 35º to XY
Point A lies 10 mm above H.P. a′ is 10 mm above XY
Point A lies 25 mm behind V.P. a is 25 mm above XY
The difference between the distances of A and B from V.P. is 25 mm b is 25 mm above a, (i.e. b is 50 mm
above XY)

Construction: Fig. 7.59

1. Draw a reference line XY. Mark point a′ 10 mm above XY and point a 25 mm above XY.
2. Draw a 50 mm long line a′b′ inclined at 35º to XY. This represents the front view.
3. Project point b′ to meet a horizontal line parallel to and 50 mm from XY at point b. Join ab to rep-
resent the top view.
4. Draw an arc with a as centre and radius ab to meet the horizontal line through point a at point b1.
Project point b1 to meet the horizontal line through point b′ at point b1′. Join a′b1′. Measure its length
as true length and inclination with XY as true inclination with H.P. Here, T.L. = 56 mm, q = 31º.
5. Draw an arc with a′ as centre and radius a′b′ to meet the horizontal line through point a′ at point
b2′. Project point b2′ to meet the horizontal line through point b at point b2. Join ab2. Measure its
length as true length and inclination with XY as true inclination with V.P. Here, f = 27º.

Example 7.60 (Fig. 7.60)

The front view of a line PQ makes an angle 30º with XY line. The H.T. of the line is 45 mm
behind V.P. while its V.T. is 30 mm above H.P. The end P of the line is 10 mm below H.P. and
the end Q is in the first angle. The line is 150 mm long. Draw the projections of the line and
determine the true length of the portion of the line, which is in second angle. Also, find the
angle of the line with the H.P. and V.P. [RGPV June 2006]

p q1
q′
37°

q1′
qh
h
75
v′ 150 True length of the portion of
the line, which is in second
45

angle, qhq2 = 75 mm
30

Inclination with H.P., q = 24°

30°

h′ qv
X
v
Y Inclination with V.P., f = 37°
24°

15
10

0
p′ qv′

q q2

Fig. 7.60
7.72 Engineering Graphics

Given data Interpretation

Front view makes an angle 30º with XY p′q′ is inclined at 30º to XY
H.T. is 45 mm behind V.P. hh′ = 45 mm, h lies above XY
V.T. is 30 mm above H.P. vv′ = 30 mm, v′ lies above XY
End P is 10 mm below H.P. p′ is 10 mm below XY
The line is 150 mm long p′q1′ = pq2 = 150 mm

Construction: Fig. 7.60

1. Draw a reference line XY. Mark point h′ on XY and h 40 mm above XY.

2. Draw a line h′v′ inclined at 30º to meet a point v′ 30 mm above XY.
3. Produce line h′v′ to meet a point p′ 10 mm below XY.
4. Project point v′ to meet XY at point v. Join vh and produce it to meet the vertical projector from
point p′ at point p.
5. Draw an arc with p′ as centre and radius p′v′ to meet the horizontal line through point p′ at point qv′. Project
point qv′ to meet the horizontal line through point v at point qv. Join pqv and produce it to mark point q2, 150
mm from point p. Measure the inclination of line pq with XY as true inclination with V.P. Here, f = 37º.
6. Produce line phv to meet the horizontal line from point q2 at point q. Line pq represents the top view.
7. Draw an arc with p as centre and radius pq to meet the horizontal line through point p at point q1.
Draw an arc with p′ as the centre and radius 150 mm to meet the vertical projector from point q1 at
point q1′. Join p′q1′. Measure its inclination with XY as true inclination with H.P. Here, q = 24º.
8. Produce line p′h′v′ to meet the horizontal line from point q1′ at point q′. Join qq′ and ensure that it
is perpendicular to XY.
9. Portion of the line lying between its H.T. and V.T. lies in the second angle. Draw a horizontal line
from point h to meet line PQ at point qh. Measure the length qhqv which is 75 mm long.

Example 7.61 (Fig. 7.61)

Two apples on a tree are respectively 1.8 m and 3 m above the ground and 1.2 m and 2.1 m
from a 0.3 m thick wall but on the opposite side of it. The distance between the apples along
the wall is 2.7 m. Determine the true distance between the apples. [RGPV April 2009]
2.7 m
b′ b1′

93
b b2
a′
b2′ True distance between the
3m
2.1 m
0.3 m

apples, a′b1′ = ab2 = 93 mm

1.8 m

c d
X Y
f o o1 e
1.2 m

a b1

Fig. 7.61
 Projections of Straight Lines 7.73

Given data Interpretation

Apple A is 1.8 m above the ground a′ is 1.8 m above XY
Apple B is 3 m above the ground b′ is 3 m above XY
Apple A is 1.2 m from a 0.3 m thick wall a is 1.2 m below fe
Apple B is 2.1 m from a 0.3 m thick wall (on opposite side) b is 2.1 m above cd
The distance between the apples along the wall is 2.7 m oo1 = 2.7 m

Construction: Fig. 7.61

1. Take scale 1:50. Draw a reference line XY. Mark points o and o1 on XY such that oo1 = 2.7 m.
2. Draw lines cd and ef parallel to and 0.15 m from XY, to represent 0.3 m thick wall.
3. On the vertical projector through point o mark point a′ 1.8 m above XY and point a 1.2 m from ef.
4. On the vertical projector through point o1 mark point b′ 3 m above XY and point b 2.1 m from cd.
5. Join a′b′ and ab to represent the front and the top views of the line joining two apples.
6. Draw an arc with a as centre and radius ab to meet the horizontal line through point a at point
b1. Project point b1 to meet the horizontal line through point b′ at point b1′. Join a′b1′. Measure its
length as true distance between the apples. Here, T.L. = 93 mm.
7. Draw an arc with a′ as centre and radius a′b′ to meet the horizontal line through point a′ at point
b2′. Project point b2′ to meet the horizontal line through point b at point b2. Join ab2. Ensure that its
length is equal to that of a′b1′.

EXERCISE 7C

1. A 90 mm long line PQ is inclined at 45º to the H.P. and 30º to the V.P. Its end P is in the H.P. and
40 mm in front of the V.P. Draw its projections keeping end Q in the fourth angle.
2. End point C of a 80 mm long line CD is 15 mm above the H.P. and 10 mm in front of the V.P. The
line is inclined at 30º to the H.P. and 45º to the V.P., and the other end point D lies in the second
angle. Draw its projections and determine its traces.
3. Find the distance between the two points P and Q when point P is 35 mm above the H.P. and 50
mm behind the V.P. The point Q is 40 mm above the H.P. and 25 mm in front of the V.P. The
distance between the projectors being 50 mm. [Ans: 91 mm] [RGPV Sep. 2009]
4. The projectors of the ends of a line AB are 60 mm apart. The end A is 25 mm above H.P. and 30 mm
in front of the V.P. The end B is 20 mm below H.P. and 40 mm behind the V.P. Determine the true
length and traces of AB and inclinations with the two planes.
[Ans: 103 mm, 26º, 43º] [RGPV Feb. 2008]
5. The projectors of the ends of a line are 50 mm apart. The end A is 20 mm above H.P. and 30 mm in
front of the V.P. The end B is 10 cm below H.P. and 40 mm behind V.P. Determine the true length
and traces of AB and its inclination with the two planes.
[Ans: 91 mm, 19º, 50º] [RGPV Feb. 2007]
7.74 Engineering Graphics

6. The distance from the end projections of a line PQ is 50 mm. A point P is 29 mm above H.P.
and 22 mm behind V.P., while the point Q is 40 mm below H.P. and 30 mm in front of V.P. De-
termine the projections of the line and determine the true length and true inclinations with H.P.
and V.P.
[Ans: 100 mm, 44º, 31º] [RGPV June 2006]
7. The end A of a line AB is in H.P. and 25 mm behind V.P. The end B is in the V.P. and 50 mm
above H.P. The distance between the end projectors is 75 mm. Draw the projections of AB and
determine its true length.
[Ans: 94 mm] [RGPV Dec. 2004, Feb. 2005]
8. A 150 mm long line AB is inclined at 30º to the H.P. and 45º to the V.P. A point M lies on the
line at a distance of 90 mm from end A and has its front view 20 mm above the XY and top view
at 30 mm below its front view. Draw its projections and determine the traces.
9. An 80 mm long line AB has its end A 20 mm from the reference planes and lies in the third angle.
The end B is 40 mm from both the reference planes and lies in the second angle. Draw its projec-
tions and find the true inclination with the reference planes.
[Ans: 49º, 14º]
10. A 120 mm long line AB has its projectors 50 mm apart. The ends A and B are 10 mm and 60 mm
below the H.P., respectively. The mid-point of PQ lay in the V.P. Draw the projections and de-
termine inclination of the line with the reference planes. Consider end A is in the fourth angle.
[Ans: 25º, 54º]
11. The end A of a 150 mm long line AB is 50 mm behind the V.P. and 35 mm below the H.P. The
other end B is in the first angle. The line is inclined at 30º to the H.P. and has a point C in both
H.P. and V.P. Draw the projections of the line and find its inclination with the V.P.
[Ans: 46º]
12. A 100 mm long line PQ has its end point A 30 mm below H.P. and 20 mm behind V.P. Its
V.T. is 10 mm above the H.P. The projectors drawn through its V.T. and the end A are 40 mm
apart. Draw the projections of the line and determine its H.T. and inclination with the reference
planes.
[Ans: 42º, 19º]
13. A 75 mm long line AB has its end A, 50 mm below H.P. and 20 mm behind V.P. Its front and top
views are 60 mm and 45 mm long, respectively. Draw its projections when the end B is in the
first angle. Determine the true inclination of the line with H.P. and V.P.
[Ans: 53º, 37º]
14. The front view of a 75 mm long straight line AB measures 45 mm, while its top view measures
60 mm. Its end A lies 15 mm below HP and 20 mm behind VP, while the other end lies in
first angle. Draw the projections of AB and obtain true inclinations of AB with the reference
planes.
[Ans: 37º, 53º] [RGPV Dec. 2008]
15. Two bulbs on two poles are respectively 2 m and 3 m above the ground and 1 m and 2 m from
the wall, 0.3 m thick but on opposite side of it. The distance between the bulbs measured along
the ground and parallel to the wall is 3 m. Determine the real distance between the bulbs.
[Ans: 4.9 m] [RGPV Dec. 2010]
 Projections of Straight Lines 7.75

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. A straight line is parallel to and 25 mm in front of the V.P. and inclined at 30º to the H.P. What
is the position of its H.T. and V.T.?
2. A straight line is parallel to and 40 mm above the H.P. and inclined at 45º to the V.P. What is the
position of its H.T. and V.T.?
3. The front view of a line is parallel to XY and measures 30 mm. What is its true length if the top
view measures 65 mm?
4. The top view of a line is parallel to XY and measures 40 mm. What is its true length if the front
view measures 75 mm?
5. A line is inclined at 30º to the H.P. and 60º to the V.P. Which orthographic view of this line will
show its true length?
6. The distance between end projectors of a line is zero. Which orthographic view of this line will
show its true length?
7. A line is inclined to both the reference planes. State the positions of the front and top views of its H.T.
8. A line is inclined to both the reference planes. State the positions of the front and top views of its V.T.
9. The top view of a line is represented by a point on the reference line. State the position of the line.
10. A point on XY represents the front view of a straight line. What is the position of the line?
11. The top view of a line is 30 mm long. If the length of the line is extended by one third of its
original length, what will be the measure of the new top view?
12. The front view of a line is 40 mm long. If the length of the line is reduced by one fourth of its
original length, what will be the measure of the new front view?
13. One end of a line lies in the first angle and the other in the second angle. Which of the two views
of the line will intersect the reference line?
14. One end of a line lies in the second angle and the other in the third angle. Which of the two views
of the line will cross the reference line?
15. A line is inclined at an angle of 30º with H.P. What will be its inclination with V.P. if the distance
between its end projectors is zero?
16. If the front view of a line lies in the reference line, state all the possible positions of the line.
17. If the top view of a line lies in the reference line, state all the possible positions of the line.

MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS

Choose the most appropriate answer out of the given alternatives:

i) If a line is parallel to both H.P. and V.P., its true length will be seen in
(a) front view (b) top view (c) side view (d) both front and top views
7.76 Engineering Graphics

ii) If the apparent and the true inclinations of a line with H.P. are equal, the line is
(a) parallel to horizontal plane (b) parallel to vertical plane
(c) parallel to profile plane (d) inclined to both reference planes
iii) The point at which the line intersects the V.P., extended if necessary, is known as
(a) profile trace (b) horizontal trace (c) vertical trace (d) auxiliary trace
iv) If the front view of a line is parallel to the XY its true length is shown in
(a) front view (b) top view (c) side view (d) both front and top views
v) If top view of a line is a point, its front view is
(a) parallel to XY and of true length
(b) parallel to XY and of apparent length
(c) perpendicular to XY and of true length
(d) perpendicular to XY and of apparent length
vi) Horizontal trace of a line exits when the line is
(a) parallel to horizontal plane (b) inclined to horizontal plane
(c) perpendicular to vertical plane (d) perpendicular to profile plane
vii) If a line is inclined at 45º to the H.P. and 30º to the V.P., its front view is inclined at
(a) 30º to xy (b) 45º to xy (c) between 30º and 45º (d) greater than 45º
viii) If a line is inclined at 30º to the H.P. and 60º to the V.P., its front and top views are inclined at
an angle of
(a) 30º and 60º to XY respectively (b) 60º and 30º to XY respectively
(c) both at 90º to XY (d) both greater than 30º but less than 90º
ix) For a line situated in the first angle which of the following is not correct?
(a) H.T. and V.T. may lie below XY (b) H.T. lies below XY and V.T. lies above XY
(c) H.T. and V.T. may lie above XY (d) H.T. lies above XY and V.T. lies below XY
x) A 90 mm long line PQ, inclined at 30º to the H.P. and 45º to the V.P. has end P 15 mm above
H.P. and 25 mm in front of V.P. The other end Q will lie in
(a) first angle (b) third angle (c) second or fourth angle (d) any of these
xi) If the front and top views of a line are inclined at 30º and 45º to the reference line, the true
inclination of the line with H.P. will be
(a) 30º (b) 45º (c) less than 30º (d) greater than 45º
xii) If both the front and top views of a line are perpendicular to the reference line, the true inclina-
tion of the line with H.P. and V.P. may be respectively
(a) 15º and 75º (b) 30º and 60º (c) both 45º (d) any of these
(i) d (ii) b (iii) c (iv) b (v) c (vi) b (vii) d (viii) c (ix) d (x) d (xi) c (xii) d
 8

Projections
of Planes

� Introduction
� Orientation of Planes
� Plane Parallel to H.P. or V.P.
� Plane Perpendicular to Both H.P. and V.P.
� Plane Inclined to H.P. and Perpendicular
to V.P.
� Plane Inclined to V.P. and Perpendicular
to H.P.
� Plane Inclined to Both the Reference
Planes
� Plane Inclined θ to H.P. and e to V.P. such
that θ + e = 90º
8.2 Engineering Graphics

8.1 INTRODUCTION

In this chapter we deal with two-dimensional objects called planes. Planes have length, breadth and
negligible thickness. Only those planes are considered in the chapter whose shape can be defined geo-
metrically# and are regular in nature. Some of these are shown in Fig. 8.1.

Triangle Square Rectangle Rhombus

Pentagon Hexagon Circle Ellipse

Fig. 8.1 Planes

8.2 ORIENTATION OF PLANES

The surface of a plane may be

1. Parallel to H.P. (and perpendicular to V.P.)

2. Parallel to V.P. (and perpendicular to H.P.)
3. Perpendicular to both H.P. and V.P. (i.e. parallel to profile plane)
4. Inclined to H.P. and perpendicular to V.P.
5. Inclined to V.P. and perpendicular to H.P.
6. Inclined to both H.P. and V.P.

8.3 PLANE PARALLEL TO H.P.

This is one of the basic positions of a plane. A plane parallel to H.P. is always perpendicular to the V.P.
The true shape and size of the plane is seen in its top view. Hence, top view of the plane is drawn first
and then it is projected to get a straight line as its front view.

#
Readers are advised to refer chapter 1 for the details of methods of construction of regular polygons.
 Projections of Planes 8.3

Example 8.1 (Fig. 8.2b)

A square plane ABCD of 30 mm side has its surface parallel to H.P. and 20 mm away from it.
Draw its projections of the plane when two of its sides are (i) parallel to V.P., (ii) inclined at
30º to V.P., and (iii) all sides are equally inclined to V.P. [RGPV June 2008(O)]

a ′,b ′ c ′,d ′ a′ d′ b′ c′ a′ b′,d ′ c′

20
D
Y X Y
d

45°
3 0°
a d d
A d C
30
c c
a
B c
a a
X
b c
b
b b

Fig. 8.2(a) 3-D view Fig. 8.2(b) Projections in cases (i), (ii) and (iii)

Visualization: Fig. 8.2(a) shows a square plane ABCD with the surface parallel to H.P. and above it.
Side AD is parallel to the V.P. as desired in case (i). Since all the sides of the square are parallel to the
H.P., the top view is a square abcd in which ad is parallel to XY. As plane is perpendicular to V.P., its
front view is a line parallel to XY.

Construction: Fig. 8.2(b)

Case (i) Draw a square abcd in the top view keeping ad parallel to XY. Project the corners from the
top view and obtain points a′, b′, c′ and d ′ 20 mm above XY. Join a′b′c′d ′ to get the required
front view.

Case (ii) Draw a square abcd in the top view keeping ab at 30º to XY. Project the corners from the
top view and obtain points a′, b′, c′ and d ′ 20 mm above XY. Join a′b′c′d ′ to get the required
front view.

Case (iii) Draw the square abcd in the top view keeping ab at 45º to XY. Project the corners from the
top view and obtain points a′, b′, c′ and d ′ 20 mm above XY. Join a′b′c′d ′ to get the required
front view.

8.4 PLANE PARALLEL TO V.P.

This is another basic position of a plane. A plane parallel to V.P. is always perpendicular to the H.P. The
true shape and size of the plane is seen in its front view. Hence, front view of the plane is drawn first and
then it is projected to get a straight line as its top view.
8.4 Engineering Graphics

Example 8.2 (Fig. 8.3b)

A hexagonal plane of 25 mm side has its surface parallel to and 20 mm in front of V.P. Draw
its projections, when a side is (a) parallel to H.P., (b) perpendicular to H.P., (c) inclined at 45º
to H.P.

HEX 25 f′
f′ e′ f′
e′
e′ a′ e′
a′

HEX 25
f′ d′
d′ a′
E d′
F d′
b′ b′
D

45°
a′ b′ c′ c′
c′ c′
X Y
20

b′
A C
a b,f c,e
,e d a,b c,f d,e ab f c e d
X B

Fig. 8.3(a) 3-D view Fig. 8.3(b) Projections in cases (i), (ii) and (iii)

Visualization: Fig. 8.3(a) shows a hexagonal plane ABCDEF with its surface parallel to and in front of
V.P. Side BC is parallel to the H.P. as desired in case (i). Its front view is a regular hexagon abcdef with
edge bc parallel to XY. Since the plane is perpendicular to H.P., its top view is a line parallel to XY.

Construction: Fig. 8.3(b)

Case (i) Draw a hexagon a′b′c′d ′e′f ′ as the front view keeping a side b′c′ parallel to XY. Project the
corners and obtain points a, b, c, d, e and f 20 mm below XY. Join abcdef to get the required
top view.

Case (ii) Draw a hexagon a′b′c′d ′e′f ′ as the front view keeping a side a′b′ perpendicular to XY. Proj-
ect the corners and obtain points a, b, c, d, e and f 20 mm below XY. Join abcdef to get the
required top view.

Case (iii) Draw a hexagon a′b′c′d ′e′f ′ as the front view keeping a side c′d ′ inclined at 45º to XY.
Project the corners and obtain points a, b, c, d, e and f 20 mm below XY. Join abcdef to get
the required top view.

8.5 PLANE PERPENDICULAR TO BOTH H.P. AND V.P.

A plane perpendicular to both H.P. and V.P. has its surface parallel to the profile plane. The true shape
and size of the plane can be obtained only on the profile plane, popularly known as end view or side
view. The front and top views are projected from the side view.
 Projections of Planes 8.5

Example 8.3 (Fig. 8.4)

A triangular plane is in the form of an isosceles triangle of 30 mm side base and 40 mm long
altitude. It is kept in the first quadrant such that the surface is perpendicular to both H.P. and
V.P. Draw its projections when the base is parallel to the V.P.

X1 40
a′ a″
a″

c′ c″

30
a′
A b′
b″
c′ b″ c″ X Y
Y
b′
B a,b
C

X a,b
b

c
c
Y1
Fig. 8.4(a) 3-D view Fig. 8.4(b) Projections

Visualization: Let the plane ABC be perpendicular to both H.P. and V.P. keeping the side AB is paral-
lel to the V.P., as shown in Fig. 8.4(a). Thus, the plane is parallel to the profile plane.

Construction: Fig. 8.4(b)

1. Draw a triangle a′′b′′c′′ as the side view keeping a′′b′′ perpendicular to XY.
2. Project the corners and obtain points a′, b′ and c′ at some distance from X1Y1 line.
3. Project a′, b′ and c′ on XY line and extend them to meet projectors coming from the side view to
intersect at points a, b and c. Join abc.

8.6 PLANE INCLINED TO H.P. AND PERPENDICULAR TO V.P.

When the surface of the plane is perpendicular to the V.P. and inclined at q to the H.P., the projections
are drawn in two stages. In the first stage, it is assumed that the plane is lying in the H.P. Here true shape
of the plane is seen in the top view and the front view is projected from the top view. In the second stage,
the surface of the plane is tilted at q to the H.P. Therefore, reproduce the front view at an inclination of
q to XY. Obtain the top view by joining the points of intersection of the vertical projectors of the corners
from the front view with the horizontal projectors from the top view of the preceding stage.

Note 1. If the plane has a side in the H.P. (or parallel to the H.P. or on the ground) then in the top view
of the first stage, an edge should be perpendicular to the XY line.
Note 2. If the plane has a corner in the H.P. (or on the ground) then the line joining the top view of one
of the corners and the centre of the plane should be parallel to XY.
8.6 Engineering Graphics

Example 8.4 (Fig. 8.5)

A hexagonal plane of 25 mm side has one side on the ground. The surface of the plane is
inclined at 45º to the H.P. and perpendicular to the V.P. Draw its projections.

E
d ′,e′
D
F
c′,f ′
45
°

45°
f e a′,b′ ,′
c ′,f
, ,e a′,b′
d ′,e′ ,
X Y
C
A d f f
e a
f c a e a e
bB

HEX 25
d
X
a
c b d b d
b
c c
Fig. 8.5(a) 3-D view Fig. 8.5(b) Projections

Construction: Fig. 8.5(b)

1. First stage: The plane has an edge in the H.P., so assume that the plane ABCDEF is placed on
the H.P. with side AB perpendicular to the V.P. Draw the hexagon abcdef as the top view with ab
perpendicular to XY line. Project the corners to XY and obtain the front view b′d ′.
2. Second stage: Reproduce the front view of first stage, such that b′d ′ is inclined at 45º to XY
line. Obtain new points a, b, c, d, e and f of the top view by joining the points of intersection
of the projectors (vertical lines) drawn from the front view of the second stage (i.e. vertical
lines from a′, b′, c′, d ′, e′ and f ′) with the corresponding horizontal locus lines drawn from
the top view of the first stage (i.e. from a, b, c, d, e and f ). Join new abcdef to represent the
final top view.

Example 8.5 (Fig. 8.6)

A hexagonal plate of 30 mm side is resting on one of its corner on H.P. The plate is perpendicu-
lar to V.P. and inclined at 45º to the H.P. Draw its projections. [RGPV Dec 2010]
 Projections of Planes 8.7

d′

c′,e′

b′,f ′

45°
a′ b′,f ′ c′,e′ d′ a′
X Y
f e f e

a d a d
o

b c b c
HEX 30
Fig. 8.6

Construction: Fig. 8.6

1. First stage: The plate resting on a corner in the H.P., so assume that the plane ABCDEF is
placed on the H.P., such that the line joining the corner and the centre of the plate i.e. OA
is parallel to V.P. Draw a hexagon abcdef as the top view such that oa is parallel to the XY.
Project the corners to XY and obtain a′d′ as the front view.
2. Second stage: Reproduce the front view a′d′ of first stage such that it is inclined at 45º to XY. Ob-
tain points a, b, c, d, e and f of the new top view by joining the points of intersection of the vertical
projectors drawn from the front view of the second stage (i.e. from a′, b′, c′, d′, e′ and f ′) with the
horizontal locus lines drawn from the top view of the first stage (i.e. from a, b, c, d, e and f ). Join
abcdef to represent the final top view.

Example 8.6 (Fig. 8.7)

Draw the projections of a circle of 40 mm diameter, resting on H.P. on a point on the circum-
ference. Its plane is inclined at 30° to the H.P. and perpendicular to the V.P. Its centre is 35
mm in front of the V.P.

[RGPV Dec. 2007]

8.8 Engineering Graphics

g′
f ′,h′
e′,i′
d ′,j ′
c′,k ′

30°
, c ′,k′
a′ b′,l′ , d ′,j,j ′ e′,i, ′ f ′,h′
,h g′ b′,l′
b ,
X Y
a′

j j
k i k i
35

l h l h

a g a g
0
f4
b f b f
c e c e
d d
Fig. 8.7

Construction: Fig. 8.7

1. First stage: As circle has a point on the H.P., so assume that initially the circle is placed on the
H.P. Draw the circle abcdefghijkl having centre 35 mm below XY line as the top view. Divide the
circle in 12 equal parts and project all the points to XY and obtain the front view a′g′.
2. Second stage: Reproduce the front view of first stage such that a′g′ is inclined at 30º to the XY
line. Obtain point a, b, c, etc. of the new top view by joining the points of intersection of the ver-
tical projectors drawn from front view of the second stage (i.e. from a′, b′, c′, d ′, etc.) with the
horizontal locus lines drawn from the top view of the first stage (i.e. from a, b, c, d, etc.). Join new
abcdefghijkl to get the final top view.

8.7 PLANE INCLINED TO V.P. AND PERPENDICULAR TO H.P.

When the surface of the plane is perpendicular to the H.P. and inclined at f to the V.P., then the projec-
tions are drawn in two stages. In the first stage, it is assumed that the plane is parallel to V.P. or on the
V.P. True shape of the plane is seen in the front view and a straight line in the top view. In the second
stage, the surface of the plane is inclined at f to V.P.

If the plane has a side parallel to the V.P. or in the V.P. then in the first stage the front view should have
an edge perpendicular to the XY line. If the plane has a corner in the V.P., then in the first stage the
line joining the front view of one of the corners with the front view of the centre of the plane should be
parallel to the XY line.
 Projections of Planes 8.9

Example 8.7 (Fig. 8.8)

A hexagonal plate of 25 mm side and negligible thickness has one of its edges in the V.P. The sur-
face of the plate is perpendicular to the H.P. and inclined at 45º to the V.P. Draw its projections.

f′ f′
F
A E a′ e′ a′ e′

HEX 25
Y D d′
B b′ d′ b′
C c′ c′
45°

X Y
a,b c,f d,e a,b

45°
c,f

d,e
X

Fig. 8.8 (a) Fig. 8.8 (b)

Construction: Fig. 8.8(b)

1. First stage: The plane has one of the sides in the V.P., so assume that the plane ABCDEF is placed
in the V.P. keeping AB perpendicular to H.P. Draw the hexagon a′b′c′d ′e′f ′ as the front view with
a′b′ perpendicular to XY. Project all the corners to XY and obtain the top view ad.
2. Second stage: Reproduce the top view of first stage such that ad makes 45º to XY. Obtain point a′,
b′, c′, d ′, e′ and f ′ of the front view by joining the points of intersection of the vertical projectors
drawn from the top view of the second stage (i.e. from a, b, c, d, e and f ) with the corresponding
horizontal locus lines drawn from the front view of the first stage (i.e. from a′, b′, c′, d ′, e′ and f ′).
Join a′b′c′d ′e′f ′ to get the final front view.

Example 8.8 (Fig. 8.9)

A circular plate of 50 mm diameter is held such that its plane is perpendicular to H.P. and
inclined at 30º to V.P. with its centre 30 mm above the H.P. and 20 mm in front of V.P. Draw
its projections.

[RGPV Feb. 2007]

8.10 Engineering Graphics

j′ j′
k′ i′ k′ i′

l′ h′ l′ h′

a′ 0 g′ a′
f5 g′

f′ f′
30
b′ b′
c′ e′ c′ e′
X d′ d′
d Y

30°
a

20
b,l
c,k
a b,l c,k d,j e,i f,h g d,j
e,i
f,h g

Fig. 8.9

Construction: Fig. 8.9

1. First stage: As the circle has a point on the V.P., so assume that initially the circle is placed in the
V.P. Draw the circle a′b′c′d ′e′f ′g′h′i′j′k′l′ having centre 30 mm above XY as the front view. Divide
the circle in 12 equal parts and project all the points to XY to obtain the top view ag.
2. Second stage: Reproduce the top view of first stage such that ag is inclined at 30º to the XY line
and its centre is 20 mm below XY line. Obtain point a′, b′, c′, etc., of the new front view by join-
ing the points of intersection of the vertical projectors drawn from top view of the second stage
(i.e. from a, b, c, d, etc.) with the horizontal locus lines drawn from the front view of the first stage
(i.e. from a′, b′, c′, d ′, etc.). Join new a′b′c′d ′e′f ′g′h′i′j′k′l′ to get the final front view.

8.8 TRACE OF A PLANE

A plane which is not parallel to the reference plane will meet with it in a line (extended if necessary).
This line is called trace of the plane. When the plane meets the H.P. then that line is called the horizontal
trace or H.T. Similarly, when the plane meets the V.P. then that line is called the vertical trace or V.T.

8.8.1 Plane Parallel to H.P. and Perpendicular to V.P.

a′,b′ V.T. c′,d′

D
X Y
C
a d
A
B
b c
X

Fig. 8.10
 Projections of Planes 8.11

In Fig. 8.10, the plane ABCD is parallel to H.P.

1. On extending the plane it does not intersect the H.P., therefore it has no H.T.
2. On extending the plane it intersects the V.P. on line a′d ′ (front view). Therefore, the line a′d ′
represents the V.T. of the plane.

8.8.2 Plane Parallel to V.P. and Perpendicular to H.P.

a′ d′

b′ c′
A
C X Y

H.T.
B a,b c,d
X

Fig. 8.11

In Fig. 8.11, the plane ABCD is parallel to V.P.

1. On extending the plane, it does not intersect the V.P., therefore it has no V.T.
2. On extending the plane, it intersects the H.P. on the line ad (top view). Therefore, the line ad
represents the H.T. of the plane.

8.8.3 Plane Perpendicular to Both H.P. and V.P.

X1
a′,d ′ a″ d″

V.T.
b′,c′ c″
b″
A
X Y

a,b
D
B H.T.

X C c,d
Y1

Fig. 8.12
8.12 Engineering Graphics

In Fig. 8.12, the plane ABCD is parallel to the profile plane.

1. On extending the plane, it intersects the V.P. on the line a′b′. Therefore, the line a′b′ represents the
V.T. of the plane.
2. On extending the plane it intersect the H.P. on the line ad. Therefore, the line ad represents the
H.T. of the plane.

8.8.4 Plane Inclined to H.P. and Perpendicular to V.P.

D c ′,d ′

C V.T.

a ′,b ′

X h′ Y
A
1 a d
B
H.T.
X
2
b c

Fig. 8.13
In Fig. 8.13, the plane ABCD is perpendicular to the V.P. and inclined to the H.P.

1. On extending the plane it intersect the V.P. on line a′d ′. Therefore, the line a′d ′ represents the
V.T. of the plane.
2. On extending the plane it intersect the H.P. on line 1-2. Therefore, the line 1-2 represents the H.T.
of the plane. To draw the H.T, (a) extend the front view to meet XY line at point h′ and (b) draw
the projector from h′ to meet horizontal lines from the front view at 1-2.

8.8.5 Plane Inclined to V.P. and Perpendicular to H.P.

a′ d′
1′
V.T.
A D
2′ c′
B b′
X v Y
C
a,b

H.T.
X
c,d

Fig. 8.14
 Projections of Planes 8.13

In Fig. 8.14, the plane ABCD is perpendicular to the H.P. and inclined to the V.P.

1. On extending the plane it intersect the H.P. on line ad. Therefore, the line ad represents the H.T.
of the plane.
2. On extending the plane it intersect the V.P. on line 1′-2′. Therefore, the line 1′-2′ represents
the V.T. of the plane. To draw the V.T., (a) extend the top view to meet XY line at point v, and
(b) draw the projector from v to meet horizontal lines from the front view at 1′-2′.

8.9 MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES

Example 8.9 (Fig. 8.15)

A regular pentagon of 25 mm side has one side on the ground. Its plane is inclined at 45º to the
H.P. and perpendicular to the V.P. Draw its projections and show its traces.
[RGPV Dec. 2006, June 2009]

d′
T

c ′,e′
45°

a ′,b ′ c ′,e′ d′ a ′,b ′

X Y
V
e H e

a a

d d
25

b b

c T c
Fig. 8.15

Construction: Fig. 8.15

1. First Stage: Draw a pentagon abcde as the top view keeping ab perpendicular to XY. Project all
the corners and obtain line a′d ′ on XY as the front view.
2. Second stage: Reproduce the front view of first stage, such that a′d ′ is inclined at 45º to XY. Ob-
tain new points a, b, c, d and e of the top view by joining the points of intersection of the vertical
projectors drawn from the front view of the second stage with the corresponding horizontal locus
lines drawn from the top view of the first stage. Join new abcde to represent the final top view.
3. The H.T. and V.T. are marked on the final views.
8.14 Engineering Graphics

Example 8.10 (Fig. 8.16)

A regular hexagonal lamina of 40 mm sides has a square hole of 25 mm side centrally cut
through it. Draw the projections when it is resting on one of its sides on the H.P. with its
surfaces inclined at 60º to the V.P. and its corner nearest to the V.P. is 24 mm from the
V.P.
[RGPV June 2008]

HEX 40
f′ e′ f′ e′

1′ 4′ 1′ 4′

d′ a′
25

a′ d′

2′ 3′ 2′ 3′

X Y
b′ c′ b′ c′
24

a 60°
a b,f 1,2 3,4 c,e d

b,f
1,2

3,4
c,e

Fig. 8.16

Construction: Fig. 8.16

1. First stage: Draw a hexagon a′b′c′d ′e′f ′ keeping b′c′ on XY. Draw a rectangle 1′2′3′4′ at the centre
of the hexagon. Project all the corners of the hexagon and the square to get the top view ad 24 mm
below XY.
2. Second stage: Reproduce this top view ad inclined at 60º to the XY keeping its end a 24 mm be-
low XY. Obtain point a′, b′, c′, d ′, e′, f ′, 1′, 2′, 3′ and 4′ of the front view by joining the points of
intersection of the vertical projectors drawn from the top view of the second stage with the cor-
responding horizontal locus lines drawn from the front view of the first stage. Join a′b′c′d ′e′f ′ and
1′2′3′4′, to represent the final front view.
 Projections of Planes 8.15

Example 8.11 (Fig. 8.17)

A pentagon of 30 mm side has one corner on H.P. Its plane is inclined at 60º to V.P. and per-
pendicular to H.P. Draw the projection of the pentagon. [RGPV Aug. 2010]

30
b′ c′ b′ c′

a′ d′
d′ a′

X Y
e′ e'

°
60
a b e c d a

d
Fig. 8.17

Construction: Fig. 8.17

1. First stage: Draw a pentagon a′b′c′d ′e′ keeping the corner e′ is on the XY line. Project all the cor-
ners to obtain the top view ad.
2. Second stage: Reproduce this top view ad at 60º to the XY. Obtain point a′, b′, c′, d ′ and e′ of the
front view by joining the points of intersection of the vertical projectors drawn from the top view
of the second stage with the corresponding horizontal locus lines drawn from the front view of the
first stage. Join a′b′c′d ′e′ to get the final front view.

Example 8.12 (Fig. 8.18)

The top view of a lamina whose surface is perpendicular to V.P. and inclined at an angle of
45º to H.P. appears as a regular hexagon of 30 mm side, having a side parallel to the reference
line. Draw the projections of plane and obtain its true shape. [RGPV Dec. 2008]
8.16 Engineering Graphics

d′

c′,e′

b′,f ′

45°
a′ a′ b′,f ′ c ′,e ′ d′
X Y
f e f e

a d a d

b c b c
HEX 30

Fig. 8.18

Construction: Fig. 8.18

1. First Stage: Draw a hexagon abcdef as the top view keeping bc parallel to XY.
2. Project point a to meet XY line at point a′. Draw a line from point a′ inclined at 45º to the XY line.
Project point d to meet the inclined line at point d ′. The line a′d ′ represents the front view.
3. Project all other points of the top view to meet a′d ′.
4. Second stage: Reproduce the front view a′d ′ on the XY line. Obtain new points a, b, c, d, e and f
of the top view by joining the points of intersection of the vertical projectors drawn from the front
view of the second stage with the corresponding horizontal locus lines drawn from the top view of
the first stage. Join new abcdef to obtain the required true shape.

Example 8.13 (Fig. 8.19)

Determine the true shape of figures, the top view of which is a regular pentagon of 35 mm side,
having one side inclined at 30º to the V.P. and whose front view is a straight line making an
angle of 45º to the H.P. [RGPV Sep. 2009]
d′

c′
e′

b′
45°

a′ a′ b′ e′ c′ d′
X Y
e a′
30°

a a
d
d
35

b b
c c
Fig. 8.19
 Projections of Planes 8.17

Construction: Fig. 8.19

1. First Stage: Draw a pentagon abcde as the top view, such that side ae is inclined at 30º to the XY line.
2. Project point a to meet XY line at point a′. Draw a line from point a′ inclined at 45º to XY. Project
point d to meet this inclined line to get d ′. The line a′d ′ represents the front view.
3. Project all other points of the top view to meet a′d ′.
4. Second stage: Reproduce a′d ′ on XY. Obtain new points a, b, c, d and e of the top view by joining
the points of intersection of the vertical projectors drawn from the front view of the second stage
with the corresponding horizontal locus lines drawn from the top view of the first stage. Join new
abcde to represent the true shape of the plane.

EXERCISE 8A

Surface Parallel or Perpendicular to the Reference Planes

1. A hexagonal lamina with 30 mm sides has one of the sides perpendicular to V.P. The surface of
lamina is parallel to and 15 mm above H.P. Draw its projections.
2. A thin hexagonal plate with 30 mm sides has one of the sides inclined at 45º to the V.P. Its V.T.
is parallel to and 25 mm above XY and the H.T. does not exist. Draw its projections.
3. A circular plane with 60 mm diameter has its centre 20 mm above the H.P. and 30 mm in front
of the V.P. The surface of the plane is parallel to the H.P. Draw its projections.
4. A composite plate with negligible thickness is made up of a rectangle (60 mm and 40 mm long
sides) and a semicircle on its longer side. The plate lies in the H.P. with one of its shorter sides
parallel to V.P. Draw its projections.
5. A square lamina with 40 mm sides has its surface parallel to and 30 mm in front of the V.P. Draw
the projections when one of its sides is inclined at 30º to the H.P.
6. A square plane with 40 mm sides is situated in the V.P. with all the sides equally inclined to H.P.
Draw its projections.
7. A pentagonal plane with 35 mm sides has its corner on the H.P. and the side opposite to this
corner is parallel to the H.P. The plane is parallel to and 20 mm in front of the V.P. Draw its
projections and locate its traces.
8. A rectangular plane with 50 mm and 30 mm sides is perpendicular to both H.P. and V.P. The
longer edges are parallel to the H.P. and nearest one is 20 mm above it. The shorter edge nearer
to V.P. is 15 mm from it. Draw its projections.
9. A square plate with 40 mm sides has one of its sides inclined at 30º to the H.P. The surface of the
plate is perpendicular to both H.P. and V.P. Draw its projections and locate its traces.

Surface Inclined to One of the Reference Planes

10. A square lamina with 50 mm sides rests on the H.P. on one of its corners, such that the diago-
nal through that corner is parallel to V.P. and inclined at 30º to the H.P. Draw its projections
when the lamina is perpendicular to the V.P. Measure the distance of the topmost corner from
the H.P. [Ans: 35 mm]
8.18 Engineering Graphics

11. A pentagonal plane with 30 mm sides is resting on one of its edges in the H.P. with its surface
perpendicular to the V.P. The corner opposite to that edge is 40 mm above the H.P. Draw the
projections of the plane and determine its inclination with the H.P.
[Ans: 60º]
12. A rhombus of 60 mm and 40 mm long major and minor diagonals respectively, is placed on one
of the end points of the major diagonal on H.P. such that the minor diagonal is perpendicular to
V.P. and the surface is inclined at 60º to the H.P. Draw its projections.
13. A regular hexagonal 30 mm lamina side rests on one of its sides on H.P. such that it is perpen-
dicular to V.P. and inclined to the H.P. at 45º. Its nearest corner to V.P. is 15 mm away from V.P.
Draw its projections.
[RGPV June 2007]
14. A pentagonal plane with 30 mm sides has a centrally punched circular hole of 24 mm diameter.
The plane is placed on a side in the H.P. such that the surface is perpendicular to the V.P. and
inclined at 45º to the H.P. Draw its projections when the centre of the plane is 35 mm in front of
the V.P. Locate the traces of the plane.
15. A square plate of 40 mm side is perpendicular to H.P. and inclined to V.P. at 40º. One of its edge
is on V.P. Draw the projections when one of the corners is 12 m from the H.P.
[RGPV Dec. 2010]
16. A regular hexagonal lamina side 20 mm rests on H.P. on one of its sides such that it is perpen-
dicular to the H.P. and inclined to V.P. at 30º. Draw its projections when the corner nearest to the
V.P. is 15 mm away from it.
[RGPV Feb. 2007]
17. Draw the projections of a circle 60 mm diameter resting on V.P. on a point on the circumference.
The plane is inclined at 45º to V.P. and perpendicular to H.P. The centre of the plane is 30 mm
above H.P.
[RGPV Feb. 2011]
18. Draw the projections of a circle of 60 mm diameter resting on V.P. on a point on the circumfer-
ence. The plane is inclined at 45º to V.P. and perpendicular to the H.P. The centre of the plane is
40 mm above H.P. Mark H.T. of the plane also.
[RGPV June 2008(o), Feb. 2010]
19. A regular hexagonal thin plate of 45 mm side has a circular hole of 45 mm diameter in its centre.
It is resting on one of its sides on H.P. Draw its projections when the plate surface is vertical and
inclined at 30º to the V.P.
[RGPV April 2009]

Determine Inclination of the Plane

20. A rectangular plate with 60 mm and 40 mm long sides, rests on a shorter edge on the H.P. with
its surface perpendicular to the V.P. such that centre of the plate lies 20 mm above the H.P. and
30 mm in front of the V.P. Draw the projections of the plate and determine angle made by it with
the H.P.
21. A rhombus with 60 mm and 40 mm long diagonals has a corner in the V.P. The surface of the
plane is perpendicular to H.P. and the front view appears as a square. Draw its projections and
determine the inclination of the rhombus with the V.P.
 Projections of Planes 8.19

22. A square plane with 100 mm long diagonals is placed perpendicular to the V.P., such that a cor-
ner touches the H.P. In its top view, the plane appears as a rhombus with 100 mm and 60 mm
long diagonals. Draw the front view and determine the inclination of the plane with the H.P.
23. A square plane has one of its corners in the H.P. and its surface is perpendicular to the V.P. The
top view of the plane appears as a rhombus with 70 mm and 40 mm long diagonals. Draw the
projections of the plane and determine its inclination with the H.P.
24. A circular plate with a 50 mm diameter is resting on a point of the rim in the V.P. The plane is
perpendicular to H.P. and the front view appears as an ellipse of the major and minor axes of 50
mm and 30 mm length respectively. Draw the front and top views of the plate and determine its
inclination with the V.P.
25. A circular plane is placed perpendicular to the V.P. and it appears as an ellipse in the top view
having 80 mm and 50 mm long major and minor axes respectively. Draw three views of the plane
and determine its inclination with the H.P.

Determine True Shape of the Plane

26. The top view of a triangular plane appears as an equilateral triangle with 50 mm sides placed on
a side perpendicular to the reference line. The front view of the plane appears as a 65 mm long
line. Determine the true shape of the plane.
27. The front view of a plane whose surface is perpendicular to H.P. and inclined at 30º to the V.P.
appears as a regular pentagon with 30 mm sides having a side parallel to the reference line. Draw
the projections of the plane and determine its true shape.
28. The top view of a plane whose surface is perpendicular to the V.P. and inclined at 45º to the H.P.
is a circle with a 60 mm diameter. Draw the projections of the plane and determine its true shape.
29. The front view of a plane is a straight line inclined at 30º with the reference line. The top view of
the plane is a regular hexagon with 30 mm sides having an edge inclined at 45º with the reference
line. Draw its projections and determine its true shape.

8.10 PLANE INCLINED TO BOTH THE REFERENCE PLANES

When the surface of a plane is inclined to both the reference planes, its projections are drawn in three
stages. It is the extension of the examples discussed earlier in this chapter on projections of planes in-
clined to one of the reference planes.

8.10.1 Plane Placed on an Edge Parallel to the H.P. such that the Surface is
Inclined to H.P. and that Edge is Inclined to the V.P.

Example 8.14 (Fig. 8.20)

Draw the projections of a regular hexagon of 25 mm side having one of its sides in the H.P.
and inclined at 60º to the V.P. and its surface making an angle of 45º with the H.P.
[RGPV April 2010]
8.20 Engineering Graphics

d ′,e ′ d′ e′

c ′,f ′ c′
f′

45°
a ′,b ′ c ′,f ′ d ′,e ′ a ′,b ′
X Y
b′ a′
f f f
a

60
°
a e a e
e
HEX 25

d
b d b
d
c
c c
Fig. 8.20

Construction: Fig. 8.20

1. First stage: Draw a hexagon abcdef as the top view with ab perpendicular to XY. Project all the
corners to XY and obtain a′d ′ as the front view.
2. Second stage: Reproduce the front view of first stage such that a′ lies on the XY line and a′d ′ is
inclined at 45º to XY. Obtain points a, b, c, d, e and f of the top view by joining the points of inter-
section of the vertical projectors drawn from points a′, b′, c′, d ′, e′ and f ′ of the second stage with
the horizontal locus lines drawn from points a, b, c, d, e and f of first stage. Join abcdef.
3. Third stage: Reproduce the top view of the second stage such that the side ab is inclined at 30º to
XY. Obtain point a′, b′, c′, d ′, e′ and f ′ for the front view by joining the points of intersection of
vertical projectors drawn from points a, b, c, d, e and f of the third stage with the horizontal locus
lines drawn from points a′, b′, c′, d ′, e′ and f ′ of the second stage. Join a′b′c′d ′e′f ′. This stage
represents the final projections.

8.10.2 Plane Rests on an Edge on the V.P. such that the Surface is Inclined to the
V.P. and that Edge is Inclined to the H.P.

Example 8.15 (Fig. 8.21)

A hexagonal plane of 30 mm side, rests on the V.P. on an edge such that the surface is in-
clined at 45º to the V.P. and the edge on which it rests is inclined at 30º to the H.P. Draw its
projections.
 Projections of Planes 8.21

f′ f'

e′
a′ e′ a′
e′
f′
HEX 30

d′

d′ a′
b′ d′ b′ c′

b′

30°
c′ c′
a b
X Y
a,b c,f d,e a,b

45°
c
c,f f

d,e e d
Fig. 8.21

Construction: Fig. 8.21

1. First stage: Draw a hexagon a′b′c′d ′e′f ′ as the front view with a′b′ perpendicular to XY. Project
all the corners to XY and obtain ad as the top view.
2. Second stage: Reproduce the top view of first stage such that point a lies on the XY line and
ad is inclined at 45º to XY. Obtain points a′, b′, c′, d ′, e′ and f ′ of the front view by joining the
points of intersection of the vertical projectors drawn from points a, b, c, d, e and f of the second
stage with the horizontal locus lines drawn from points a′, b′, c′, d ′, e′ and f ′ of first stage. Join
a′b′c′d ′e′f ′.
3. Third stage: Reproduce the front view of the second stage such that the side a′b′ is inclined at 30º
to XY. Obtain points a, b, c, d, e and f for the top view by joining the points of intersection of verti-
cal projectors drawn from points a′, b′, c′, d ′, e′ and f ′ of the third stage with the horizontal locus
lines drawn from points a, b, c, d, e and f of the second stage. Join abcdef. This stage represents
the final projections.

Example 8.16 (Fig. 8.22)

A semicircular plate of 80 mm diameter has its straight edge on the V.P. and inclined at 30º
to the H.P., while the surface of the plate is inclined at 45º to the V.P. Draw the projection
of the plate.

[RGPV Aug. 2010]

8.22 Engineering Graphics

g′ g′
f′ f′

e′ e′
f′ e′
d′
d′
f 80

d′ g′
c′

c′ c′ b′

b′ b′
a′

30°
a′ a′
a′ a
X Y
a,g b,f c,e d a,g
45°
b
b,f f
c,e e c
d d
Fig. 8.22

Construction: Fig. 8.22

1. First stage: Draw a semicircle a′b′c′d ′e′f ′g′ as the front view with a′g′ perpendicular to the XY
line. Divide the semicircle in 6 equal parts and project all these points to XY and obtain ad as the
top view.
2. Second stage: Reproduce the top view of first stage such that point a lies on XY and ad is inclined
at 45º to XY. Obtain points a′, b′, c′, d ′, e′, f ′ and g′ of the front view by joining the points of
intersection of the vertical projectors drawn from points a, b, c, d, e, f and g of the second stage
with the horizontal locus lines drawn from points a′, b′, c′, d ′, e′, f ′ and g′ of first stage. Join
a′b′c′d ′e′f ′g′.
3. Third stage: Reproduce the front view of the second stage such that the side a′g′ is inclined at 30º
to XY. Obtain points a, b, c, d, e, f and g for the top view by joining the points of intersection of
vertical projectors drawn from points a′, b′, c′, d ′, e′, f ′ and g′ of the third stage with the horizontal
locus lines drawn from points a, b, c, d, e, f and g of the second stage. Join abcdefg. This stage
represents the final projections.

Example 8.17 (Fig. 8.23)

A thin 30–60 degree set-square has its longest edge in the V.P. and inclined at 30º to the H.P.
Its surface makes an angle of 45º with the V.P. Draw its projections.
[RGPV June 2006, June 2007, June 2008]
 Projections of Planes 8.23

a′ a′

100

a′
c′

c′ c′

b′ b′ b′

30°
X Y
a,b c a,b a b
45°

c c

Fig. 8.23

Construction: Fig. 8.23

1. Assumption: Length of the sides of the set-square is not given, so assume a suitable length for the
longest edge (say AB = 100 mm).
2. First stage: Draw a right-angled triangle a′b′c′ in which angle a′b′c′ = 60º and angle b′a′c′ = 30º
keeping a′b′ and perpendicular to XY, to represent the front view of the set-square. Project all the
corners to XY and obtain ac as the top view.
3. Second stage: Reproduce the top view of first stage such that point a lies on the XY line
and ac is inclined at 45º to XY. Obtain points a′, b′ and c′ of the front view by joining the
points of intersection of the vertical projectors drawn from points a, b and c of the second
stage with the horizontal locus lines drawn from points a′, b′ and c′ of first stage. Join
a′b′c′.
4. Third stage: Reproduce the front view of the second stage such that the side a′b′ is inclined
at 30º to XY. Obtain points a, b and c for the top view by joining the points of intersection of
vertical projectors drawn from points a′, b′ and c′ of the third stage with the horizontal locus
lines drawn from points a, b and c of the second stage. Join abc. This stage represents the final
projections.
8.24 Engineering Graphics

8.10.3 Plane Rests on a Corner (or an End of Diameter or Diagonal) on the H.P.
such that its Surface is Inclined to H.P. and an Edge or Line which is Paral-
lel to H.P. is Inclined to V.P.

Example 8.18 (Fig. 8.24)

A regular hexagon of 30 mm side has a corner in the H.P. Its surface is inclined at 45º to the
H.P. and the top view of the diagonal through the corner which is in the H.P. makes an angle
of 60º with the V.P. Draw its projections. [RGPV Feb. 2006]

d′ d′
c ′,e ′ c′ e′

b ′,f ′
45° b′ f′
a′ b′,f ′ c ′,e ′ d ′ a ′
X Y
a′

°
60
f e f e f
a

e
a d a d
b

d
c
b c b c
HEX 30

Fig. 8.24

Construction: Fig. 8.24

1. First stage: Draw a hexagon abcdef as the top view with ad parallel to XY. Project all the corners
to XY and obtain a′d ′ as the front view.
2. Second stage: Reproduce the front view of first stage such that a′ lies on XY and a′d ′ is inclined at
45º to XY. Obtain points a, b, c, d, e and f of the top view by joining the points of intersection of the
vertical projectors drawn from points a′, b′, c′, d ′, e′ and f ′ of the second stage with the horizontal
locus lines drawn from points a, b, c, d, e and f of first stage. Join abcdef.
3. Third stage: Reproduce the top view of the second stage such that the line ad is inclined at 30º to
XY. Obtain point a′, b′, c′, d ′, e′ and f ′ for the front view by joining the points of intersection of
vertical projectors drawn from points a, b, c, d, e and f of the third stage with the horizontal locus
lines drawn from points a′, b′, c′, d ′, e′ and f ′ of the second stage. Join a′b′c′d ′e′f ′. This stage
represents the final projections.

Example 8.19 (Fig. 8.25)

A pentagonal lamina of 30 mm side rests on the H.P. on one of its corners with its surface in-
clined at 30º to the H.P. Draw its projections when the side opposite to the corner in the H.P.
is parallel to the V.P. [RGPV Dec. 2008]
 Projections of Planes 8.25

c ′,d ′ d′ c′

b ′,e ′ e′ b′

30°
a′ b ′,e ′ c ′,d ′ a′
X Y
a′
e e
d c
d d

a a
e b

c
30

c
a
b b

Fig. 8.25

Construction: Fig. 8.25

1. First stage: Draw a pentagon abcde such that cd is perpendicular to XY as the top view. Project all
the corners to XY and obtain a′c′ as the front view.
2. Second stage: Reproduce the front view of first stage such that a′ lies on XY and a′c′ is inclined at
30º to XY. Obtain points a, b, c, d and e of the top view by joining the points of intersection of the
vertical projectors drawn from points a′, b′, c′, d ′ and e′ of the second stage with the horizontal
locus lines drawn from points a, b, c, d and e of first stage. Join abcde.
3. Third stage: Reproduce the top view of the second stage such that the side dc is parallel to XY.
Obtain points a′, b′, c′, d ′ and e′ for the front view by joining the points of intersection of vertical
projectors drawn from points a, b, c, d and e of the third stage with the horizontal locus lines drawn
from points a′, b′, c′, d ′ and e′ of the second stage. Join a′b′c′d ′e′. This stage represents the final
projections.

8.10.4 Plane Rests on a Corner (or an end of Diameter or Diagonal) on the V.P.
such that its Surface is Inclined to V.P. and an Edge or a Line which is Par-
allel to H.P. is Inclined to H.P.

Example 8.20 (Fig. 8.26)

A hexagonal plane figure of 30 mm side is resting on a corner in the V.P. with its surface mak-
ing an angle of 30º with the V.P. The view from the front of the diagonal passing through that
corner is inclined at 35º to the H.P. Draw the three principal views.
[RGPV Sep. 2009]
8.26 Engineering Graphics

X1
HEX 30
e′ e″
f′ e′ f′ e′

f′ d′ f″ d″

a′ d′ a′ d′

c′ c″
a′ a″

b′ c′ b′ c′

35°
b′ b″
a
X Y
a b,f c,e d a 30°
b
b,f f
c
c,e e
d d

Y1

Fig. 8.26

Construction: Fig. 8.26

1. First stage: Draw a hexagon a′b′c′d ′e′f ′ as the front view with diagonal a′d ′ parallel to XY. Project
all the corners to XY and obtain ad as the top view.
2. Second stage: Reproduce the top view of first stage such that point a lies on XY and ad is in-
clined at 30º to XY. Obtain points a′, b′, c′, d ′, e′ and f ′ of the front view by joining the points
of intersection of the vertical projectors drawn from points a, b, c, d, e and f of the second
stage with the horizontal locus lines drawn from points a′, b′, c′, d ′, e′ and f ′ of first stage. Join
a′b′c′d ′e′f ′.
3. Third stage: Reproduce the front view of the second stage such that a′d ′ is inclined at 35º to XY.
Obtain point a, b, c, d, e and f for the top view by joining the points of intersection of vertical
projectors drawn from points a′, b′, c′, d ′, e′ and f ′ of the third stage with the horizontal locus
lines drawn from points a, b, c, d, e and f of the second stage. Join abcdef. This stage represents
the final projections.
4. Side view: Draw a reference line X 1Y 1 perpendicular to XY. Project a, b, c, d, e and f of
the top view of the third stage up to the line X 1Y 1 and then rotate them through 90º. Now
project them vertically to meet the corresponding locus lines drawn from points a′, b′, c′,
d ′, e′ and f ′ of the front view of the third stage at points a″, b″, c″, d ″, e″ and f ″. Join
a″b″c″d ″e″f ″.
 Projections of Planes 8.27

8.10.5 Plane Inclined to H.P. and an Edge or a Diagonal Already Inclined to H.P. is
also Inclined to the V.P.

Example 8.21 (Fig. 8.27)

A hexagonal plane of 30 mm side has its corner A in the H.P. The surface of the plane is in-
clined at 45º to the H.P. and the diagonal containing corner A is inclined at 30º to the V.P.
Draw its projections.

d′ d′

c′,e′ c′ e′

b′,f ′

45°
b′′ f′
a′ b′,f ′ c′,e′ d′ a′
X Y
a′
f
f e f e
a
b e

30°
a d a d d1
b
d
c
b c b c
HEX 30
Fig. 8.27

Construction: Fig. 8.27

1. First stage: Draw a hexagon abcdef such that line ad is parallel to XY as the top view. Project all
the corners to XY and obtain a′d ′ as the front view.
2. Second stage: Reproduce the front view of first stage such that a′ lies on XY and a′d ′ is inclined at
45º to XY. Obtain points a, b, c, d, e and f of the top view by joining the points of intersection of the
vertical projectors drawn from points a′, b′, c′, d ′, e′ and f ′ of the second stage with the horizontal
locus lines drawn from points a, b, c, d, e and f of first stage. Join abcdef.
3. Third stage: As the diagonal ad is already inclined to H.P. and we have to be turn it further at 30º
to the V.P., we have to determine the apparent angle b. Therefore, Draw a line ad1 equal to true
length of the diagonal (ad of first stage) at 30º to XY line. Draw an arc with a as the centre and
radius equal to projected length of the diagonal (ad of second stage), to meet horizontal locus line
from d1 at point d. Join ad. The line ad is inclined at b angle with XY.
4. Reproduce the top view of the second stage such that the line ad is inclined at b angle to XY. Ob-
tain point a′, b′, c′, d ′, e′ and f ′ for the front view by joining the points of intersection of vertical
projectors drawn from points a, b, c, d, e and f of the third stage with the horizontal locus lines
drawn from points a′, b′, c′, d ′, e′ and f ′ of the second stage. Join a′b′c′d ′e′f ′. This stage represents
the final projections.
8.28 Engineering Graphics

8.10.6 Plane Inclined (at e) to V.P. and an Edge or a Diagonal Already Inclined to
V.P. is also Inclined (at θ) to the H.P.

Example 8.22 (Fig. 8.28)

A rectangular plate of size 70 mm × 40 mm rests on its shorter side in the V.P. and the surface makes
45º with the V.P. The longer side of the plane is inclined at 30º to the H.P. Draw its projections.

d′

70
a′ d′ a′ d′
c′ c1′
a′
40

30°
a
b′′ c′ b′ c′ b′′
a b
X Y
a,b c,d a,b
b
45°

c,d
d d c

Fig. 8.28

Construction: Fig. 8.28

1. First stage: Draw a rectangle a′b′c′d ′ such that shorter edge a′b′ is perpendicular to XY line as the
front view. Project all the corners to XY and obtain ac as the top view.
2. Second stage: Reproduce the top view of first stage such that a lies on XY and ac is inclined at 45º
to XY. Obtain point a′, b′, c′ and d ′ of the front view by joining the points of intersection of the
vertical projectors drawn from points a, b, c and d of the second stage with the horizontal locus
lines drawn from points a′, b′, c′ and d ′ of the first stage. Join a′b′c′d ′.
3. Third stage: As the longer side BC is already inclined to V.P. and we have to turn it further at 30º
to the H.P., we have to determine the apparent angle a . Therefore, Draw a line b′c1′ equal to true
length (70 mm) and inclined at 30º to XY. Draw an arc with centre b′ and radius equal to projected
length of longer edge (b′c′ of second stage), to intersect the horizontal line from c1′ at point c′. The
line b′c′ is now inclined at a angle to XY.
4. Reproduce the front view of the second stage such that the side b′c′ is inclined at a angle to XY.
Obtain point a, b, c and d for the top view by joining the points of intersection of vertical projec-
tors drawn from points a′, b′, c′ and d ′ of the third stage with the horizontal locus lines drawn from
points a, b, c and d of the second stage. Join abcd. This stage represents the final projections.
 Projections of Planes 8.29

8.11 PLANE INCLINED p TO H.P. AND e TO V.P. SUCH THAT p + e = 90º

Example 8.23 (Fig. 8.29 and Fig. 8.30)

A circular plane of 80 mm diameter has one of the ends of the diameter in the H.P. while the
other end is in the V.P. The plane is inclined at 30º to the H.P. and 60º to the V.P. Draw its
projections.

8.11.1 Using Change of Position Method

g′ g′
f ′, h′ h′ f′
e′,i ′ i′ e′
d ′,j ′ j′
d′
c ′,k ′
c′
30°

a′b′,l ′ c ′,k′ d′,j′ e ′,i′ f ′,h′g′ b ′,l ′ k′ l′ a′ b′

X a′ h f Y
g
90º

°
j j

60
k i k i i e

l h l h
j d

g a
a g k c

l b
f 80 f a
b f b

c e c e
d d
Fig. 8.29

Construction: Fig. 8.29.

1. First stage: Draw a circle adgj as the top view. Divide the circumference of the circle into 12 equal
parts. Project all the points to XY and obtain a′g′ as the front view.
2. Second stage: Reproduce the front view of first stage such that point a′ lies on XY and line a′g′
is inclined at 30º to XY. Obtain points a, b, c, d, etc. of the top view by joining the points of in-
tersection of the vertical projectors from points a′, b′, c′, d ′ etc. from the second stage with the
horizontal locus lines drawn from points a, b, c, d, etc. drawn from the first stage. Join points
a, b, c, d, etc. using a smooth curve.
3. Third stage: We know that if a line / diameter is inclined to HP and VP both such that sum of their
inclination is 90º (q + f = 90º) then the apparent angle b = 90º. Therefore, reproduce the top view
of the second stage such that point g touches the XY and ag is inclined at 90º to the XY. Obtain
points a′, b′, c′, d ′, etc. for the front view by joining the points of intersection of the vertical pro-
jectors drawn from points a, b, c, d, etc., of the third stage with the horizontal locus lines drawn
from points a′, b′, c′, d ′, etc., of the second stage. Join a′b′c′d ′e′f ′g′h′j′k′l′ using a smooth curve.
8.30 Engineering Graphics

8.11.2 Using Auxiliary Plane Method

Note: This procedure is valid only when q + § = 90º.

X1
a′
a″
b′ l′
b″, l ″

f 80 c ′ k′
c ″, k ″

a1 j′ a1″
d′ b1′ l1′ d ″, j″
b1″, l1″
c1′ k1′ c1″, k1″
°
j1′ 60
d1′ e′ d1″, j1″ e″,i ″
i′
e1″, i1″

30°
e1′ f′ h′ i1′
g ′ g1′ f″, h″
h1′ f1″, h1″
X f1′ Y
a1 g1″, g ″
b1 l1
°
90

c1 k1

j1
d1

e1 i1

f1 h1
g1
Y1

Fig. 8.30

Construction: Fig. 8.30.

1. Draw a reference lines XY. Consider the circular plane is parallel to VP.
2. Draw a circle a′d ′g′j′ as the front view. Divide the circle into 12 equal parts. Divide the circumfer-
ence of the circle into 12 equal parts.
3. Project all the points horizontally to an arbitrary distance to obtain vertical line a″g″ as the side
view.
4. Now the circular plane is turned such that it is inclined at 30º to the H.P. and 60º to the V.P. There-
fore, reproduce the side view such with that g1″ is on XY and line a1″g1″ is inclined at 30º to the
XY. This is the final side view.
5. Draw another reference line X1Y1 passing through a1″ and perpendicular to XY.
6. Obtain points a1′, b1′, c1′, d1′, etc., as the final front view by joining the points of intersection of
the vertical projectors from points a′, b′, c′, d ′, etc., of the front view with the horizontal locus
lines drawn from points a1″, b1″, c1″, d1″, etc ,of the final side view. Join a1′, b1′, c1′, d1′ etc., with
a smooth curve. This is the final front view.
 Projections of Planes 8.31

7. Obtain points a1, b1, c1, d1, etc., of the top view by joining the points of intersection of the vertical
projectors from points a1′, b1′, c1′, d1′, etc., with the locus lines from points a1′′, b1′′, c1′′, d1′′, etc.,
of the side views.
8. Join points a1b1c1d1e1f1g1h1i1j1k1l1 by a smooth curve representing top view.

8.12 MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES

Example 8.24 (Fig. 8.31)

Draw the projections of a circle of 50 mm diameter resting in the H.P. on a point A on the
circumference, its plane is inclined at 45º to the H.P. and (a) the top view of the diameter
AG making 30º angle with the V.P., and(b) the diameter AG making 30º angle with the V.P.
[RGPV June 2003]

g′ g′ g′
f ′h′ f′ f′ h′
e′ h′ e′
e′ i ′ i′
i′
d j d′ d′
j j′
c′ k′ c′ c′ k′
b′ k′
a′b′l ′ c ′ k ′ d j′ e′ i ′ f ′h′g ′ b′l ′ l′
X l′ ′ Y
a' a′ a′
j j k
k i k i k
l l j
l h l i
h
b i
a g a g h
h
f50 g g1
f b f g
b
f d f
c e c e d e
d e
d
ig. 8.31

Construction: Fig. 8.31.

1. First stage: Draw a circle adgj as the top view. Divide the circumference of the circle into 12 equal
parts. Project all the points to XY and obtain a′g′ as the front view.
2. Second stage: Reproduce the front view of the first stage such that a′g′ is inclined at 45º to XY.
Obtain points a, b, c, d, etc., of the top view by joining the points of intersection of the vertical
projectors from points a′, b′, c′, d ′, etc., of the second stage with the horizontal locus lines drawn
from points a, b, c, d, etc of the first stage. Join a, b, c, d, etc., with a smooth curve.
3. Third stage (when top view of the diameter through point A is inclined at 30º to the V.P.): Repro-
duce the top view of the second stage such that diameter ag is inclined at 30º to XY. Obtain points
a′, b′, c′, d ′, etc., for the front view by joining the points of intersection of the vertical projectors
8.32 Engineering Graphics

drawn from points a, b, c, d, etc., of the third stage with the horizontal locus lines drawn from
points a′, b′, c′, d ′, etc., of the second stage. Join a′, b′, c′, d ′, etc. using a smooth curve.
4. Fourth stage (when the diameter through point A is inclined at 30º to the V.P.): The diagonal AG
is already inclined to H.P. and it has to be turned to make 30º with the V.P. we have to determine
the apparent angle b. Therefore, Draw a line ag1 of length equal true length of the diameter (50
mm) inclined at 30º to XY. Draw an arc with a as the centre and radius equal to ag of second
stage, to meet horizontal line through point g1 at point g. Join ag. Thus line ag makes b angle
with XY line.
5. Reproduce the top view of the second stage such that line ag is inclined at b to XY. Obtain points
a′, b′, c′, d ′, etc., for the front view by joining the points of intersection of the vertical projectors
drawn from points a, b, c, d, etc. of the fourth stage with the horizontal lines drawn from points a′,
b′, c′, d ′, etc of the second stage. Join a′, b′, c′, d ′, etc., using a smooth curve.

Example 8.25 (Fig. 8.32)

Draw the projections of a rhombus having 100 mm and 40 mm long diagonals. The bigger
diagonal is inclined at 30º to H.P. with one of the end point in H.P. and the smaller diagonal is
parallel to both the planes. [RGPV Dec 2003, Feb 2012]

a′ c′

b′,d ′ d′ b′
30°

a′ b′,d ′ c′ a′
X Y
a′
d d c

a c a c
40

d b
b b
100

a
Fig. 8.32

Construction: Fig. 8.32

1. First stage: Draw a rhombus abcd such that diagonal ac is parallel to XY and diagonal bd is
perpendicular to XY, as the top view. Project all the corners to XY and obtain a′c′ as its front
view.
2. Second stage: Reproduce the front view with a′c′ inclined at 30º to XY line. Obtain points a, b, c
and d of the top view by joining the points of intersection of the vertical projectors drawn from
 Projections of Planes 8.33

points a′, b′, c′ and d ′ of the second stage with the horizontal locus lines drawn from points a, b,
c and d of the first stage. Join abcd.
3. Third stage: Reproduce the top view of the second stage such that bd is parallel to XY. Obtain
points a′, b′, c′ and d ′ for the front view by joining the points of intersection of the vertical projec-
tors drawn from points a, b, c and d of the third stage with the horizontal lines from points a′, b′,
c′ and d ′ of the second stage. Join a′b′c′d ′.

Example 8.26 (Fig. 8.33)

A pentagon ABCDE E of 30 mm side has its side AB in the V.P. and inclined at 30º to the H.P.
and the corner B is 15 mm above the H.P. and the corner D is 30 mm in front of the V.P. Draw
the projections of the plane and find its inclination with the V.P.

e′ e′
e′ d′
a′ a′

d′ d′
30

a′ c′

b′ b′
b′
30°
c′

15
c′ a b
X Y
a,b c,e d a,b
30

c,e e c

d d
Fig. 8.33

Construction: Fig. 8.33

1. First stage: Draw a pentagon a′b′c′d ′e′ as the front view with side a′b′ perpendicular to XY. Proj-
ect all the corners to XY and obtain ad as the top view.
2. Second stage: Reproduce the top view of first stage such that ab lies on XY and point d is 30 mm
below XY. Measure its inclination with XY which is found to be 41º.
3. Obtain points a′, b′, c′, d ′ and e′ of the front view by joining the points of intersection of the verti-
cal projectors drawn from points a, b, c, d and e of the second stage with the horizontal locus lines
drawn from points a′, b′, c′, d ′ and e′ of the first stage. Join a′b′c′d ′e′.
4. Third stage: Reproduce the front view of the second stage such that point b′ is 15 mm above
XY and side a′b′ is inclined at 30º to XY. Obtain points a, b, c, d and e for the top view by join-
ing the points of intersection of vertical projectors drawn from points a′, b′, c′, d ′ and e′ of
the third stage with the horizontal locus lines drawn from points a, b, c, d and e of the second
stage. Join abcde.
8.34 Engineering Graphics

Example 8.27 (Fig. 8.34)

A plate having shape of an isosceles triangle has 50 mm long base and 70 mm altitude. It is
so placed that in the front view it is seen as an equilateral triangle of 50 mm side and one side
inclined at 45º to XY. Draw its top view. [RGPV Feb. 2006]
70
a′′ a′ c′
50

a′
c′
50

c′

45°
b′′ b′ b′
a b
X Y
a,b c a,b
b
52°

c c
Fig. 8.34

Construction: Fig. 8.34

1. First stage: Draw an isosceles triangle a′b′c′ such that side a′b′ is 50 mm long and is perpendicular
to XY. Project all the corners to XY and obtain ac as the top view.
2. Second stage: Draw an equilateral triangle a′b′c′ on the horizontal locus lines drawn through
points a′, b′ and c′. Obviously, the length of sides of the triangle would is 50 mm.
3. Project points a′ and b′ vertical to meet XY at points a and b respectively. Project point c′ vertically
downwards as the locus of point c. Draw an arc with a as the centre and radius ac to meet the locus
of point c at point c. Join ac.
4. Third stage: Reproduce the front view of the second stage such that side a′b′ is inclined at 30º to
XY. Obtain points a, b and c for the top view by joining the points of intersection with the vertical
projectors drawn from points a′, b′ and c′ of the third stage with the horizontal locus lines drawn
from points a, b and c of the second stage. Join abc.

Example 8.28 (Fig. 8.35)

A thin rectangular plate of 50 mm and 30 mm sides has its shorter side in the V.P. and in-
clined at 30º to the H.P. Project its top view, if its front view is a square of 30 mm long sides.
[RGPV Feb. 2008]
 Projections of Planes 8.35

60 d′
a′ d ′ a′ d′
c′

30
a′

30°
c′ b′ c′ b′
b′
a b Y
X
a,b c,d a,b
b

°
60
c,d d c

Fig. 8.35

Construction: Fig. 8.35

1. First stage: Draw a rectangle a′b′c′d ′ such that side a′b′ is perpendicular to XY as the front view.
Project all the corners to XY and obtain ac as the top view.
2. Second stage: Draw a square abcd on the horizontal locus lines drawn through points a′, b′, c′ and
d ′ as shown.
3. Project point a′ to meet XY at point a. Project point c′ vertically downwards as the locus of c. Draw an arc
with a as the centre and radius equal to length ac of the first stage to meet the locus of c at point c. Join ac.
4. Third stage: Reproduce the front view of the second stage such that a′b′ is inclined at 30º to XY.
Obtain points a, b, c and d for the top view by joining the points of intersection of the vertical pro-
jectors drawn from points a′, b′, c′ and d ′ of the third stage with the horizontal locus lines drawn
from points a, b, c and d of the second stage. Join abcd.

Example 8.29 (Fig. 8.36)

A elevation of a rectangular lamina ABCD of 25 mm × 50 mm sides is a square of 25 mm side
when its side AB is in V.P. and the side AD is making an angle of 20º to the H.P. Draw its pro-
jections. [RGPV Dec. 2001]
50
c′
a′ d′ a′ d′
b′
25

d1′ d ′
c′′ b′ c′
20°

b′ a a′
X a b Y
a,b c,d a,b
°
60

c,d d c
Fig. 8.36
8.36 Engineering Graphics

Construction: Fig. 8.36

1. First stage: Draw a rectangle a′b′c′d ′ such that side a′b′ is perpendicular to XY as the front view.
Project all the corners to XY and obtain ac as the top view.
2. Second stage: Draw a square abcd on the horizontal locus lines drawn through points a′, b′, c′ and
d ′ as shown.
3. Project point a′ to meet XY at point a. Project point c′ vertically downwards as the locus of c. Draw
an arc with a as the centre and radius equal to length ac of the first stage to meet the locus of c at
point c. Join ac.
4. Third stage: Here the side AD is inclined at 60º to V.P. To make is further 20º to the H.P., we
need to determine the apparent angle a. Therefore, draw a line a′d1′ equal to true length (50 mm)
and inclined at 20º to XY. Draw an arc with centre a′ and radius equal to a′d ′ of the second stage
(25 mm), to intersect the horizontal locus line from d1′ at point d ′. The line a′d ′ is now inclined
at a angle to XY.
5. Reproduce the front view of the second stage such that the side a′d ′ is inclined at a angle to XY.
Obtain point a, b, c and d for the top view by joining the points of intersection of vertical projec-
tors drawn from points a′, b′, c′ and d ′ of the third stage with the horizontal locus lines drawn from
points a, b, c and d of the second stage. Join abcd.

Example 8.30 (Fig. 8.37)

A thin square plate of 50 mm side stands on one of its corners in the HP and the opposite cor-
ner is raised so that one of the diagonals is twice that of the others. If, one of the diagonal is
parallel to both the planes, draw its projection and determine an inclination of the plane of the
plate with the HP. [RGPV Dec. 2005]

c′ c′

d′ b′
b′,d ′

a′ b′,d ′ c′ a′
X Y
a′′
d d

a c a c b
d

50 a

b
b 1/2 of bd

Fig. 8.37
 Projections of Planes 8.37

Construction: Fig. 8.37

1. First stage: Draw a square abcd such that line ac is parallel to XY, as the top view. Project all the
corners and obtain a′c′ as the front view.
2. Second stage: Draw a rhombus abcd on the horizontal locus lines drawn through points a, b, c and
d such that diagonal bd is equal to the diagonal bd of the first stage and diagonal ac is equal to half
of the diagonal bd.
3. Project point a to meet XY line at point a′. Project point c vertically upward as the locus line of
point c′. Draw an arc with a′ as the centre and radius a′c′ of the first stage, to meet locus line of c′
at point c′. Join a′c′. Mark points b′ and d ′ on line a′c′. Determine inclination of line a′c′ with XY
as 60º, inclination of the surface with H.P.
4. Third stage: Reproduce the top view of the second stage such that line bd is parallel to XY. Obtain
points a′, b′, c′ and d ′ for the front view by joining the points of intersection of the vertical projec-
tors drawn from points a, b, c and d of the third stage with the horizontal locus lines drawn from
points a′, b′, c′ and d ′ of the second stage. Join a′b′c′d ′.

Example 8.31 (Fig. 8.38)

A circular plate of negligible thickness and 50 mm diameter appears as an ellipse in the front
view, having major axis 50 mm and minor axis 30 mm long. Draw its top view when the major
axis of the ellipse is horizontal. [RGPV Dec. 2002]
30
j′ j′
k′ i′
g′
l′ h′ l′ h′ f′
′
i′ e′
a′ g′ a′ g′ d′
j′

′ ′
′ f b ′ l′ b′
a
c′ ′ c′ e′
d d

a a
X l b Y
a b l c,k dj e,i f h g bl k
ck
j
d
dj
e,i i e
fh h f
g g

Fig. 8.38

Construction: Fig. 8.38

1. First stage: Draw a circle a′d ′g′j′ as the front view. Divide it into 12 equal parts. Project all the
points to XY and obtain ag as the top view.
8.38 Engineering Graphics

2. Second stage: Draw horizontal locus line from points a′ and g′ of the first stage. Mark on it points
a′ and g′ such that they are 30 mm apart (equal to the length of the minor axis).
3. Project a′ to meet XY line at point a. Project g′ vertical as the locus of point g. Draw an arc with a
as the centre and radius equal to ag of the first stage (50 mm) to meet the locus of point g at point g.
Join ag. Mark other points on line ag.
4. Obtain points a′, b′, c′, d ′, etc., of the front view by joining the points of intersection of the verti-
cal projectors from points a, b, c, d, etc., of the second stage with the horizontal lines drawn from
points a′, b′, c′, d ′, etc., of the first stage. Join a′b′c′d ′e′f ′g′h′i′j′k′l′.
5. Third stage: Reproduce the front view of the second stage such that line dj parallel to XY. Obtain
points a, b, c, d, etc., for the top view by joining the points of intersection of the projectors drawn
from points a′, b′, c′, d ′ of the third stage with the horizontal lines from points a, b, c, d, etc., of
the second stage. Join abcdefghijkl using a smooth curve.

EXERCISE 8B

Plane Inclined to Both the Reference Planes

1. Draw the projections of a regular hexagon of 30 mm side, having one of its sides in H.P. and in-
clined at 60º to V.P. and its surface makes an angle of 45º to the H.P.
[RGPV Dec. 2005]
2. A regular pentagon of 30 mm side is resting on one of its edges on the H.P. which is inclined at
45º to the V.P. Its surface is inclined at 30º to the H.P. Draw its projections.
[RGPV Dec. 2007]
3. A rectangular plate of sides 60 mm × 30 mm is resting on its shorter side on H.P. and inclined at
30º to V.P. Its surface is inclined at 60º to H.P. Draw its projections.
[RGPV June 2002]
4. An equilateral triangle of 40 mm long side has an edge on the ground and inclined at 60º to the
V.P. Its plane makes an angle of 45º with the H.P. Draw its projections.
[RGPV June 2004]
5. A rectangular lamina ABCD of sides 60 mm × 30 mm has its shorter side in H.P. and inclined at
60º to V.P. and the plane of the lamina is inclined at 60º to the H.P. Draw its projections.
[RGPV April 2009]
6. A square ABCD with 60 mm long diagonals has a corner A on the H.P. The diagonal AC is inclined
30º to the H.P. while the diagonal BD is inclined at 45º to the V.P. and is parallel to the H.P. Draw
its projections.
7. A pentagonal lamina of sides 40 mm resting with one of its corners on the V.P. and an edge op-
posite this corner makes an angle of 30º to the ground. The surface of the lamina itself is inclined
at 45º to the V.P. Draw the projections. [RGPV June 2011]
8. A pentagonal lamina with 40 mm sides is resting on one of its sides on the H.P. having that side
parallel to and 25 mm in front of the V.P. It is tilted about that side so that its highest corner rests
in the V.P. Draw the projections of the lamina.
 Projections of Planes 8.39

9. A circular disc of 40 mm diameter and negligible thickness rests on H.P. on its rim and
makes an angle of 45º to it. One of its diameters is inclined to the V.P. at 30º. Draw its
projections.
[RGPV June 2009]
10. A circle of 40 mm diameter is resting on H.P. on a point with its surface inclined at 30º to H.P.
Draw the projections of the circle when the top view of the diameter through the resting point
makes an angle of 45º with XY.
[RGPV Feb. 2008, Dec. 2004, Feb. 2005, April 2010]
11. A 30–60 set-square is kept on its 80 mm long hypotenuse in the H.P. inclined at 30º to the V.P.
Draw its projections when the set-square itself is inclined at 45º to the H.P.
12. A 30–60 set square with longest side of 75 mm is kept such that the longest side is in the V.P.
inclined at 45º to the H.P. The set-square is inclined at 45º to the V.P. Draw its projections.
13. A semicircular plate of 80 mm diameter has its straight edge in the H.P. and inclined at 30º to the
V.P. The surface of the plate is inclined at 45º to the H.P. Draw its projections.
14. Draw the projections of a rhombus having diagonals 125 mm and 50 mm long, the smaller di-
agonal of which is parallel to both the planes (H.P. and V.P.), while the other is inclined at 30º
to H.P.
[RGPV Dec. 2003, Dec. 2006]
15. A thin hexagonal piece of metal sheet with 40 mm sides has a hole with a 40 mm diameter
punched centrally. It is placed on a corner in the H.P. Its surface is inclined at 30º to the H.P. and
the top view of the diagonal through the corner in the H.P. is inclined at 45º to the V.P. Draw its
projections.

To Determine Apparent Angle

16. A hexagonal plane with 30 mm sides has one of the corners in the H.P. and the corner opposite to
it is in the V.P. The plane is inclined at 60º to the H.P. and 30º to the V.P. Draw its projections.
17. A square plate with 50 mm long sides is resting on one of its corners on the H.P. Its surface is
inclined at 45º to the H.P. and the diagonal passing through that corner is inclined at 30º to the
V.P. Draw the projections of the plate.
18. A regular hexagonal plate of 30 mm side has a corner on H.P. and its surface is inclined at 45º to
H.P. Draw the projections when the diagonal through the corner which is on H.P. makes 30º with
the V.P. [RGPV Feb. 2011]
19. A circular plate with a 60 mm diameter is kept on a point of its rim on the V.P. The surface of
the circular plate is inclined at 30º to the V.P. Draw the projections of the plate when diameter
passing through that point is inclined at 30º to the H.P.
20. A rectangular plate with 40 mm and 60 mm long sides is resting on one of its corners on the V.P.
such that the diagonal passing through that corner is inclined at 30º to the H.P. and 45º to the V.P.
Draw its projections.

Shape of One View Is Given

21. A thin rectangular plate of sides 60 mm × 30 mm has its shorter side in the V.P. and inclined at
30º to the H.P. Project its top view, if its front view is a square of 30 mm long sides.
[RGPV June 2006]
8.40 Engineering Graphics

22. A thin rectangular plate of size 60 mm × 40 mm has its shorter edge on the H.P. It is kept in such
a way that its top view appears as a square of 40 mm sides. Draw its projections when the edge
resting on the H.P. is inclined at 30º to the V.P.
23. The top view of a square plane with 80 mm long diagonals appears as a rhombus of 80 mm and
50 mm long diagonals. One of the corners of the plane is in the H.P. Draw its projections when
one of the diagonals is parallel to both the principal planes.
24. A rhombus has 100 mm and 60 mm long diagonals. It is placed such that its top view appears to
be a square. Draw its projections when vertical plane containing the longer diagonal is inclined
at 30º to the V.P.
25. A circular plate with a 60 mm diameter has a point A on its circumference in the H.P. Its surface
is inclined to H.P. such that top view appears as an ellipse with minor axis 40 mm long. Draw its
projections when top view of the diameter through point A makes 45º with the V.P. Neglect the
thickness of the plate.
26. A trapezium ABCD (AB = 70 mm, CD = 40 mm) having parallel sides 60 mm apart is kept on its
side AB in the V.P. such that its front view appears as another trapezium of same parallel sides
but 30 mm apart. Draw the projections of the trapezium when the side in the V.P. makes an angle
of 45º with the H.P.
27. A rectangular plate with 45 mm and 75 mm long sides is resting on one of its smaller sides in
the H.P. Its top view appears as another rectangle with 45 mm and 60 mm long sides. Draw its
projections when one of its longer sides makes an angle of 45º with the V.P.
(Hint: determine apparent angle b )
28. A rectangular plane ABCD with 40 mm and 60 mm long sides has its shorter side in the V.P. and
longer side is inclined at 30º to the H.P. Draw the projections of the rectangle if its front view
appears as a square.
(Hint: determine apparent angle a )

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. If the top view of a plane is a straight line, will its front view always be the true shape?
2. If the front view of a plane lies in the reference line, will its top view always be the true shape?
3. The projections of a plane lying in the H.P. are drawn. What will be the change in the shape, size
and position of the front view if the surface of the plane is inclined at 30º to the H.P.?
4. The projections of a plane parallel to V.P. are drawn. What will be the change in the shape, size
and position of the top view if the surface of the plane is inclined at 45º to the V.P.?
5. A rectangular plane 60 mm long and 30 mm wide is parallel to and 20 mm above the H.P. What
will be the shape and position of its front view if the longer side is inclined at 30º to the V.P.?
6. The top view of a plane is a circle and the front view is a line inclined at 60º to XY. What is the
true shape of the plane?
7. The surface of a hexagonal plane is perpendicular to both H.P. and V.P. Which orthographic
view will show the true shape?
 Projections of Planes 8.41

8. The true shape of a pentagonal plane is seen in the side view. What will be the shapes of its front
and top views?
9. Define the position of a plane rhombus such that its top view appears as a square.
10. Define the position of an elliptical plane such that its front view appears as a circle.

MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS

Choose the most appropriate answer out of the given alternatives:

i) If a thin set-square is kept perpendicular to both the horizontal and vertical planes, its true shape
is seen in
(a) horizontal plane (b) vertical plane
(c) auxiliary inclined plane (d) profile plane
ii) Planes which are inclined to both the horizontal and vertical planes are called
(a) oblique planes (b) profile planes (c) auxiliary planes (d) none of these
iii) If a thin rectangular plate of 60 mm × 30 mm is inclined at an angle of 60º to H.P. its top view
may be
(a) square of 60 mm side (b) square of 30 mm side
(c) rectangle of 60 mm × 45 mm (d) rectangle of 45 mm × 30 mm
iv) In multiview orthographic projection, the front view of a circular plane may be
(a) a circle (b) an ellipse (c) a straight line (d) any one of these
v) If both front and top views of a plane are straight lines the true shape will lie on
(a) profile plane (b) horizontal plane (c) vertical plane (d) any of these
vi) If a circular plane is inclined at 30º with the H.P. and 60º with the V.P. its side view will be
(a) an ellipse (b) a straight line (c) a circle (d) true shape
vii) The front view of an elliptical plane may be
(a) an ellipse (b) a circle (c) a straight line (d) any of these
viii) If the top view of a plane is a rhombus the object may be
(a) a square (b) a rhombus (c) either (a) or (b) (d) neither (a) nor (b)
ix) The trace of a hexagonal plane may be
(a) a straight line (b) a point (c) a hexagon (d) an equilateral triangle
x) A 60º set-square has its shortest edge in the V.P. The surface is perpendicular to the H.P. and
inclined to the V.P. Its front view may appear as
(a) an equilateral triangle (b) an isosceles triangle
(c) an obtuse-angled triangle (d) an acute-angled triangle
8.42 Engineering Graphics

xi) A 60º set-square has its shortest edge in the H.P. and the surface is perpendicular to the V.P. Its
top view may appear as
(a) an isosceles triangle (b) a right-angled triangle
(c) a straight line (d) any of these
xii) If both the principal views of a plane object are ellipse of the same size, the side view will be
(a) a horizontal line (b) a vertical line (c) an inclined line (d) an ellipse

Answers
(i) d (ii) a (iii) b (iv) d (v) d (vi) b (vii) d (viii) c (ix) d (x) b (xi) d (xii) c
 9

Projections
of Solids

� Introduction
� Classification of Solids
� Deciding Initial Position of the Solid
� Rules to Identify Visible and Hidden Lines
� Axis Perpendicular to H.P. or V.P.
� Axis Parallel to both H.P. and V.P.
� Axis Inclined to H.P. and Parallel to V.P.
� Axis Inclined to V.P. and Parallel to H.P.
� Axis Inclined to Both the Reference
Planes
9.2 Engineering Graphics

9.1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter deals with the orthographic projections of three-dimensional objects called solids. How-
ever, only those solids are considered, the shape of which can be defined geometrically and are regular
in nature. The basic concepts of orthographic projections discussed in earlier chapters shall also apply
here.

9.2 CLASSIFICATION OF SOLIDS

Solids are usually classified as follows:

Solid

Right solid Oblique solid

Polyhedron Solid of revolution

Regular Prism Pyramid Cylinder Cone Sphere

polyhedron

Tetrahedron Triangular Triangular

Cube Square Square
Octahedron Pentagonal Pentagonal
Dodecahedron Hexagonal Hexagonal
Icosahedron etc. etc.

Polyhedron: A polyhedron is defined as a solid bounded by planes called faces which meet in straight
lines called edges.

Regular polyhedron: It is a polyhedron having all the faces equal and regular, see Fig. 9.1.

Tetrahedron Cube Octahedron Dodecahedron Icosahedron

Fig. 9.1 Regular polyhedron

Tetrahedron: It is a solid having four equal equilateral triangular faces.

Cube: It is a solid having six equal square faces.

Octahedron: It is a solid having eight equal equilateral triangular faces.

Dodecahedron: It is a solid having twelve equal pentagonal faces.

 Projections of Solids 9.3

Icosahedron: It is a solid having twenty equal equilateral triangular faces.

Prism: This is a polyhedron having two equal and similar regular polygons called its ends or bases
parallel to each other and joined by other faces which are rectangles, see Fig. 9.2. The imaginary line
joining the centres of the bases is called the axis.

A right and regular prism has its axis perpendicular to the base. All the faces are equal rectangles.

Faces Longer edges Ends or Bases

Axis

Ends or Bases
Edges of base

Triangular prism Square prism Pentagonal prism Hexagonal prism

Fig. 9.2 Prisms

Pyramid: This is a polyhedron having a plane figure as a base and a number of triangular faces meeting
at a point called the vertex or apex, see Fig. 9.3. The imaginary line joining the apex with the centre of
the base is known as the axis.

Apex

Slant edges
Axis Faces

Base Edges of base Corners

Triangular pyramid Square pyramid Pentagonal pyramid Hexagonal pyramid

Fig. 9.3 Pyramids
9.4 Engineering Graphics

A right and regular pyramid has its axis perpendicular to the base which is a regular plane figure. All
the faces are isosceles triangles.

Solids of revolution: These solids are obtained by revolving a plane figure like rectangle, triangle or a
semicircle about a fixed line, see Fig. 9.4.

Cylinder: A cylinder is obtained by revolving a rectangle about a fixed line called axis.

Cone: A cone is obtained by revolving a right-angled triangle about its perpendicular side which re-
mains fixed.

Axis

Base
Cylinder Cone Sphere
Fig. 9.4 Solids of revolution

Sphere: A sphere is obtained by revolving a semicircle about its diameter.

Frustum of square pyramid Frustum of hexagonal pyramid Frustum of cone

Fig. 9.5 Frustums

Frustum of pyramid or cone: When a regular pyramid or cone is cut by a section plane parallel to its
base and on removing the upper portion of the solid, the remaining portion is called the frustum of that
pyramid or cone, see Fig. 9.5.

9.3 RECOMMENDED METHOD FOR NAMING CORNERS OF THE SOLIDS

It is recommended to label the corners of the solids in a manner shown in Fig. 9.6.
 Projections of Solids 9.5

10
12 11 9 8 O

1 7
O 1 4 2 6
3 4 5

2 3

K J I K J I
L H L H
A A D
O1 C A G A G

C B F F
B B C D E B C E
D

1 6
3 5 5
4 4
1 O 1 O 4
O 1 O
2 3
2
2 2 3
3

A F E
C E D
D
A O1 O1 A O1
O1 A D
C
B B C
B B
C

O O O
O

F E
A E D
C
A D A O1
O1 O1 D
O1 A
C
B B C
B C B
Fig. 9.6 Suggested method of labelling

9.4 ORIENTATION OF SOLIDS

The possible orientations of solids with respect to the principal planes are as given below.

1. Axis perpendicular to H.P.

2. Axis perpendicular to V.P.
3. Axis parallel to both H.P. and V.P. (i.e. axis perpendicular to the profile plane)
4. Axis inclined to H.P. and parallel to V.P.
9.6 Engineering Graphics

5. Axis inclined to V.P. and parallel to H.P.

6. Axis inclined to both H.P. and V.P.

9.5 DECIDING INITIAL POSITION OF THE SOLID

General rule adopted to decide the initial position of the solids when it is inclined to one or both the axes
are as follows:

S.No Required final position of the solid Assume initial position of the solid
1(a) Axis inclined to H.P. and parallel to the V.P. with Base in H.P. with an edge of the base perpendicular to
an edge of the base in the H.P. the reference line.
1(b) Axis inclined to H.P. and parallel to the V.P. with a Base in H.P. keeping the line joining the corner and
corner of the base in the H.P. centre of the base parallel to the reference line.
2(a) Axis inclined to V.P. and parallel to the H.P. with Base in V.P. with an edge of the base perpendicular to
an edge of the base in the V.P. the reference line.
2(b) Axis inclined to V.P. and parallel to the H.P. with a Base in V.P. keeping the line joining the corner and
corner of the base in V.P. centre of the base parallel to the reference line.
3 Pyramid having one of its triangular faces in H.P. or Base in H.P. with an edge of the base perpendicular to
inclined to the H.P. and axis parallel to V.P. the reference line.
4 Pyramid having one of its triangular faces in V.P. or Base of the pyramid in V.P. with an edge of the base
inclined to the V.P. and axis parallel to H.P. perpendicular to the reference line.
5 Pyramid lying on one of its slant edges in H.P. or Base in H.P. keeping the line joining the corner and
inclined to the H.P. and axis parallel to V.P. centre of the base parallel to the reference line.
6 Pyramid lying on one of its slant edges in V.P. or Base in V.P. keeping the line joining the corner and
inclined to the V.P. and axis parallel to H.P. centre of the base parallel to the reference line.
7 Cone lying on one of its generators in H.P. or Base of the cone in the H.P.
inclined to the H.P. and parallel to V.P.
8 Cone lying on one of its generators in V.P. or Base of the cone in the V.P.
inclined to the V.P. and parallel to H.P.

9.6 RULES TO IDENTIFY VISIBLE AND HIDDEN LINES

General rule adopted to identify and distinguish the visible and the hidden edges in the orthographic
views of the solid are as follows:

1. Outlines of an object are always visible, the outer edges of any view should be shown with con-
tinuous lines (i.e. boundary lines of any view are never dotted).
2. All the edges or faces which are towards the observer are visible. Therefore, their projections in
the other view are shown by full lines.
3. All the edges or faces which are away from the observer, i.e. towards the reference line are not
visible. Therefore, their projections in the other view are shown by dotted lines.
 Projections of Solids 9.7

4. When two lines representing the edges cross each other, one of them must be dotted.
5. Two continuous lines never cross each other inside. Similarly, two hidden lines never cross each
other.

These rules are applicable for only single solid. They do not apply for the solids with holes or combina-
tion of solids.

9.7 AXIS PERPENDICULAR TO H.P.

This is one of the basic positions of the solid. It is evident that if the axis of a solid is perpendicular to
H.P., its base will be parallel to the H.P. The true shape and size of the base will be seen in the top view.
Hence top view of the solid should be drawn first and then it is projected to draw the front view.

Example 9.1 (Fig 9.7)

A square pyramid, side of base 40 mm and axis 60 mm is resting on its base on H.P. Draw its
projections when (a) a side of the base is parallel to V.P., (b) a side of the base is inclined at 30º
to V.P., and (c) all the sides of the base are equally inclined to V.P.

o′ o′ o′
60

X Y
a ′,b ′ c ′,d ′ a′ d′ b′ c′ a' b',d' c'
30°

45°

a d d d

o c
a c
o o
a
b c
40

b b
Fig. 9.7(a) Fig. 9.7(b) Fig. 9.7(c)

Construction:

1. A side of the base parallel to V.P. [Fig 9.7 (a)]: Draw a square abcd with side ad parallel to the
XY. Locate centre o and join it with all the corners a, b, c, d. This represents the top view.
Project points a, b, c and d on XY and mark points a′, b′, c′ and d ′. Project point o, 60 mm above
the XY and mark it as o′. Join o′a′b′ and o′c′d ′. This is the required front view.
9.8 Engineering Graphics

2. A side of the base inclined at 30o to V.P. [Fig 9.7 (b)]: Draw a square abcd with dc inclined at 30o
to the XY. Locate centre o and join it with the corners a, b, c, d. This represents the top view.
Project points a, b, c and d on XY and mark points a′, b′, c′ and d ′. Project point o, 60 mm above
the XY and mark it as o′. Join a′o′, b′o′, c′o′ and d ′o′. This is the required front view. It may be
noted that d ′o′ is not visible and should be shown as dotted line.
3. All the sides of the base equally inclined to V.P. [Fig 9.7 (c)]: Draw a square abcd with sides in-
clined at 45o with the XY. Locate centre o and join it with the corners a, b, c, d. This is the required
top view.
Project points a, b, c and d on XY and mark points a′, b′, c′ and d ′. Project point o, 60 mm above
the XY and mark it as o′. Join a′o′, b′d ′o′ and c′o′. This is the required front view.

Example 9.2 (Fig 9.8)

A square prism of 40 mm base edges and 60 mm long axis is resting on its base on ground.
Draw its projections when (a) a face is perpendicular to the V.P., (b) a face is inclined at 30o to
the V.P., and (c) all the faces are equally inclined to the V.P.

1′,2′ 3′,4′ 1′ 4′ 2′ 3′ 1′ 2′,4′ 3′

60

X Y
a′,b′ c′,d ′ a′ d′ b′ c′ a′ b′,d ′ c′
30°

45°

d,4 d,4
a,1 d,4

c,3
a,1 c,3
a,1
b, 2 c,3
40

b, 2 b,2
Fig. 9.8(a) Fig. 9.8(b) Fig. 9.8(c)

Construction:

1. A face perpendicular to the V.P. [Fig 9.8 (a)]: Draw a square abcd such that side ab is perpendicu-
lar to XY. This represents the top view.
Project all the corners of the top view on XY and mark a′, b′, c′ and d ′. Mark points 1′, 2′, 3′ and
4′, 60 mm above XY. Join all the edges and obtain the required front view.
2. A face inclined at 30o to the V.P. [Fig 9.8 (b)]: Draw a square abcd such that side cd is inclined at
30o to XY. This represents the top view.
 Projections of Solids 9.9

Project all the corners of the top view on XY and mark a′, b′, c′ and d ′. Mark points 1′, 2′, 3′ and
4′, 60 mm above XY. Join all the edges and obtain the required front view. Edge D4 is not visible
in the front view so d ′4′ should be drawn as dotted line.
3. All the faces equally inclined to the V.P. [Fig 9.8 (c)]: Draw a square abcd such that sides are
inclined at 45o to XY. This represents the top view.
Project all the corners of the top view on XY and mark a′, b′, c′ and d ′. Mark points 1′, 2′, 3′ and
4′, 60 mm above XY. Join all the edges and obtain the required front view.

9.8 AXIS PERPENDICULAR TO V.P.

This is another basic position of the solid. It is evident that if the axis of a right solid is perpendicular to
V.P., its base will be parallel to the V.P. The true shape and size of the base will be seen in the front view.
Hence front view of the solid should be drawn first and from its projectors top view must be drawn.

Example 9.3 (Fig 9.9)

A pentagonal prism of 30 mm base edges and 60 mm long axis, has one of its bases in the V.P.
Draw its projections when (a) a rectangular face is parallel to and 15 mm above H.P., (b) a face
is perpendicular to the H.P., and (c) a face is inclined at 45o to the H.P.

e ′,5 ′ e ′,5 ′ d ′,4′

30 e ′,5 ′
a ′,1′

d ′,4′
a ′,1′ d ′,4′
c ′,3 ′
a ′,1′
b ′, 2 ′ 45°

b ′, 2 ′ c ′,3 ′ c ′,3
, ′ b ′, 2 ′
15

a b e c d a,,b c,,e d a e b d c
X Y
60

1 2 5 3 4 1,2 3,5 4 15 4 3
Fig. 9.9(a) Fig. 9.9(b) Fig. 9.9(c)

Construction:

1. A rectangular face parallel to and 15 mm above H.P. [Fig 9.9 (a)]: Draw a pentagon a′b′c′d ′e′
such that side b′c′ is parallel to and 15 mm above XY, to represent the front view.
9.10 Engineering Graphics

Project all corners from the front view on the XY and mark them as a, b, c, d and e. Also project
points 60 mm below XY and mark them as 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5. Join the points and obtain the required
top view. Edges b2 and c3 are not visible and should be drawn as dotted lines.
2. A face perpendicular to the H.P. [Fig 9.9 (b)]: Draw a pentagon a′b′c′d ′e′ such that side a′b′ is
perpendicular to XY, to represent the front view.
Project all corners from the front view on the XY and mark them as a, b, c, d and e. Also project
points 60 mm below XY and mark them as 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5. Join the points and obtain the required
top view.
3. A face inclined at 45o to the H.P. [Fig 9.9 (c)]: Draw a pentagon a′b′c′d ′e′ such that side b′c′ is
inclined at 45o to the XY, to represent the front view.
Project all corners from the front view on the XY and mark them as a, b, c, d and e. Also project
points 60 mm below XY and mark them as 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5. Join the points and obtain the required
top view. Edge b2 is not visible and should be drawn as a dotted line.

9.9 AXIS PARALLEL TO BOTH H.P. AND V.P.

It is evident that if the axis of right solids is parallel to both H.P. and V.P., the base of the solid will be
perpendicular to the reference planes and parallel to the profile plane. The true shape and size of the base
will be seen in the side view. Hence side view of the solid should be drawn first and from its projectors
front and top views must be drawn.

Example 9.4 (Fig 9.10)

A triangular prism of base 30 mm and axis 55 mm long lies on its rectangular face in H.P. with
its axis parallel to the V.P. Draw the three views of the prism. [RGPV Feb. 2007]

X1 55
c ″,3″ c′ 3′
30

X a″,1″ Y
b″,2″ a ′,b′ 1′ ,2′
b
2

c
3

a 1
Y1

Fig. 9.10
 Projections of Solids 9.11

Construction: Fig. 9.10

1. As the axis is parallel to both the planes, the triangle would be seen in the side view. Thus, begin
with the side view. Draw a triangle a′′b′′c′′ such that side a′′b′′ is on the XY line.
2. Project the corners from the side view parallel to XY and obtain the front view a′1′3′c′.
3. Project the corners from the side view and the front view to meet each other and obtain the top
view a12b.

9.10 AXIS INCLINED TO H.P. AND PARALLEL TO V.P.

When the axis of a right solid is inclined (at q ) to the H.P. and parallel to the V.P., then the projections
are drawn in two stages. Consider the following solved example.

Example 9.5 (Fig 9.11)

A right regular pentagonal prism, 25 mm edge of base and 55 mm height rests on an edge of
its base in H.P. such that its axis is parallel to V.P. and inclined to the H.P. at 45°. Draw the
projections of the solid. [RGPV Dec. 2007]

1′
1′ 2′,5′ 3′,4′ 2′,5′

3′,4′
55

a′
b ′,e′
45°

X Y
a′ b′,e′ c ′,d′ c ′,d ′
e,5
, e 5
d,4 d 4

a,1 a 1

3
25

c,3 c
b, 2 b 2
First stage Second stage (Final projections)
Fig. 9.11

Construction: Fig. 9.11

1. First stage: Draw a pentagon abcde such that side cd is perpendicular to XY, to represent the top view.
2. Project all the corners and obtain a′d ′4′1′ to represent the front view.
9.12 Engineering Graphics

3. Second stage: Reproduce the front view of the first stage keeping c′d ′ is on XY and c′3′ is inclined
at 45º to it. Thus, the axis is inclined at 45º to XY.
4. Obtain points a, b, c, d, e, 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 in the top view as the intersecting points of the vertical
projectors drawn from the front view of the second stage with the horizontal projectors drawn
from the top view of the first stage. Join all the visible edges with continuous lines and hidden
edges with dotted lines, following the rules of visibility.

Example 9.6 (Fig 9.12)

A hexagonal pyramid, base 25 mm side and axis 50 mm long has an edge of its base on the
ground. Its axis is inclined at 40º to the ground and parallel to the V.P. Draw its projections.
[RGPV June 2009]

o′
o′

a′,b ′
50

c′,f ′ 40°

X Y
a′,b ′ c′,f ′ d ′,e ′ d ′,e ′
f f

a e a
e
HEX25

o o

d
b d b

c c
First stage Second stage (Final projections)
Fig. 9.12

Construction: Fig. 9.12

1. First stage: Consider edge ED of the hexagonal prism lie on the H.P. in the final stage. Draw a
hexagon abcdef such that side de is perpendicular to XY. Join the centre o of the hexagon to meet
the corners. This represents the top view.
2. Project the corners and obtain a′d ′4′1′ to represent the front view.
3. Second stage: Reproduce the front view of the first stage keeping d ′e′ on XY and a′d ′ inclined at
50º to it. Thus, the axis becomes inclined at 40º to XY.
 Projections of Solids 9.13

4. Obtain points a, b, c, d, e, f, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 in the top view as the intersecting points of the verti-
cal projectors drawn from the front view of the second stage with the horizontal projectors drawn
from the top view of the first stage. Join all the visible edges with continuous lines and hidden
edges with dotted lines, following the rules of visibility.

Example 9.7 (Fig 9.13)

A hexagonal pyramid, with 30 mm base edges and 70 mm long axis, has a triangular face on
the ground and the axis parallel to the V.P. Draw its projections.

o′

a ′,b ′
70

c ′,f′

d ′,e′ o′
X Y
a ′,b ′ c ′,f′ d ′,e′
f f

a e e a
HEX 30

o o

b d d b

c c
First stage Second stage (Final projections)
Fig. 9.13

Construction: Fig. 9.13

1. First stage: Draw a hexagon abcdef keeping side de perpendicular to XY. Locate the mid-point o
and join it with the corners of the hexagon. This represents the top view.
2. Project all the corners and obtain a′d ′o′ to represent the front view.
3. Second stage: Reproduce the front view of the first stage such that line e′d ′o′ representing the
triangular face is on XY.
4. Obtain points a, b, c, d, e, f and o as the intersecting points of the vertical projectors drawn from
the front view of the second stage with the horizontal projectors drawn from the top view of the
first stage. Join all visible and hidden lines as shown.
9.14 Engineering Graphics

Example 9.8 (Fig 9.14)

A pentagonal prism of 25 mm base side and 50 mm axis length is resting on the H.P. on
one of its base corners with its axis inclined at 40º to the H.P. and parallel to the V.P.
Draw its projection when the base sides containing the resting corner are equally inclined
to the H.P.
[RGPV June 2002]

1′, 2 ′

1′, 2 ′ 3′, 5′ 4′

3′, 5′

4′
a ′,b ′
50

40°
c ′,e ′
X Y
a ′,b ′ c ′,e ′ d′ d′

e,5 e 5
a,1 a 1

d,4 d
25

b,2 b 2
c,3 c 3
First stage Second stage (Final projections)
Fig. 9.14

Construction: Fig. 9.14

1. First stage: Draw a pentagon abcde keeping side ab perpendicular to XY. This represents the top
view.
2. Project the corners and obtain a′d ′4′1′ to represent the front view.
3. Second stage: Reproduce the front view of the first keeping that corner d ′ on XY and the axis in-
clined at 40º to the XY.
4. Obtain points a, b, c, d, e, 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 in the top view as the intersecting points of the vertical
projectors drawn from the front view of the second stage with the horizontal projectors drawn
from the top view of the first stage. Join all the visible edges with continuous lines and hidden
edges with dotted lines, following the rules of visibility.
 Projections of Solids 9.15

Example 9.9 (Fig 9.15)

Draw the projections of a cylinder of 40 mm diameter and 60 mm long axis when it is lying on
H.P. with axis inclined at 45º to H.P. and parallel to V.P. Follow the change of position method.
[RGPV June 2008(o)]

1′
2′,12′
3′,11′
1 2′,12 3 ,11′ 4 ,10 5 ,9′ 6′,8′ 7′
4 ,10′
5′,9′
6′,8′
7′
60

a′
b′ l
,k′
′ j′
′ i′
X ,h′ Y
a′ b′,l′ c ′ k′ d j′ e′ i′ f , g ′ ′

j 10 j 10
i,9 k 9
l h,8 l h

g a g
a,1 7

b,2 f b f 2 6

c,3 e 5
d d 4

First stage Second stage (Final projections)

ig. 9.15

Construction: Fig. 9.15

1. First stage: Draw a circle adgj to represent the top view. Divide this circle into 12 equal parts us-
ing radial lines.
2. Project the ends of the radial lines and obtain a′g′7′1′ to represent the front view.
3. Second stage: Reproduce the front view of the first stage keeping point g′ on the XY and the base
g′a′ inclined at 45º to XY. Thus, the axis is inclined at 45º to XY.
4. Obtain points a, b, c, d, etc., and 1, 2, 3, 4, etc., as the intersecting points of the vertical projectors
drawn from the front view of the second stage with the horizontal projectors drawn from the top
view of the first stage. Join visible points with continuous curve and hidden points with dotted
curve, following the rules of visibility.
9.16 Engineering Graphics

Example 9.10 (Fig 9.16)

A pentagonal pyramid of base edge 30 mm and height 50 mm is resting on one of its corners
in H.P. Draw the projection when the axis is inclined at 45º to H.P. [RGPV Dec. 2010]

o′ o′

50 a ′,b ′

45
°
c ′,e′
X Y
a ′,b ′ c ′,e′ d′ d′
e e
a a

d d
30

o o

b b
c c
First stage Second stage
(Final projections)
Fig. 9.16

Construction: Fig. 9.16

1. First stage: Draw a pentagon abcde keeping ab perpendicular to XY. Locate the centroid o and join
it with all the corners of the pentagon. This represents the top view.
2. Project the corners abcde upto XY and o 50 mm above it. Join a′d ′o′ to represent the front
view.
3. Second stage: Reproduce the front view of the first stage keeping corner d ′ on XY and the base a′d ′
inclined at 45º to it. Thus, the axis is inclined at 45º to XY.
4. Obtain points a, b, c, d, e and o as the intersecting points of the vertical projectors drawn from the
front view of the second stage with the horizontal projectors drawn from the top view of the first
stage. Join visible edges with continuous lines and hidden edges with dotted lines, following the
rules of visibility.

Example 9.11 (Fig 9.17)

A hexagonal pyramid with 30 mm base sides and 70 mm long axis is lying on a slant edge on
the ground such that the axis is parallel to the V.P. Draw its projections.
 Projections of Solids 9.17

o′

a′

70 b ′,f ′

c ′,e ′

X Y
a′ b ′,f ′ c ′,e ′ d′ d′ o′
f e e f

a o d d a o

b c c b
HEX30

First stage Second stage (Final projections)

Fig. 9.17

Construction: Fig. 9.17

1. First stage: Draw a hexagon abcdef keeping diagonal ad parallel to XY. Locate the mid-point o
and join it with the corners of the hexagon. This represents the top view.
2. Project all the corners and obtain a′d ′o′ to represent the front view.
3. Second stage: Reproduce the front view of the first stage such that slant edge o′d ′ is on the
XY.
4. Obtain points a, b, c, d, e, f and o as the intersecting points of the vertical projectors drawn from
the front view of the second stage with the horizontal projectors drawn from the top view of the
first stage. Join visible and hidden lines as shown.

Example 9.12 (Fig 9.18)

A square pyramid of 50 mm base side and 80 mm height is held in such a way that one of the
edges connecting one of the corners of the base and the apex is perpendicular to the ground
and parallel to V.P. Draw the projections.
[RGPV Dec. 2001]
9.18 Engineering Graphics

o′
o′

80 a′

90
b′,d ′

°
X Y
a′ b′,d ′ c′ c′
d d

a o c a c,o
50

b b

First stage Second stage (Final projections)

Fig. 9.18

Construction: Fig. 9.18

1. First stage: Draw a square abcd keeping ac parallel to XY. Locate the centre o and join it with all
the corners of the square. This represents the top view.
2. Project the corners and obtain a′c′o′ to represent the front view.
3. Second stage: Reproduce the front view of the first stage keeping c′o′ perpendicular to XY.
4. Obtain points a, b, c, d and o as the intersecting points of the vertical projectors drawn from the
front view of the second stage with the horizontal projectors drawn from the top view of the first
stage. Join all edges as shown.

Example 9.13 (Fig 9.19)

A right circular cone with 50 mm diameter of base and 65 mm long axis rests on its base rim
on H.P. with its axis parallel to V.P. and one of the generators perpendicular to H.P. Draw the
projections of the cone.
[RGPV June 2009]
 Projections of Solids 9.19

o′
o′

65
a′
b′,l ′
c ′,k ′
d′,j′
j
X e ′,ii ′ Y
a′ b′,l′ d ′,j′ e′,i ′ f ′,h′g
g′ f ′,h′ g ′

j j
k i k i
l h l h

a g a g,o
0
f5
b f b f
c e c e
d d
First stage Second stage (Final projections)
Fig. 9.19

Construction: Fig. 9.19

1. First stage: Draw a circle adgj to represent the top view. Divide this circle into 12 equal parts us-
ing radial lines.
2. Project the ends of the radial lines and obtain a′g′o′ to represent the front view.
3. Second stage: Reproduce the front view of the first stage keeping point g′ on the XY and the gen-
erator g′o′ perpendicular to it.
4. Obtain points a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l and o as the intersecting points of the vertical
projectors drawn from the front view of the second stage with the horizontal projectors
drawn from the top view of the first stage. Join visible points with continuous curve as
shown.

9.11 AXIS INCLINED TO V.P. AND PARALLEL TO H.P.

When the axis of a right solid is inclined (at an angle) to the V.P. and parallel to the H.P., then the pro-
jections are drawn in two stages. Consider the following solved Example.
9.20 Engineering Graphics

Example 9.14 (Fig 9.20)

A hexagonal prism of 30 mm base edges and axis 65 mm long, has an edge of its base in the V.P.
such that the axis is inclined at 30º to the V.P. and parallel to the H.P. Draw its projections.

f ′,6′ f′ 6'

a ′,1′ e ′,5′ a′ e′ 1'

5'
HEX30

4'
b ′,2 ′ d′,4′ b′ d′ 2'

c′,3′ c′ 3'
a,b c,f d,e d,e
X Y
30°

c,f
65

4,5

a,b

3,6

1,2 3,6 4,5

1,2

First stage Second stage (Final projections)

Fig. 9.20

Construction: Fig. 9.20

1. First stage: Consider edge DE of the hexagonal prism lies in the V.P. in the final position.
Draw a hexagon a′b′c′d ′e′f ′ keeping side d ′e′ perpendicular to XY, to represent the front
view.
2. Project the corners and obtain ad41 to represent the top view.
3. Second stage: Reproduce the top view of the first stage keeping point ed on XY and d4 inclined at
30º to it. This will make the axis at 30º to the V.P.
4. Obtain points a′, b′, c′, d ′, e′, f ′, 1′, 2′, 3′, 4′, 5′ and 6′ in the front view as the intersecting points of
the vertical projectors drawn from the top view of the second stage with the horizontal projectors
drawn from the front view of the first stage. Join all the visible edges with continuous lines and
hidden edges with dotted lines, following the rules of visibility.
 Projections of Solids 9.21

Example 9.15 (Fig 9.21)

A pentagonal pyramid of base 30 mm sides and axis 55 mm long, has a triangular face in the
V.P. and the axis parallel to the H.P. Draw its projections.

e′ e′
d′ d′
30
o′ a′
o′
a′

c′ c′
b′ b′
a b,e c,d o
X Y
c,d
55

b,e

o
First stage Second stage (Final projections)
Fig. 9.21

Construction: Fig. 9.21

1. First stage: Draw a pentagon a′b′c′d ′e′ keeping side c′d ′ perpendicular to XY. Locate the mid-
point o′ and join it with the corners of the pentagon. This represents the front view.
2. Project all the corners and obtain ado to represent the top view.
3. Second stage: Reproduce the top view of the first stage such that line cdo representing the triangu-
lar face is on XY.
4. Obtain points a′, b′, c′, d ′, e′ and o′ as the intersecting points of the vertical projectors drawn from
the top view of the second stage with the horizontal projectors drawn from the front view of the
first stage. Join all the visible edges with continuous lines and hidden edges with dotted lines, fol-
lowing the rules of visibility.

Example 9.16 (Fig 9.22)

A cone with a 50 mm base diameter and 55 mm long axis, has a generator in the V.P. and the
axis parallel to the H.P. Draw its projections.
9.22 Engineering Graphics

j′ j′
k′ i′ i′ k′
l′ h′ h′ l′
g′ g′ a′
a′ o′ o′
0
f5
b′ f′ f′ b′
c′ e′ e′ c′
d′ d′
a b,l c,k ,j
d,j i ff,h g g o
X Y
f,h
e,i

d,j
55

c,k
b,l
a
o
First stage Second stage (Final projections)
Fig. 9.22

Construction: Fig. 9.22

1. First stage: Draw a circle a′d ′g′j ′ to represent the front view. Divide this circle into 12 equal parts
using radial lines.
2. Project the ends of the radial lines and obtain aog to represent the top view.
3. Second stage: Reproduce the top view of the first stage such that slant edge og is on the
XY.
4. Obtain points a′, b′, c′, d ′, e′, f ′, g′, h′, i′, j ′, k′, l′ and o′ as the intersecting points of the vertical
projectors drawn from the top view of the second stage with the horizontal projectors drawn from
the front view of the first stage. Join visible points with continuous curve to obtain ellipse and then
join it with the tangents from o′. This represents the final front view.

9.12 MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES

Example 9.17 (Fig 9.23)

Draw the projections of a tetrahedron with 65 mm long edges lying on a face in the H.P. and
an edge of that face is perpendicular to the V.P.
 Projections of Solids 9.23

o′

65
X Y
a ′,b ′ c′
a
65

o c

b
Fig. 9.23

Construction: Fig 9.23

1. Draw an equilateral triangle abc keeping ab perpendicular to XY. Locate o as its centroid and join
it with all the corners a, b and c. This represents the top view.
2. Project points a, b and c on XY and obtain a′, b′ and c′.
3. As oc is parallel to XY, its front view o′c′ will be of true length. Therefore, draw an arc with point
c′ as the centre and 65 mm radius to meet the projector of point o at point o′. Join o′a′, o′b′ and
o′c′. This represents the required front view.

Example 9.18 (Fig 9.24)

A cylinder of 50 mm base diameter and 75 mm long axis, has a square hole of 25 mm side cut
through it so that the axis of the hole coincides with that of the cylinder. The cylinder is lying
on the ground with the axis perpendicular to the V.P. and the faces of the hole equally inclined
to the H.P. Draw its projections.

[RGPV Dec. 2002]

9.24 Engineering Graphics

d ′,4′

25
h′,8′

e′ g′

f 50
a′,1′ c′,3′
5′ 7′

f ′,6′
X Y
b′,2′
a e b,d g c
f,h

75

6,8
1 5 2,4
, 7 3
Fig. 9.24

Construction: Fig 9.24

1. Draw a circle a′b′c′d ′ touching XY. Also draw a square e′f ′g′h′ concentric to the circle keeping the
sides at 45º to XY. This represents the front view.
2. Project all the points and obtain ac31 to represent the top view.

Example 9.19 (Fig 9.25)

Draw the projections of a pentagonal prism of 25 mm base side and 50 mm long axis, resting on one
of its rectangular faces on the H.P. with the axis inclined at 45º to the V.P. [RGPV June 2008]
e′,5′ e′ 5′
25

a,b
b d ′,4
, ′ a′ d′ 4′
1′

X Y
b′′,2 ′ c ′,3′ b′ c′ 2′ 3′
°
45

d
a b e c d c
e
b
a
50

4
3
5
1 2 5 3 4 2
1
First stage Second stage (Final projections)
Fig. 9.25
 Projections of Solids 9.25

Construction: Fig. 9.25

1. First stage: Draw a pentagon a′b′c′d ′e′ keeping b′c′ on XY, to represent the front view.
2. Project the corners and obtain ad41 to represent the top view.
3. Second stage: Reproduce the top view of the first stage such that e5 is inclined at 45º to XY. This
will make the axis inclined at 45º to the V.P.
4. Obtain points a′, b′, c′, d ′, e′, 1′, 2′, 3′, 4′ and 5′ in the front view as the intersecting points of the
vertical projectors drawn from the top view of the second stage with the horizontal projectors
drawn from the front view of the first stage. Join all the visible edges with continuous lines and
hidden edges with dotted lines, following the rules of visibility.

Example 9.20 (Fig 9.26)

A hexagonal pyramid of 25 mm side of base and 60 mm long axis, is resting on an edge of the
base on H.P. Draw the projections of the solid when the axis makes an angle of 45º with V.P.
and the base of the solid is nearer to V.P. [RGPV Aug. 2010]

HEX25
f′ e′ f′ e′

o′ d′ a′ d′
a′ o′

X Y
b′ c′ b′ c′
45°

a b,,f c,,e d d
c,e

b,f
60

o o

First stage Second stage (Final projections)

Fig. 9.26

Construction: Fig. 9.26

1. First stage: Draw a hexagon a′b′c′d ′e′f ′ keeping b′c′ on XY. Locate the centre point o of the hexa-
gon and join it with all the corners. This represents the front view.
2. Project the corners and obtain ado to represent the top view.
9.26 Engineering Graphics

3. Second stage: Reproduce the top view of the first stage such that ad is inclined at 45º to XY. This
will make the axis inclined at 45º to the V.P. It should be noted that base ad should be nearer to
the XY than the apex o.
4. Obtain points a′, b′, c′, d ′, e′, f ′ and o′ in the front view as the intersecting points of the vertical
projectors drawn from the top view of the second stage with the horizontal projectors drawn from
the front view of the first stage. Join all the visible edges with continuous lines and hidden edges
with dotted lines, following the rules of visibility.

Example 9.21 (Fig 9.27)

A right circular cone with 40 mm diameter of base and 52 mm height is held on ground such
that its axis is inclined at 45º to V.P. and is parallel to the H.P. Draw its projections when its
apex is away from the V.P. [RGPV April 2009]

j′ j′
k′ i′ k′ i′
l′ h′ l′′ h′
g′ a′ g′
a′ o′ o′
0
f4
b′ f′ b′ f′
X c′ e′ c′ e′ Y
d′ d′
45°

,j
a b,l c,k d,j i f,h
f g g
f,h
e,i
d,j
c,k
b,l
52

o o

First stage Second stage (Final projections)

Fig. 9.27

Construction: Fig. 9.27

1. First stage: Consider the cone held with corner D on the ground in the final position. Draw a
circle a′d ′g′j ′ to represent the front view. Divide this circle into 12 equal parts using radial
lines.
2. Project the ends of the radial lines and obtain ago to represent the top view.
3. Second stage: Reproduce the top view of the first stage keeping g on the XY and do inclined at 45º
to XY. It should be noted that the apex o should be away to the XY than base ag.
 Projections of Solids 9.27

4. Obtain points a′, b′, c′, d ′, e′, f ′, g′, h′, i′, j ′, k′, l′ and o′ as the intersecting points of the vertical
projectors drawn from the top view of the second stage with the horizontal projectors drawn from
the front view of the first stage. Join visible points with continuous curve and hidden points with
dotted curve as shown.

Example 9.22 (Fig 9.28)

A pentagonal pyramid of 30 mm base sides and 60 mm long axis has an edge of base parallel
to H.P. Its axis is parallel to V.P. and inclined at 45º to the H.P. Draw its projections when the
apex lies in the H.P.

o' a′

b ′,e ′
60

c ′,d ′

45°

X Y
a′ b ′,e ′ c ′,d ′ o′
e e
d d

a o a o
30

c c
b b

First stage Second stage (Final projections)

Fig. 9.28

Construction: Fig. 9.28

1. First stage: Draw a pentagon abcde keeping cd perpendicular to XY. Locate the centroid o and join
it with all the corners of the pentagon. This represents the top view.
2. Project the corners and obtain a′d ′o′ to represent the front view.
3. Second stage: Reproduce the front view of the first stage such that apex o′ is on XY and the axis is
inclined at 45º to XY.
4. Obtain points a, b, c, d, e and o as the intersecting points of the vertical projectors drawn from the
front view of the second stage with the horizontal projectors drawn from the top view of the first
stage. Join visible edges with continuous lines and hidden edges with dotted lines, following the
rules of visibility.
9.28 Engineering Graphics

Example 9.23 (Fig 9.29)

A tetrahedron of 70 mm long edge has an edge on the ground and the faces containing that
edge are equally inclined to the H.P. Draw its projections when the edge lying on the ground
is perpendicular to the V.P.

d′
a′ d′
70

q q
X Y
a′ b ′,c ′ b ′,c ′
c c

a d
d a

70

b b

First stage Second stage (Final projections)

Fig. 9.29

Construction: Fig. 9.29

1. First stage: Draw an equilateral triangle abc keeping bc perpendicular to XY. Locate the centroid
d and join it with all the corners of the tetrahedron. This represents the top view.
2. Project points a, b and c on XY and obtain a′, b′ and c′. As ad is parallel to XY, its front view a′d ′
will be of true length. Therefore, draw an arc with point d ′ as the centre and 70 mm radius to meet
the projector of point d at point d ′. Join d ′a′, d ′b′ and d ′c′.
3. Second stage: Reproduce the front view of the first stage such that b′c′ remains on XY and the
inclination of faces a′b′c′ and b′c′d ′ with XY are equal.
4. Obtain points a, b, c and d as the intersecting points of the vertical projectors drawn from the front
view of the second stage with the horizontal projectors drawn from the top view of the first stage.
Join visible edges with continuous lines and hidden edges with dotted lines.
 Projections of Solids 9.29

Example 9.24 (Fig 9.30)

A hexagonal prism of side of base 25 mm and 60 mm long axis is freely suspended from a cor-
ner of the top base. Draw the projections of the prism in suspended position.
[RGPV Feb. 2008]

1′
2′,6′

1′ 2′,6′ 3′,5′ 4′ 3′,5′

4′

g′
a′
b′,f ′
60

g′

c′,e′
d′
X Y
a′ b′,f ′ c′,e′ d′
f ,6 e,5 f e 6 5

d,4 a 1 d 4
a,1

b,2 c,3 b c 2 3
HEX25

First stage Second stage (Final projections)

Fig. 9.30

Construction: Fig. 9.30

1. First stage: Draw a hexagon abcdef keeping ad parallel to XY, to represent the top view.
2. Project all the corners and obtain a′d ′4′1′ to represent the front view. Mark g′ as the mid-point of
the axis to represent the centre of gravity (C.G.) of the prism.
3. Second stage: Reproduce the front view of the first stage such that line 1′g′ is perpendicular to
XY.
4. Obtain points a, b, c, d, e, f, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 in the top view as the intersecting points of the verti-
cal projectors drawn from the front view of the second stage with the horizontal projectors drawn
from the top view of the first stage. Join all the visible edges with continuous lines and hidden
edges with dotted lines.
9.30 Engineering Graphics

Note: Centre of gravity (g′) of prisms and cylinders lie on the mid-point of the axis while that of the
pyramids and cones lie on its axis at a distance ¼ of the axis from the base of the solid. On
suspending the solid, line joining the point of suspension and centre of gravity (g′) becomes
perpendicular to the ground.

Example 9.25 (Fig 9.31)

A hexagonal prism of 40 mm base sides and 40 mm long axis has a centrally drilled circular
hole of 40 mm diameter. Draw its projections when the prism is resting on an edge of its base
on the H.P. and the axis inclined at 60º to the H.P. and parallel to the V.P.

g′ h′
5′
i ′ l ′,6 ′,8 ′
g′ h′ 5′ i ,l ′ 7′ j′ k′ 7′
6′ ′ j′ k′
a ′,b ′
1′
40

c ′, ′,2 ,4 ′
′
X Y
a′ b ′ 1' c ,f ′ 3 ′ d e′ d e′
f l f l

ag 4,8 ek a g 4 8 e k
40

3,7 1
1,5 7

j
bh 2,6 dj b h 2 6 d

c,i c i

rst stage Second stage (Final projections)

ig. 9.31

Construction: Fig. 9.31

1. First stage: Draw a hexagon abcdef keeping de perpendicular to XY. Draw a circle 1234 concen-
tric to the hexagon to represent the hole. The figure represents the top view.
2. Project all the corners and obtain a′d ′j ′g′ to represent the front view.
3. Second stage: Reproduce the front view of the first stage keeping d ′e′ on XY and line d ′j ′ is in-
clined at 60º to XY. This will make axis at 60º to H.P.
 Projections of Solids 9.31

4. Obtain points a, b, c, etc. and 1, 2, 3, etc., in the top view as the intersecting points of the vertical
projectors drawn from the front view of the second stage with the horizontal projectors drawn
from the top view of the first stage. Join all the visible edges with continuous lines and hidden
edges with dotted lines.

xample 9.26 (Fig 9.32)

Draw three views of the frustum of a hexagonal pyramid, with 35 mm edges of base, 20 mm
edges of top and 45 mm long axis, has one of its faces on the H.P. and axis parallel to V.P.

a′,b′ a″ b″

′,2′ 3′,6′ 4′,5′

1′ ′ 1″ 2″
c′ f ′ c″
45

6 3″
3 ,6

X Y
a′ b′ c f′ d ′ e′ d′ 4′,5 e″ 5″ 4″ ″
f

a 6
a
e e
1 5 5 1
HEX20
HEX35

2 4 4 2
d
b b
3

c c

First stage Second stage side view

Fig. 9.32

Construction: Fig. 9.32

1. First stage: Consider that frustum would lie on its face DE54 on the H.P. in the final stage. Draw
two concentric hexagons abcdef and 123456 with sides de and 45 perpendicular to XY. Join 1a,
2b, 3c, 4d, 5e and 6f. This represents the top view.
9.32 Engineering Graphics

2. Project all the corners and obtain a′d ′4′1′ to represent the front view.
3. Second stage: Reproduce the front view of the first stage keeping d ′e′5′4′ on XY.
4. Obtain points a, b, c, d, e, f, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 in the top view as the intersecting points of the verti-
cal projectors drawn from the front view of the second stage with the horizontal projectors drawn
from the top view of the first stage. Join all the visible edges with continuous lines and hidden
edges with dotted lines.
5. Side view: Draw lines parallel to xy line from the top view to meet X1Y1. Thereafter rotate them
through 90º and produce to meet the horizontal line from the front view at points a″, b″, c″, d ″, e″,
1″, 2″, 3″, 4″ and 5″. Join the points as shown. This is the required side view.

Simple Position
1. Draw the projections of a pentagonal prism, with 30 mm base edges and 50 mm long axis,
resting on one of its bases on the H.P. with a vertical face parallel to and 20 mm in front
of V.P.
2. Draw the projections of a triangular pyramid, with 45 mm base edges and 50 mm long axis,
having its base on the H.P. and an edge of the base perpendicular to the V.P. Also draw its side
view.
3. A right circular cylinder having 40 mm diameter of base and 60 mm height is resting on H.P. on
its base rim such that its axis is parallel to V.P. Draw its projections.
[RGPV Dec. 2007]
4. A right circular cone with 50 mm diameter of base and 62 mm height lies on the H.P. on one of
its elements with axis parallel to V.P. Draw the projections of the cone.
[RGPV Feb. 2007]
5. A cube of 40 mm side is resting with a face on H.P. such that the vertical faces are equally in-
clined to V.P. Draw its projections. [RGPV Feb. 2010]
6. A tetrahedron with 50 mm long edges is resting on the H.P. on one of its faces such that an edge
of that face is parallel to the V.P. Draw its projections and measure the distance of its apex from
the H.P.
[Ans: 41 mm]
7. Draw the projections of a pentagonal prism, 30 mm base sides and 60 mm long axis, lying on one
of its rectangular faces on the H.P. with axis perpendicular to the V.P.
8. A hexagonal pyramid with 25 mm base sides and 50 mm long axis, has its base in the V.P. and an
edge of the base inclined at 45º to the H.P. The axis is 35 mm above the H.P. Draw its projections.
9. A hexagonal prism, with 25 mm base sides and 60 mm long axis, is resting on one of its rectangular
faces on the H.P. with the axis perpendicular to the V.P. A right circular cone with 40 mm base
diameter and 45 mm long axis is placed centrally on the top of the prism. Draw the projections of
the composite solid.
 Projections of Solids 9.33

Axis Inclined to One of the Reference Planes

10. A hexagonal prism with 30 mm base sides and 70 mm long axis rests on an edge of the
base on the H.P. The axis is parallel to the V.P. and inclined at 45º to the H.P. Draw its
projections.
11. A square prism with 30 mm base sides and 50 mm long axis, is resting on one of its sides of the
base on the H.P. while the plane of the base is inclined at 60º to the H.P. and perpendicular to the
V.P. Draw its projections.
12. A pentagonal prism with 30 mm base sides and 75 mm long axis, has a corner of its base on the
ground and axis is inclined at 60º to the H.P. Draw its projections, if the plane containing that
corner and the axis is parallel to the V.P.
13. A pentagonal pyramid with 30 mm base sides and 70 mm long axis, has an edge of its base on
the H.P. Draw its projections when the axis is inclined at 60º to the H.P. and parallel to the V.P.
14. A right regular pentagonal pyramid side of base 20 mm and height 45 mm, rests on a corner
of its base on H.P. such that its axis is inclined at 45º to the H.P. and is parallel to the V.P.
Draw its projections. [RGPV Jun. 2007]
15. Draw three views of a square pyramid of 40 mm base side and 70 mm long axis, which is resting
on a corner of its base on the H.P. and the slant edge containing that corner is vertical.
16. A cone with a 50 mm base diameter and 70 mm height is resting on a point of its base rim on the
H.P. while the axis is parallel to the V.P. and inclined at 45º to the H.P. Draw its projections.
17. A hexagonal pyramid with 30 mm base sides and 70 mm long axis lies on one of its triangular
faces in the H.P. and axis parallel to the V.P. Draw its three views.
18. A hexagonal pyramid with 30 mm base sides and 75 mm long axis, rests on an edge of its base on
the V.P. with a triangular face containing that edge inclined at 45º to the V.P. and perpendicular
to the H.P. Draw its projections.
19. A square pyramid with 40 mm base edges and 70 mm long axis is resting on a triangular face on
the V.P. Draw its projections when the axis is parallel to and 30 mm above the H.P.
20. A cone with 50 mm base diameter and 65 mm long axis, lies on one of its generators in the V.P.
and axis parallel to the H.P. Draw its projections.
21. A hexagonal prism with 30 mm base sides and 70 mm long axis, rests on a rectangular face on the
H.P. such that the longer edges of the face are inclined at 60º with the V.P. Draw its projections.
22. Draw the projections of a cylinder with 75 mm diameter and 100 mm length lying on the ground
with its axis inclined at 30º to the V.P. and parallel to the ground.
[RGPV June 2007, April 2009]
23. A square pyramid of side of base 30 mm and axis 50 mm long is freely suspended from a corner
of its base. Draw its projections.
[RGPV Feb. 2011]
24. A pentagonal prism of 30 mm base side and 70 mm long axis is standing on a corner of the base
on the ground with longer edge containing that corner inclined at 45º to the H.P. Draw its projec-
tions if the face opposite to that longer edge is perpendicular to the V.P.
25. A cylindrical block of 75 mm base diameter and 25 mm thickness, has an axially drilled hexago-
nal hole of 25 mm side. Draw the projections of the block when it has its flat faces vertical and
inclined at 45º to the V.P. and two faces of the hole are parallel to the H.P.
9.34 Engineering Graphics

9.13 AXIS INCLINED TO BOTH THE REFERENCE PLANES

When the axis of a solid is inclined to both the reference planes, the projections are drawn in three stages.
It is an extension of the examples on projections of solids inclined to one of the reference planes.

9.13.1 Solid Rests on Its Edge in the H.P. with Its Axis Inclined (at p ) to H.P. and
the Resting Edge is Inclined (at e ) to V.P.

Example 9.27 (Fig 9.33)

A square prism, 25 mm edge of base and 45 mm long axis, has its axis inclined at 45º to the
H.P. and an edge of its base on which the prism rests is inclined at 30º to the V.P. Draw its
projections. [RGPV June 2005]

1′,2′ 2′ 1′
1′,2′ 3′,4′

3′,4′
3' 4′
45

a′,b′ a′
b′
45°

X Y
a′′,b′ c′′,d ′ c′,d ′ c′ d′
30°

a,1 d,4 a d 1 4 a
25

b
d

b,2 c,3 b c 2 3 1
c

2 4

3
First stage Second stage Third stage (Final projections)
Fig. 9.33

Construction: Fig. 9.33

1. First stage: Draw a square abcd keeping cd perpendicular to XY, to represent the top view.
2. Project the corners and obtain b′c′3′2′ as the front view.
3. Second stage: Reproduce the front view of the first stage keeping c′d ′ on XY and c′d ′3′4′ inclined
at 45º to XY. This will make the axis incline at 45º to XY.
 Projections of Solids 9.35

4. Obtain points a, b, c, d, 1, 2, 3 and 4 as the intersecting points of the vertical projectors drawn from
the front view of the second stage with the horizontal projectors drawn from the top view of the
first stage. Join the points and obtain ab34 as the top view.
5. Third stage: Reproduce the top view of the second stage keeping cd is inclined at 30º with XY.
6. Obtain points a′, b′, c′, d ′, 1′, 2′, 3′ and 4′ as the intersecting points of the vertical projectors drawn
from the top view of the third stage with the horizontal projectors drawn from the front view of the
second stage. Join the points and obtain b′c′d ′4′1′2′ as the required front view.

Example 9.28 (Fig 9.34)

A right pentagonal prism, 60 mm high with each side of the base 30 mm is resting on one of
the edges on the horizontal plane and inclined at 30º to V.P. and the face containing that edge
is inclined at 45º to H.P. Draw the projections of the pentagonal prism. [RGPV June 2004]

1′ 1′

1′ 2′,5′ 3′,4′ 2′,5′ 2′ 5′

3′,4′
4′
3′
60

a′
b′
b′,e ′ e′
45°

X Y
a′′ b′,e ′ c′′,d ′ c′,d ′ c′ d′
,
e,5 a e 30°
e 5
d,4
4

a,1 a 1 b d

5
c 1
3
30

c,3
b,2 b 2
2 4

3
First stage Second stage Third stage (Final projections)
Fig. 9.34

Construction: Fig. 9.34

1. First stage: Draw a pentagon abcde keeping cd perpendicular to XY, to represent the top view.
2. Project the corners and obtain a′c′3′1′ as the front view.
9.36 Engineering Graphics

3. Second stage: Reproduce the front view of the first stage keeping c′d ′ on XY and c′d ′3′4′ inclined
at 45º to XY. This will make axis at 45º to XY.
4. Obtain points a, b, c, d, e, 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 as the intersecting points of the vertical projectors drawn
from the front view of the second stage with the horizontal projectors drawn from the top view of
the first stage. Join the points and obtain ab2345e as the top view.
5. Third stage: Reproduce the top view of the second stage keeping cd is inclined at 30º with XY.
6. Obtain points a′, b′, c′, d ′, e′, 1′, 2′, 3′, 4′ and 5′ as the intersecting points of the vertical pro-
jectors drawn from the top view of the third stage with the horizontal projectors drawn from
the front view of the second stage. Join the points and obtain b′c′d ′4′5′1′2′ as the required
front view.

Example 9.29 (Fig 9.35)

A hexagonal pyramid of 30 mm base side and 60 mm long axis has an edge of its base on the
ground and the axis inclined at 30º to the H.P. The edge of the base on which it rests is inclined
at 45º to the V.P. Draw its projections.

o'
o′ o′
b′
a ′,b ′ a′
60

c ′,f ′ f′
c′
30°

X Y
a ′,b ′ c ′,f ′ d ′,e ′ d ′,e ′ d′ e′ 45°
f f
a f

a e a e
b e
HEX30

o o

b d b d c d

c c o

First stage Second stage Third stage (Final projections)

Fig. 9.35

Construction: Fig. 9.35

1. First stage: Draw a hexagon abcdef keeping de perpendicular to XY. Also join the diagonal lines.
This represents the top view.
2. Project the corners and obtain b′d ′o′ as the front view.
 Projections of Solids 9.37

3. Second stage: Reproduce the front view of the first stage keeping d ′e′ on XY and b′d ′ at 60º to it.
This will make the axis incline at 30º to XY.
4. Obtain points a, b, c, d, e, f and o as the intersecting points of the vertical projectors drawn from
the front view of the second stage with the horizontal projectors drawn from the top view of the
first stage. Join the points and obtain abcof as the top view.
5. Third stage: Reproduce the top view of the second stage keeping de is inclined at 45º with XY.
6. Obtain points a′, b′, c′, d ′, e′, f ′ and o′ as the intersecting points of the vertical projectors drawn
from the top view of the third stage with the horizontal projectors drawn from the front view of
the second stage. Join the points and obtain b′c′d ′e′o′ as the required front view.

Example 9.30 (Fig 9.36)

A pentagonal pyramid of 30 mm base side and 60 mm long axis rests on an edge of its base on
the ground so that the highest point of the base is 20 mm above the ground. Draw its projec-
tions, if the vertical plane containing the axis is inclined at 30º to the V.P.

o′ o′
o′
60

a′
20

b ′,e ′ b′
X Y
a′ b ′,e ′ c ′,d ′ c ′,d ′ c′ d′
30°

e e e

d d
a
d
a a o
o
o
c
30

c b
c
b b
First stage Second stage Third stage (Final projections)
Fig. 9.36

Construction: Fig. 9.36

1. First stage: Draw a pentagon abcde keeping cd perpendicular to XY. Locate centroid o and join it
with all the corners of the pentagon. This represents the top view.
2. Project the corners and centroid to obtain a′c′o′ as the front view.
3. Second stage: Reproduce the front view of the first stage keeping c′d ′ on XY and a′ 20 mm above
it. (For this, draw a horizontal line 20 mm above XY. Draw an arc with c′d ′ as the centre and radius
equal to a′c′ of the first stage to meet the horizontal line at a′.)
9.38 Engineering Graphics

4. Obtain points a, b, c, d, e and o as the intersecting points of the vertical projectors drawn from the
front view of the second stage with the horizontal projectors drawn from the top view of the first
stage. Join the points and obtain abcode as the top view.
5. Third stage: Reproduce the top view of the second stage such that ao is inclined at 30º with XY.
6. Obtain points a′, b′, c′, d ′, e′ and o′ as the intersecting points of the vertical projectors drawn from
the top view of the third stage with the horizontal projectors drawn from the front view of the
second stage. Join the points and obtain a′b′c′d ′o′ as the required front view.

Example 9.31 (Fig 9.37)

A pentagonal pyramid, with 25 mm side of base and 60 mm height has one of its slant faces on
the horizontal plane and the edge of the base contained by that slant face makes an angle of
30º to the V.P. Draw its projections. [RGPV Dec. 2003]

o′

a′ a′
60

b ′,e′ b′ e′

c ′,d ′ o′
X Y
a′ b ′,e′ c ′,d ′ c′ d′ o′
30°

e e d
e
d d
c
a a a
o b
o
25

c c
b b

o
First stage Second stage Third stage (Final projections)
Fig. 9.37

Construction: Fig. 9.37

1. First stage: Draw a pentagon abcde keeping cd perpendicular to XY. Locate centroid o and join it
with all the corners of the pentagon. This represents the top view.
2. Project the corners and centroid to obtain a′c′o′ as the front view.
3. Second stage: Reproduce the front view of the first stage keeping c′d ′o′ on XY.
4. Obtain points a, b, c, d, e and o as the intersecting points of the vertical projectors drawn from the
front view of the second stage with the horizontal projectors drawn from the top view of the first
stage. Join the points and obtain bcdeo as the top view.
 Projections of Solids 9.39

5. Third stage: Reproduce the top view of the second stage such that cd is inclined at 30º with XY.
6. Obtain points a′, b′, c′, d ′, e′ and o′ as the intersecting points of the vertical projectors drawn from
the top view of the third stage with the horizontal projectors drawn from the front view of the
second stage. Join the points and obtain a′b′c′d ′o′e′ as the required front view.

Example 9.32 (Fig 9.38)

A hexagonal pyramid of 30 mm base side and 60 mm axis length is kept with a side of base
parallel to the V.P. and the triangular face containing that side being vertical. Draw the pro-
jections of the solid. [RGPV Sep. 2009]

o′ o′
o′
60

a′′ b′
a′,b′
c′
c′,f ′ f′
X Y
a′,b′ c′′,f ′ d ′,e′ d ′,e′ e′ d′
f f
e o d
a e a e
HEX30

o o f c

d
b d b
a b
c c
Fir st stage Second stage Third stage (Final projections)
Fig. 9.38

Construction: Fig. 9.38

1. First stage: Draw a bexagon abcdef keeping de perpendicular to XY. Locate centroid o and join it
with all the corners of the hexagon. This represents the top view.
2. Project the corners and centroid to obtain b′d ′o′ as the front view.
3. Second stage: Reproduce the front view of the first stage keeping d ′e′ on XY and d ′e′o′ is perpen-
dicular to XY.
4. Obtain points a, b, c, d, e, f and o as the intersecting points of the vertical projectors drawn from
the corners of the front view of the second stage with the horizontal projectors drawn from the top
view of the first stage. Join the points and obtain abcdoef as the top view.
9.40 Engineering Graphics

5. Third stage: Reproduce the top view of the second stage such that de is parallel to XY.
6. Obtain points a′, b′, c′, d ′, e′, f ′ and o′ as the intersecting points of the vertical projectors drawn
from the top view of the third stage with the horizontal projectors drawn from the front view of
the second stage. Join the points and obtain c′d ′e′f ′o′ as the required front view.

9.13.2 Solid Rests on Its Corner in the H.P. (or Ground) with Its Axis Inclined (at p ) to
H.P. and Vertical Plane Containing the Axis and that Corner is Inclined (at £ )
to V.P.

Example 9.33 (Fig 9.39)

A hexagonal pyramid, having a base of 30 mm side and a 50 mm long axis, rests on one of its base
corners on the ground with axis inclined at 45º to the H.P. Draw its projections when the vertical
plane containing the axis and the corner that lies in the H.P. is inclined at 30º to the V.P.

o′ o′
o′
a′
a′
f′
b ′,f ′ b′
50

e′
45°

c ′,e ′ c′
X Y
a′ b ′,f ′ c ′,e ′ d′ d′ d′
30°

f e f e f

e
a

a d a d o
o
d
b o
b c b c c
HEX30

First stage Second stage Third stage (Final projections)

Fig. 9.39

Construction: Fig. 9.39

1. First stage: Draw a hexagon abcdef keeping ad parallel to XY. Locate centroid o and join it with
all the corners of the pentagon. This represents the top view.
2. Project the corners and centroid to obtain a′d ′o′ as the front view.
3. Second stage: Reproduce the front view of the first stage keeping d ′ on XY and a′d ′ inclined at 45º
to XY. This will make the axis incline at 45º to XY.
 Projections of Solids 9.41

4. Obtain points a, b, c, d, e, f and o as the intersecting points of the vertical projectors drawn from
the front view of the second stage with the horizontal projectors drawn from the top view of the
first stage. Join the points and obtain abcoef as the top view.
5. Third stage: Reproduce the top view of the second stage such that ao is inclined at 30º to XY.
6. Obtain points a′, b′, c′, d ′, e′, f ′ and o′ as the intersecting points of the vertical projectors drawn
from the top view of the third stage with the horizontal projectors drawn from the front view of
the second stage. Join the points and obtain a′b′c′d ′e′o′ as the required front view.

Example 9.34 (Fig 9.40)

A hexagonal pyramid of 25 mm base side and 55 mm long axis, has one of its slant edges on the
ground. A plane containing that edge and the axis is perpendicular to H.P. and inclined at 45º to
V.P. Draw its projections, when the apex is nearer to V.P. then the base.
[RGPV Dec. 2004, Feb. 2005, June 2008]

o'
a′ a''′
a

b ′,f ′ f′ b′
55

e′
c ′,e′

X Y
a′ b′′,f ′ c ′,e ′ d′ d′ o′ d′ o′
f e e f o
45°

f
a d d a
o e
o a

b HEX25 c c b d
b
c
First stage Second stage Third stage (Final projections)
Fig. 9.40

Construction: Fig. 9.40

1. First stage: Draw a hexagon abcdef keeping ad parallel to XY. Locate centroid o and join it with
all the corners of the hexagon. This represents the top view.
2. Project the corners and centroid to obtain a′d ′o′ as the front view.
3. Second stage: Reproduce the front view of the first stage keeping d ′o′ on XY.
4. Obtain points a, b, c, d, e, f and o as the intersecting points of the vertical projectors drawn from
the front view of the second stage with the horizontal projectors drawn from the top view of the
first stage. Join the points and obtain abcoef as the top view.
9.42 Engineering Graphics

5. Third stage: Reproduce the top view of the second stage such that oad is inclined at 45º to XY.
6. Obtain points a′, b′, c′, d ′, e′, f ′ and o′ as the intersecting points of the vertical projectors drawn
from the top view of the third stage with the horizontal projectors drawn from the front view of
the second stage. Join the points and obtain a′b′c′d ′e′o′ as the required front view.

Example 9.35 (Fig 9.41)

A cylinder of 50 mm base diameter and 65 mm long axis rests on a point of its base circle on the
H.P. Draw its projections when the axis is making an angle of 30º with H.P. and top view of the
axis is perpendicular to V.P.

′ 1′
′ ′ 2′ 12′
1 2 ,12 3 ,11 4′,10 5′,9 6 7′ 3 ′,11′ 3′ ′
4′ ′ 4′ 10 ′

a′ 5 ′,9 ′ a
l
b
b′ 6′ ′
′ k
65

7′ 6′
c ,k ′ 7′
d′ j′
′,j

′i ′ i′
X f, f′ h′ Y
a b l ′ c ′ k ′ d ′,j ′ e ′,i ′ f ′ g ′ g
b a l
j j 10 c k
k i 9
d j
l,12 h,8 l
e i
g f g h
g,7 1
a,1 7

b,2 b f 2 6

c e c e 5 2 1 12
d d 4 3
4 10
5 9
6 7 8

First stage Second stage Third stage (Final projections)

ig. 9.41

Construction: Fig. 9.41

1. First stage: Draw a circle adgj to represent the top view. Divide the circle into 12 equal parts using
radial lines.
2. Project all the points and join a′g′7′1′ to represent the front view.
 Projections of Solids 9.43

3. Second stage: Reproduce the front view of the first stage keeping g′ on XY and d ′7′ is inclined at
30º to XY. This will make axis to incline at 30º to XY.
4. Obtain points a, b, c, etc., and 1, 2, 3, etc., as the intersecting points of the vertical projectors
drawn from the front view of the second stage with the horizontal projectors drawn from the top
view of the first stage. Join visible points with continuous curve/lines as shown.
5. Third stage: Reproduce the top view of the second keeping ag17 perpendicular to XY.
6. Obtain points a′, b′, c′, etc., and 1′, 2′, 3′, etc., as the intersecting points of the vertical projectors
drawn from the top view of the third stage with the horizontal projectors drawn from the front
view of the second stage. Join the points and obtain the required front view.

9.13.3 Solid Rests on an Edge of Base in V.P. (or Parallel to V.P.) with Axis Inclined
(at e) to V.P. and the Resting Edge Inclined (at θ) to H.P.

Example 9.36 (Fig 9.42)

A pentagonal prism of 35 mm base side and 70 mm long axis has its axis inclined at 30º to the
V.P. An edge of its base is in the V.P. and inclined at 45º to the H.P. Draw its projections.

4′
5′

e′,5′ e′ 5′ 3′
d ′,4′ 1′
35

4′
e′ 2′
a′ 1′
a′,1′′
c′
c ′,3′ c′ 3′
a′
b′,2 ′ b′ 2′
45°

b′
a b,,e c,,d c,,d d c
X Y
30°

b,e e
4
70

3
3,4
a
a

2,5 2
5
1 2,5 3,4
1 1

First stage Second stage Third stage (Final projections)

Fig. 9.42
9.44 Engineering Graphics

Construction: Fig. 9.42

1. First stage: Draw a pentagon a′b′c′d ′e′ keeping c′d ′ perpendicular to XY, to represent the front view.
2. Project the corners and obtain ac31 to represent the top view.
3. Second stage: Reproduce the top view of the first stage keeping cd on XY and cd34 at 30º to it. This
will also make the axis at 30º to XY.
4. Obtain points a′, b′, c′, d ′, e′, 1′, 2′, 3′, 4′ and 5′ as the intersecting points of the vertical projectors
drawn from the top view of the second stage with the horizontal projectors drawn from the front
view of the first stage. Join these points and obtain a′b′2′3′4′5′e′ as the front view.
5. Third stage: Reproduce the front view of the second stage keeping c′d ′ at 30º with XY.
6. Obtain points a, b, c, d, e, 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 as the intersecting points of the vertical projectors drawn
from the front view of the third stage with the horizontal projectors drawn from the top view of
the second stage. Join these points and obtain a123cde as the required top view.

Example 9.37 (Fig 9.43)

A hexagonal prism of 25 mm base edge and 60 mm long axis has an edge of its base in the V.P.
and inclined at 60º to the H.P. Draw its projections, when the edge of the other base farthest
away from V.P. is at a distance of 70 mm from the V.P.
6′
5′
f ′,6 ′ f' 6′
1′
a ′,1′ e ′,5′ a ′ e' 1′ f′
5′ e′ 4′
HEX25

a′
2′ 3′
4′ d′
b ′,2′ d ′,4′ b ′ d' 2′

c ′,3 ′ c′ 3′ b′
c′
°
60

a,b c,f d,e d,e e d

X Y

c,f f c
60

a,b 5 4
4,5 a b
70

3,6 6 3
1,2 3,6 4,5
1,2 1 2

First stage Second stage Third stage (Final projections)

Fig. 9.43

Construction: Fig. 9.43

1. First stage: Draw a hexagon a′b′c′d ′e′f ′ keeping d ′e′ perpendicular to XY, to represent the front view.
 Projections of Solids 9.45

2. Project the corners and obtain ad41 to represent the top view.
3. Second stage: Reproduce the top view of the first stage keeping de on XY and 12 at a distance of
70 mm from XY. (For this, draw a horizontal line at a distance of 70 mm. Now draw an arc with
12 as the centre and radius d1 of the first stage to meet the horizontal line at point 1.)
4. Obtain points a′, b′, c′, d ′, e′, f ′, 1′, 2′, 3′, 4′, 5′ and 6′ as the intersecting points of the vertical
projectors drawn from the top view of the second stage with the horizontal projectors drawn from
the front view of the first stage. Join the points and obtain a′b′2′3′4′5′6′f ′ as the front view.
5. Third stage: Reproduce the front view of the second stage keeping d ′e′ at 60º with XY.
6. Obtain points a, b, c, d, e, f, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 as the intersecting points of the vertical projectors
drawn from the front view of the third stage with the horizontal projectors drawn from the top
view of the second stage. Join the points and obtain a1234def as the required top view.

9.13.4 Solid Rests on a Corner in the V.P. with Its Axis Inclined (at e) to V.P. and
the Plane Containing the Axis and that Corner is Inclined (at θ) to H.P.

Example 9.38 (Fig 9.44)

A square pyramid of 40 mm base side and 75 mm long axis has a corner of its base on the V.P.
A slant edge contained by that corner is inclined at 45º to the V.P. and the plane containing the
slant edge and the axis is inclined at 60º to the H.P. Draw its projections.

o′

d′ d′
40

c′ a′ c′ o′ d′ c′
a′ o′

a′
b′
b′ b′
60
°

a b,,d c c c
X Y
45°

b,d d b
75

a
a
o o

o
First stage Second stage Third stage (Final projections)
Fig. 9.44
9.46 Engineering Graphics

Construction: Fig. 9.44

1. First stage: Draw a square a′b′c′d ′ keeping a′c′ parallel to XY. Locate its centre o′ and join it with
the corners of the square. The figure represents the front view.
2. Project all the corners and obtain aco as its top view.
3. Second stage: Reproduce the top view of the first stage keeping c on XY and the slant edge oc at
45º to it.
4. Obtain points a′, b′, c′, d ′ and o′ as the intersecting points of the vertical projectors drawn from the
top view of the second stage with the horizontal projectors drawn from the front view of the first
stage. Join these points and obtain a′b′o′d ′ as the front view.
5. Third stage: Reproduce the front view of the second stage keeping o′c′a′ at 60º to XY. This is the
final front view.
6. Obtain points a, b, c, d and o as the intersecting points of the vertical projectors drawn from the
front view of the third stage with the horizontal projectors drawn from the top view of the second
stage. Join these points and obtain aobcd as the final top view.

xample 9.39 (Fig 9.45)

Draw the three views of the cone, 50 mm base diameter and 65 mm long axis, having one of its
generators in the V.P. and inclined at 30º to the H.P., the apex being in H.P.
[RGPV Feb. 2006]
j′ j′
k′ ′ ′ k′ X
l′ h′ h′ l i′ j′ i″ j″
h′ ′ k″
g g′ a′ h″
a′ o′ g′ l″
′ ″
′ f ′ ′ f″ a″
f′ f′
c′ ′ ′ ′ b e ″
d d′ e′ d″
′
a l ck d fh g o ′o ″ c″
o
X f Y
fh
i
ei e
j
dj d
65

c,k k
c
bl b a
a

Y
o
irst stage Second stage Third stage (Final projections)
Fig. 9.45

Construction: Fig. 9.45

1. First stage: Draw circle a′d ′g′j ′ to represent the front view. Divide the circle into 12 equal parts
using radial lines.
 Projections of Solids 9.47

2. Project these points of the generators and obtain ago to represent the top view.
3. Second stage: Reproduce the top view of the first stage keeping og on XY.
4. Obtain points a′, b′, c′, d ′, e′, f ′, g′, h′, i′, j ′, k ′, l ′ and o′ as the intersecting points of the vertical
projectors drawn from the top view of the second stage with the horizontal projectors drawn from
the front view of the first stage. Join these points and obtain the front view.
5. Third stage: Reproduce the front view of the second stage keeping o′ on XY and a′g′o′ at 30º to it.
6. Obtain points a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l and o as the intersecting points of the vertical projectors
drawn from the front view of the third stage with the horizontal projectors drawn from the top
view of the second stage. Join these points and obtain the final top view.

9.13.5 Solid Rests on Its Element (Corner or Edge) in the H.P. with Its Axis Inclined
(at θ) to H.P. and (at e) to V.P.

Example 9.40 (Fig 9.46)

A hexagonal prism of base 25 mm side and axis 45 mm long is positioned with one of its base
edges on H.P. such that the axis is inclined at 30º to H.P. and 45º to the V.P. Draw its projections
of the prism by change of position method. [RGPV Feb. 2010]
1′,2′ 2′ 1′

1 3′ 4
o2 o2 3′ 6 3′ 6′
b
a′,b′

o1′ 4 4′
45

c ′,f 5
c′ f′

o1
X Y
a c ′ d d ,e d′ e
f 6 f

a, e,5 a e 1 b o1 o1
5
e
EX 25

o1 b b
o2 d
c 1
6
4
b,2 d,4 b d 2
o2 o3 o o3
c 3 5
c,3

3 4
First stage Second stage Third stage (Final projections)

Fig. 9.46

Construction: Fig. 9.46

1. First stage: Draw a pentagon abcdef keeping de perpendicular to XY, to represent the top view.
2. Project the corners and obtain b′d ′4′2′ as the front view.
9.48 Engineering Graphics

3. Second stage: Reproduce the front view of the first stage keeping d ′e′ on XY and d ′4′ is inclined
at 30º to XY. This will also make the axis incline at 30º to XY.
4. Obtain points a, b, c, d, e, f, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 as the intersecting points of the vertical projectors
drawn from the front view of the second stage with the horizontal projectors drawn from the top
view of the first stage. Join the points and obtain abc3456f as the top view.
5. Third stage: As we know that when an axis or a line is inclined at q to the H.P. and f to the V.P.,
its top view is inclined at b to XY. Therefore, draw a line o1o3, 45 mm (true length of the axis)
inclined at 45º to XY. Draw an arc with o1 as the centre and radius equal to the length of the axis
o1o2 in the top view of the second stage to meet horizontal line from o3 at point o2.
6. Reproduce the top view of the second stage keeping o1o2 inclined at b with XY.
7. Obtain points a′, b′, c′, d ′, e′, f ′, 1′, 2′, 3′, 4′, 5′ and 6′ as the intersecting points of the vertical projec-
tors drawn from the top view of the third stage with the horizontal projectors drawn from the front
view of the second stage. Join the points and obtain b′c′d ′e′5′6′1′2′ as the required front view.

Example 9.41 (Fig 9.47)

A pentagonal pyramid of 25 mm edge of base and 60 mm height is resting on the corner of its
base on H.P. and the slant edge containing that corner is inclined at 45º with H.P. Draw the pro-
jections of the solid, when its axis makes an angle of 30º with V.P. [RGPV April 2010]

o′

o′ o′
b′
a′,b ′ a′
60

o1′ e′
c ′,e
e′
45°

c′
X Y
a′,b ′ c ′,e ′ d′ d′ d′
e e a e
a a
o1
d d
25

o o b b
o1
30°

b b c
c c
o o2
First stage Second stage Third stage (Final projections)
Fig. 9.47

Construction: Fig. 9.47

1. First stage: Draw a pentagon abcde keeping ab perpendicular to XY. Locate centroid o and join it
with all the corners of the pentagon. This represents the top view.
2. Project the corners and centroid to obtain a′d ′o′ as the front view.
 Projections of Solids 9.49

3. Second stage: Reproduce the front view of the first stage keeping d ′ on XY and d ′o′ is inclined at
45º to XY.
4. Obtain points a, b, c, d, e and o as the intersecting points of the vertical projectors drawn from the
front view of the second stage with the horizontal projectors drawn from the top view of the first
stage. Join the points and obtain abcoe as the top view.
5. Third stage: As we know that when an axis or a line is inclined at q to the H.P. and f to the V.P., its
top view is inclined at b to XY. Therefore, draw a line o1o2, 60 mm (true length of the axis) inclined
at 30º to XY. Draw an arc with o1 as the centre and radius equal to the length of the axis o1o in the
top view of the second stage to meet horizontal line from o2 at point o.
6. Reproduce the top view of the second stage such that axis o1o is inclined at b with XY.
7. Obtain points a′, b′, c′, d ′, e′ and o′ as the intersecting points of the vertical projectors drawn from
the top view of the third stage with the horizontal projectors drawn from the front view of the
second stage. Join the points and obtain b′c′d ′o′ as the required front view.

Example 9.42 (Fig 9.48)

Draw the projections of a cone, having a base with a 50 mm diameter and a 60 mm axis, when it is
resting on the ground on a point of its base circle with the axis inclined at 30º to the H.P. and (i) the
top view of the axis is inclined at 45º with the V.P., and (ii) the axis is inclined at 45º with the V.P.

o
o′ o′ o
a′ a′
a′ b l b′ l′
b′ l ′
c k′ c′ k′
c′ ′
60

o ′ j′ j′
′,j ′
d′

e i′ i′
′,i
o1′ h
X ′, ′ f′ ′ ′ Y
a l′c k′ d ′,j ′ e′ i′f ′ ′ g g′
k k
j j a
k k i i
l o
l o h b h
c
g a o g
a oc g
e f
f
b f b f
c e c
d d o
o o2

rst stage Second stage Third stage (i) Third stage (ii)
Fig. 9.48

Construction: Fig. 9.48

1. First stage: Draw a circle adgj to represent the top view. Divide the circle into 12 equal parts using
radial lines.
2. Project all the points and obtain a′g′o′ to represent the front view.
9.50 Engineering Graphics

3. Second stage: Reproduce the front view of the first stage keeping g′ on XY and g′a′ at 60º to it. This
will make axis at 30º to XY.
4. Obtain points a, b, c, etc., as the intersecting points of the vertical projectors drawn from the front
view of the second stage with the horizontal projectors drawn from the top view of the first stage.
Join visible points with continuous curve/lines as shown.
5. Third stage [case (i), the top view of the axis is inclined at 45º with the V.P.]: Reproduce the top
view of the second stage such that ago is inclined at 45º to XY.
6. Obtain points a′, b′, c′, etc., as the intersecting points of the vertical projectors drawn from the
top view of the third stage with the horizontal projectors drawn from the front view of the second
stage. Join the points and obtain the required front view.
7. Third stage [case (ii), the axis is inclined at 45º with the V.P.]: Determine the apparent angle b. For
this, draw a line o1o2, 60 mm long (true length of the axis) inclined at 45º to XY. Draw an arc with o1
as the centre and radius equal to the top view of the axis to meet horizontal line from o2 at point o.
8. Reproduce the top view of the second stage such that oo1 is inclined at b angle to XY.
9. Obtain points a′, b′, c′, etc., as the intersecting points of the vertical projectors drawn from the top
view of the fourth stage with the horizontal projectors drawn from the front view of the second
stage. Join the points and obtain the required front view.

9.13.6 Solid Rests on Its Element (Corner or Edge) on the V.P. with Its Axis
Inclined (at θ) to H.P. and (at e) to V.P.

Example 9.43 (Fig 9.48)

A cylinder of 50 mm base diameter and 70 mm long axis has a point of its base circle in the V.P.
Its axis is inclined at 30º to V.P. and 45º to the H.P. Draw its projections.

9′ 8′
10′
7′
o ′ 6′ o2′ o3′
5′
j′ 10′ j′ 10′
k′ ′ ′ ′ 9′ 1′
′ 4′
l′ ′ h′ ′ l′ h′ 12′ 8′
′ h′
g′ a o1′ ′ 1′ 2′ j′ g′
a′,1′ , 7
k
f
b′ f ,6′ b f 2 ′ l o1′
1
′,3 ′ ′ ′ ′ a′
d ′ ,4 d′ 4 b′ c d′
l k d j e,i f h g g Y
X o
i
j j d
k k
70

6
b
a b 5
5,9
10
4,10 4
o2
3,11 3
1 2 3, 4,10 5,9 68 7
1 2
1
First stage Second stage Third stage (Final projections)
Fig. 9.49
 Projections of Solids 9.51

Construction: Fig. 9.49

1. First stage: Draw a circle a′d ′g′j ′ as the front view. Divide the circle into 12 equal parts using radial lines.
2. Project ends of the radial lines and obtain a17g as its top view.
3. Second stage: Reproduce the top view of the first stage keeping g on XY and g7 at 30º to it. This
will make the axis at 30º to XY.
4. Obtain points a′, b′, c′, d ′, etc., and 1′, 2′, 3′, 4′, etc, as the intersecting points of the vertical pro-
jectors drawn from the top view of the second stage with the horizontal projectors drawn from the
front view of the first stage. Join these points and obtain a′d ′4′7′10′j ′ as the top view.
5. Third stage: As we know that when an axis or a line is inclined at q to the H.P. and f to the V.P.,
its front view is inclined at a to XY. Therefore, draw a line o1′o3′, 70 mm (True length of the axis)
inclined at 45º to XY. Draw an arc with o1′ as the centre and radius equal to the front view of the
axis from the second stage to meet horizontal line from o3′ at point o2′.
6. Reproduce the front view of the second stage such that o1′o2′ is the axis of the figure. This is the
final front view.
7. Obtain points a, b, c, d, etc., and 1, 2, 3, 4, etc. as the intersecting points of the vertical projectors drawn
from the top view of the third stage with the horizontal projectors drawn from the front view of the
second stage. Join the points following rules of visibility and obtain the required front view as shown.

9.14 MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES

Example 9.44 (Fig 9.50)

A regular pentagonal pyramid with 30 mm side of base and 60 mm height rests on an edge of the
base on the H.P. The base is tilted until its apex is 50 mm above the level of the edge of the base
on which it rests. Draw the projections of the pyramid when the edge on which it rests, is parallel
to the V.P. and apex of the pyramid points towards V.P. [RGPV Dec. 2002]
o′
o′ o′

a′ a′
60

50

e′ b′
b ′,e′

X Y
a′ b′,e′ c′,d ′ c ′,d ′ d′ c′
o
e e
d
d
a a o
o
c d c
30

b b e b
a
First stage Second stage Third stage (Final projections)
Fig. 9.50
9.52 Engineering Graphics

Construction: Fig. 9.50

1. First stage: Draw pentagon abcde keeping cd perpendicular to XY. Locate its centroid o and join
it with the corners of the pentagon. The figure represents the top view. Project all the points and
obtain a′o′c′ to represent the front view.
2. Second stage: Reproduce the front view of the first stage keeping c′d ′ on XY and apex o′ 50 mm
above XY. Project the front view points to meet locus lines from the top view of the first stage and
obtain aboe as the new top view.
3. Third stage: Reproduce the top view of the second stage keeping cd parallel to XY. This is the final
top view. Project this top view to meet the locus lines from the front view of the second stage and
obtain b′c′d ′e′o′ as the final front view.

Example 9.45 (Fig 9.51)

A pentagonal pyramid has an edge of the base in the V.P. and inclined at 30º to H.P., while the
triangular face containing that edge makes an angle of 45º to the V.P. Draw the three views of
the pyramid. Length of the side of base is 30 mm, while that of the axis is 60 mm long.
[RGPV Dec. 2005]
X1
o′ o′′
e′ e′
30

d′
d′
o′ d′′
a′ e′′
o′ d′
a′ e′
30°

c′
c′ c′′
c′
b′ b′ a′ a′′
b′ b′′
X a b,e c,d c,d d c
Y
45°

b,e
e
60

b
a a
o o

o Y1

First stage Second stage Third stage Side view

Fig. 9.51

Construction: Fig. 9.51

1. First stage: Draw pentagon a′b′c′d ′e′ keeping side c′d ′ perpendicular to XY. Locate its centroid
o′ and join it with the corners of the pentagon. The figure represents the front view. Project all the
points and obtain aoc to represent the top view.
 Projections of Solids 9.53

2. Second stage: Reproduce the top view of the first stage keeping cd on XY and face cdo inclined at
45º to XY. Project the top view points to meet locus lines from the front view of the first stage and
obtain a′b′o′e′ as the new front view.
3. Third stage: Reproduce the front view of the second stage keeping c′d ′ inclined at 30º to XY. This
is the final front view. Project this front view to meet the locus lines from the top view of the sec-
ond stage and obtain aocde as the final top view.
4. Side view: Draw lines parallel to XY from the top view to meet X1Y1. Thereafter rotate them through
90º and produce them vertically to meet the horizontal line from the front view at points a″, b″, c″,
d″, e″ and o″. Join the points as shown. This is the required third view.

Example 9.46 (Fig 9.52)

A pentagonal pyramid of 30 mm base side and 50 mm long axis is held on a corner of its base
on the ground and the triangular face opposite to it is horizontal. Draw the projections of the
pyramid when the edge of the base contained by this triangular face makes an angle of 60º to the
V.P. and the apex is towards the observer.

o′
p′ o′ b′ a′ o′
a′,b′
50

p′
c′,e′ c′ e′

X Y
a′,b′ c′,e′ d′ d′ d′
60

e e
°

a e
a a

d d
30

o o
b d

b b
c o
c c

First stage Second stage Third stage (Final projections)

Fig. 9.52

Construction: Fig. 9.52

1. First stage: Draw pentagon abcde keeping ab perpendicular to XY. Locate its centroid o and join
it with the corners of the pentagon. The figure represents the top view.
2. Project all the points and obtain a′o′d ′ to represent the front view. Draw a line d ′p′ perpendicular
to line a′o′.
9.54 Engineering Graphics

3. Second stage: Draw a line d ′p′ perpendicular to XY keeping d ′ on XY. Draw line a′b′p′o′ parallel
to XY and reproduce the front view of the first stage. Project this front view points to meet locus
lines from the top view of the first stage and obtain abcoe as the new top view.
4. Third stage: Reproduce the top view of the second stage keeping ab at 60º to XY. This is the final
top view. Project this top view to meet the locus lines from the front view of the second stage and
obtain a′b′c′d ′o′ as the final front view.

Example 9.47 (Fig 9.53)

A tetrahedron of 75 mm long edges has one edge parallel to the H.P. and inclined at 45º to the
V.P. while a face containing that edge is vertical. Draw its projections. [RGPV Feb. 2006]

d′ d′
d′
75

a′ a′
90
°

X Y
a′ b′, c′ b′,c′ c′ b′
45°
c c c

d
a d a d
b
75

b a
b

First stage Second stage Third stage (Final projections)

Fig. 9.53

Construction: Fig. 9.53

1. First stage: Draw a triangle abc keeping bc perpendicular to XY. Locate its centroid o and join it
with the corners of the triangle. The figure represents the top view. Project all the points and obtain
a′b′d ′ to represent the front view.
2. Second stage: Reproduce the front view of the first stage keeping b′c′ on XY and b′c′d ′ perpen-
dicular to XY. Project the front view points to meet locus lines from the top view of the first stage
and obtain abc as the new top view.
 Projections of Solids 9.55

3. Third stage: Reproduce the top view of the second stage keeping bc at 45º to XY. This is the final
top view. Project this top view to meet the locus lines from the front view of the second stage and
obtain a′c′b′d ′ as the final front view.

Example 9.48 (Fig 9.54)

Draw the projections of a cube with 40 mm long edges resting on the H.P. on one of its corners
with a solid diagonal perpendicular to the V.P. [RGPV April 2010]

1′ 1′

2′,4′ 2′ 4′
1′ 2′,4′ 3′
p′ a ′ 3′
3′
p′ a′
40

d′
b′,d ′ b′

X Y
b′,d ′ c′ c′ c′
a
d,44 d 4

b 1 d
a,1 c,3 a 1 c
3

2 c 4
40

b,2 b 2
3
First stage Second stage Third stage (Final projections)
Fig. 9.54

Construction: Fig. 9.54

1. First stage: Draw a square abcd keeping ab at 45º to XY. This is the top view. Project the corners
and obtain the front view.
2. Mark a diagonal a′3′. Draw a perpendicular line c′p′ from c′ on a′3′.
3. Second stage: Draw line c′p′ perpendicular to XY and copy line a′3′ parallel to XY. Now, reproduce
the front view of the first stage. Project these front view to meet locus lines from the top view of
the first stage and obtain the new top view.
4. Third stage: Reproduce the top view of the second stage keeping a1c3 perpendicular to XY. Proj-
ect this top view to meet locus lines from the front view of the second stage and obtain the final
front view.
9.56 Engineering Graphics

Example 9.49 (Fig 9.55)

A square pyramid, 40 mm base side and 60 mm long axis, is freely suspended from one of its cor-
ners of its base. Draw its projections, when the axis as a vertical plane is inclined at 45º to the V.P.

o′ a′
a′
H = 60

b ′,d ′ b′

g′ d′
g′
c′
H/4

o′ c′ o′
X Y
b′,d ′ c′

45°
a′
d d d
c

a o c c a o a
b
40

o
b b
First stage Second stage Third stage (Final projections)
Fig. 9.55

Construction: Fig. 9.55

1. First stage: Draw a square abcd keeping ac parallel to XY. Locate its centroid o′ and join it with
the corners of the square. The figure represents the top view.
2. Project all the points and obtain the front view. Mark centre of gravity (g′) on the axis in the front
view at a height H/4 = 15 mm from XY.
3. Second stage: Reproduce the front view of the first stage keeping a′g′ perpendicular to XY. Proj-
ect the front view to meet locus lines from the top view of the first stage and obtain the new top
view.
4. Third stage: Reproduce the top view of the second stage keeping cao at 45º to XY. Project the top
view to meet locus lines from the front view of the second stage and obtain the final front view.

Example 9.50 (Fig 9.56)

A regular pentagonal prism lies with its axis inclined at 60º to the H.P. and 30º to the V.P. The
prism is 60 mm long and has a face width of 25 mm. The nearest corner is 10 mm away from
the V.P. and the farthest shorter edge is 100 mm from the H.P. Draw the projections of the solid.
[RGPV June 2003]
 Projections of Solids 9.57

1′,2′ 1′ 2′

3′,5′ 5′ 3′
4′
4′

1′,2′ 3′,5′ 4′

100
a′ b′
a′, b′ e′ c′
60

c′′,e′
d′ d′
60
°

x Y
a′ ,b′ c′,,e′ d′

10
4
e,5 e 5
a,1 a 1
5 3
d,4
25

d
4 d
1 2

30°
b,2 b 2 e c
c ,3 c 3

a b
First stage Second stage Third stage (Final projections)
Fig. 9.56

Construction: Fig. 9.56

1. First stage: Draw a pentagon abcde keeping ab perpendicular to XY. Project all the points and
obtain the front view.
2. Second stage: Mark a point 1′2′ 100 mm above XY. Reproduce the front view of the first
stage keeping 1′2′a′b′ at 60º to XY. This will also make axis inclined at 60º to XY. Project
this front view to meet locus lines from the top view of the first stage and obtain the new top
view.
3. Third stage: Here axis is inclined 60º to H.P. and 30º to V.P. Therefore, b angle shall be equal to
90º. Reproduce the top view of the second stage such that point 4 is 10 mm below XY and axis is
perpendicular to XY. Project this top view to meet locus lines from the front view of the second
stage and obtain the final front view.
9.58 Engineering Graphics

EXERCISE 9B

An Element of the Solid in the H.P.

1. A hexagonal prism with 30 mm base sides and 75 mm long axis is kept on one of its base edges
on the H.P. in such a way that the axis is inclined at 30º to the H.P. and the base edge resting on
the H.P. is inclined at 45º with the V.P. Draw its projections.
2. A square prism with 40 mm base sides and 60 mm long axis has one of its base edges parallel to
the H.P. and inclined at 45º to the V.P. Its axis makes 60º with the H.P. Draw its projections.
3. A square pyramid with 40 mm base sides and 70 mm long axis has a triangular face on the H.P.
and the vertical plane containing the axis is inclined at 45º to the V.P. Draw its projections.
4. A hexagonal pyramid, with 30 mm base sides and 65 mm long axis, has a triangular face on the
H.P. and the edge of the base containing that face makes an angle of 30º with the V.P. Draw its
projections.
5. A hexagonal pyramid with 30 mm base sides and 70 mm long axis has one of its triangular faces
perpendicular to the H.P. and inclined at 45º to the V.P. Draw its projections when the base is
visible.
6. A pentagonal pyramid, 30 mm base sides and 60 mm long axis, has one of the edges of the base
in the H.P. The solid is tilted in such a manner that the highest point of the base is 40 mm above
H.P. and the edge of the base on which it is resting is parallel to the V.P. Draw its projections.
7. A pentagonal prism with 30 mm base sides and 70 mm long axis is resting on a corner of its base
on the ground with a longer edge containing that corner inclined at 45º to the H.P. A vertical plane
containing that longer edge and the axis is inclined at 30º to the V.P. Draw its projections.
8. A hexagonal pyramid with 30 mm base sides and 75 mm long axis has one of its slant edges on
the H.P. and vertical plane containing this edge and the axis is inclined at 30º to the V.P. Draw
its projections when apex is 15 mm in front of the V.P.
9. Draw the projections of a cone of 45 mm base diameter and 50 mm long axis, when it is resting
on the ground on a point on its base circle with the axis making 30º with the H.P. and its top view
making 45º with the V.P. [RGPV Feb. 2008]
10. A right circular cone of diameter 70 mm and axis height 80 mm is resting on one of its genera-
tors in H.P. The top view of the axis is inclined at 45º to V.P. Draw the projections of the cone.
[RGPV Dec. 2010]
11. Draw the projections of a cone of base 50 mm diameter and altitude 60 mm long lying on one of
its generators on H.P. when the top view of the axis makes an angle of 30º with XY.
[RGPV Feb. 2011]
12. A right circular cone of 50 mm base diameter and 70 mm long axis is resting on its circular rim
in such a way that one of its extreme generators is normal to H.P. and then the plan of the axis
makes an angle of 45º to the V.P. Draw its projections. [RGPV Dec. 2005]
13. A square pyramid with 50 mm base sides and 60 mm long axis has one of its triangular faces on
the H.P. and a slant edge containing that face is parallel to the V.P. Draw its projections.
14. A frustum of a pentagonal pyramid, with 40 mm base edges, 20 mm top edges and 60 mm long
axis, is resting on its face on the H.P. Draw its projections when an edge of its base is parallel to
the V.P. and the small base is towards the observer.
 Projections of Solids 9.59

15. Draw the projections of a cube of 25 mm long edges resting on the H.P. on one of its corners with
the solid diagonal perpendicular to the V.P. [RGPV Dec. 2006]
16. A cube with 40 mm side has a corner in the H.P. Draw its projections when a solid diagonal is
parallel to the H.P. and inclined at 30º to the V.P.
17. A hexagonal pyramid with 30 mm base sides and 70 mm long axis is suspended freely from one
of its base corners such that its axis is in a vertical plane which makes an angle of 45º with the
V.P. Draw its projections.
18. A cone having a base with 50 mm diameter and 65 mm long axis is freely suspended from a point
of its rim such that the top view of the axis is perpendicular to V.P. and the apex is towards the
observer. Draw its projections.

An Element of the Solid in the V.P.

19. A hexagonal prism, with 30 mm base sides and 75 mm long axis, has an edge of the base on the
V.P. and inclined at 30º to the H.P. The rectangular face containing that edge makes an angle of
45º with the V.P. Draw its projections.
20. A hexagonal pyramid with 30 mm base sides and 70 mm long axis has an edge of its base in the
V.P. and inclined at 30º to the H.P. The triangular face containing that edge is inclined at 45º to
the V.P. Draw its projections.
21. Draw the projections of a pentagonal pyramid having side of base 40 mm and length of axis 90
mm when it is resting with a triangular face in the V.P. and the base edge of that face inclined at
60º to the H.P. [RGPV June 2011]
22. A hexagonal pyramid of 30 mm base side and 70 mm long axis has a corner of its base on the
V.P. The axis is inclined at 45º to the V.P. and the plane containing the slant edge and the axis is
inclined at 60º to the H.P. Draw its projections.
23. A square pyramid, of 40 mm base side and 60 mm long axis, has one of its slant edges on the
V.P. A plane containing that edge and the axis is perpendicular to the V.P. and inclined at 45º to
the H.P. Draw its projections, when the apex is nearer to the H.P. then the base.

Apparent Angle ` or a
24. A square prism, with 40 mm base sides and 65 mm long axis, is resting on an edge of its base on
the H.P. with axis inclined at 45º to the H.P. and 30º to the V.P. Draw its projections.
25. Draw the projections of a cylinder of 75 mm diameter and 100 mm length lying on the ground
with axis inclined at 30º to the V.P. and 45º to the H.P. [RGPV Dec. 2006]
26. A square pyramid, with 35 mm base sides and 50 mm long axis, has a triangular face on the
ground and the axis is inclined at 45º to the V.P. Draw its projections.
27. A cone having 50 mm base diameter and 60 mm long axis is lying on one of its generators on the
H.P. Draw its projections when the axis is making an angle of 45° with the V.P.

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Differentiate between a triangular pyramid and a tetrahedron.

2. State the shape and number of faces in a dodecahedron and icosahedron.
9.60 Engineering Graphics

3. Define cylinder and cone in terms of surface of revolution.

4. What do you understand by a right regular solid?
5. Differentiate between frustum of a pyramid and a truncated pyramid.
6. A cube is resting on one of its corners in the H.P. with a solid diagonal vertical. What will be the
outer shape of its top view?
7. A cube is resting on one of its corners in the H.P. with a solid diagonal perpendicular to the V.P.
What will be the outer shape of its front view?
8. What is the difference between the top view of a hexagonal prism and that of a hexagonal pyra-
mid when both solids rest on their bases on the H.P. with similar orientation?
9. State the position of a tetrahedron so as to get a square as the outer shape in its top view.
10. State the location of the centroid of a square pyramid.

MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS

Choose the most appropriate answer out of the given alternatives:

i) Among the following solids, a regular polyhedron is

(a) square prism (b) square pyramid (c) cube (d) sphere
ii) A solid having minimum number of faces is
(a) tetrahedron (b) triangular prism (c) square pyramid (d) cube
iii) A pyramid is cut by a plane parallel to its base removing the apex, the remaining part is known
as
(a) truncated (b) frustum (c) sectioned (d) prism
iv) Number of faces in a dodecahedron are
(a) 4 (b) 8 (c) 12 (d) 20
v) If three orthographic views of a sphere containing a circular hole are drawn, the maximum
number of circles that may appear altogether
(a) 1 (b) 3 (c) 4 (d) 6
vi) An orthographic view of a hemisphere may appear as
(a) circle (b) ellipse (c) parabola (d) hyperbola
vii) The number of stages that are necessary to get the orthographic views of a solid having its axis
inclined to both the reference planes are
(a) one (b) two (c) three (d) four
viii) A tetrahedron is resting on its face on the H.P. with a side perpendicular to the V.P. Its front
view will be an
(a) equilateral triangle (b) isosceles triangle
(c) scalene triangle (d) right-angled triangle
 Projections of Solids 9.61

ix) A square pyramid is resting on a face in the V.P. The number of dotted lines appearing in the
front view will be
(a) one (b) two (c) three (d) four
x) The solid will have two dotted lines in the top view when it is resting on its face in the H.P.
(a) square pyramid (b) pentagonal pyramid
(c) hexagonal pyramid (d) all of these
xi) A cube is resting on H.P. with a solid diagonal perpendicular to it. The top view will appear as
(a) square (b) rectangle (c) irregular hexagon (d) regular hexagon
xii) A right circular cone resting on a point of its base circle in the H.P. having the axis inclined at
30º to the H.P. and 45º to the V.P. The angle between the reference line and top view of the axis
will be
(a) 30º (b) between 30º and 45º (c) 45º (d) more than 45º
xiii) A right circular cone resting on a generator in the H.P. and axis inclined at 45º to the V.P. The
angle between the reference line and top view of the axis will be
(a) less than 45º (b) 45º (c) more than 45º (d) any of these
xiv) A cylinder rests on a point of its base circle in the H.P. having the axis inclined at 30º to the H.P.
and 60º to the V.P. The inclination of the top view of the axis with the reference line will be
(a) 30º (b) 60º (c) 90º (d) none of these

Answers
(i) c (ii) b (iii) b (iv) c (v) c (vi) a (vii) c (viii) b (ix) b (x) d (xi) d
(xii) d (xiii) c (xiv) c
 10

Sections of
Solids

� Introduction
� Terminology for Sections of Solids
� Types of Section Planes
� Sections of Solids by Horizontal Plane
� Sections of Solids by Plane Parallel to V.P
� Sections of Solids by Auxiliary Inclined
Plane
� Sections of Solids by Auxiliary Vertical
Plane
� Sections of Solids by a Profile Plane
10.2 Engineering Graphics

10.1 INTRODUCTION

It is observed that the orthographic views of a solid may contain a number of dotted lines. These lines
indicate the presence of hidden details which may lie behind or somewhere in the middle of the object.
The interpretation of the object’s shape becomes difficult with increasing number of such lines. As a
remedy, it becomes obligatory to draw sectional views for a better and easier interpretation of the in-
ternal details. The present chapter describes the methods of obtaining sectional views and other related
drawing.

The object considered to be cut by a plane is called a section or a cutting plane. The portion of the
object, which falls between the cutting plane and the observer, is assumed to be removed. Thus,
the exposed internal details become visible. The projections of the remaining object are termed as
sectional views.

10.2 TERMINOLOGY

The terms used very frequently for sections of solids are given follow.

1. Section plane Section planes are the imaginary planes which cut the objects completely or
partially to show their invisible and interior details clearly. These planes are represented by their
traces.
2. Cut surface Section or cut surface is the surface created due to cutting the object by section
planes. It is shown by hatching lines.
3. Hatching lines Hatching lines are the continuous thin lines drawn at an angle of 45º to the refer-
ence planes, parallel to each other at a uniform space of 2 to 3 mm in between.
4. Apparent section The projection of the section on the principle plane to which the section plane
is inclined is known as apparent section.
5. True shape of section The projection of the section on a plane parallel to the section plane is
known as true shape of section. It shows actual shape and size of cut surface.

10.3 TYPES OF SECTION PLANES

The shape of the section obtained will depend upon the orientation of the solid and the section plane,
with respect to the principle planes of projection. Some of the positions of the section planes are given
below.

1. Horizontal plane
2. Auxiliary Inclined Plane (A.I.P.)
3. Plane parallel to V.P.
4. Auxiliary Vertical Plane (A.V.P.)
5. Profile plane
6. Oblique plane (inclined to both H.P. and V.P.) not considered in current study
 Sections of Solids 10.3

10.3.1 Horizontal Plane

A section plane parallel to H.P. is known as horizontal section plane [Fig. 10.1(a)]. Its V.T. is a straight
line parallel to XY and has no H.T.[Fig. 10.1(b)].

Fig. 10.1(a) Fig. 10.1(b)

If a solid is cut by a horizontal section plane, the front view of the solid is superimposed by the V.T. of
the section plane. The portion of the solid lying between the V.T. and the observer is considered to be
removed. The remaining cut solid is then projected to get its sectional top view.

10.3.2 Plane Parallel to V.P.

A section plane parallel to V.P. is known as vertical section plane [Fig. 10.2(a)]. Its H.T. is a straight
line parallel to XY and has no V.T. [Fig. 10.2(b)].

If a solid is cut by a vertical section plane, the top view of the solid is superimposed by the H.T. of the
section plane. The portion of the solid lying between the H.T. and the observer is considered to be re-
moved. The remaining cut solid is then projected to get its sectional front view.

T
H T

Fig. 10.2(a) Fig. 10.2(b)

10.3.3 Auxiliary Inclined Plane (A.I.P.)

A plane perpendicular to V.P. and inclined at an angle q to H.P. is known as auxiliary inclined plane
(A.I.P.) [Fig. 10.3(a)]. Its V.T. is a straight line inclined at q to XY. The H.T. of this plane is a line per-
pendicular to XY [Fig. 10.3(b)].
10.4 Engineering Graphics

If a solid is cut by an auxiliary inclined plane, the front view of the solid is superimposed by the V.T. of
the section plane. The portion of the solid lying between the V.T. and the observer is considered to be
removed. The remaining cut solid is then projected to get its sectional top view.

T
T T.
V.
V

V q
q T

T
q
H H

Fig. 10.3(a) Fig. 10.3(b)

10.3.4 Auxiliary Vertical Plane (A.V.P.)

A plane perpendicular to H.P. and inclined at an angle Ø to V.P. is known as an auxiliary vertical plane
(A.V.P.) [Fig. 10.4(a)]. Its H.T. is a straight line inclined at Ø to XY. The V.T. of this plane is a line
perpendicular to XY [Fig. 10.4(b)].

f
T

T
f
V
H
f
H T

Fig. 10.4(a) Fig. 10.4(b)

If a solid is cut by an auxiliary vertical plane, the top view of the solid is superimposed by the H.T. of
the section plane. The portion of the solid lying between the H.T. and the observer is considered to be
removed. The remaining cut solid is then projected to get its sectional front view.

10.3.5 Profile Plane

A plane perpendicular to both H.P. and V.P. is known as profile plane [Fig. 10.5(a)]. Both of its V.T.
and H.T. are straight lines perpendicular to XY [Fig. 10.5(b)].
 Sections of Solids 10.5

T
H

T
T

Fig. 10.5(a) Fig. 10.5(b)

If a solid is cut by a profile plane, both the front view and the top view are superimposed by the V.T. and
H.T. of the section plane respectively. The true shape of section is seen in the side view.

Note

1. In case where two or more positions of the section plane is possible, which satisfy the given condi-
tions, then as far as possible, the section plane through which minimum portion of the solid is cut
away is selected.
2. The part / portion of the solid in between the observer and the section plane are assumed to be
removed. The retained part of the solid is drawn with thick continuous lines and the removed part
with thin lines.
3. The hatching lines (section lines) are used to indicate cut surface in the sectional views.
Usually, the hatching lines are inclined at 45º to the principal planes. If the boundary of the
object itself makes 45º to the reference planes, hatching lines are drawn at 30º or 60º to the
principal axis.

10.4 SECTIONS OF SOLIDS BY HORIZONTAL PLANE

Example 10.1 (Fig. 10.6)

A cube of 50 mm side rests with one of its edges on H.P. such that the square faces containing
that edge are making equal inclinations with H.P. A horizontal section plane cuts the cube at
a distance 18 mm below the horizontal edge nearer to the observer. Draw the sectional top
view and front view of the cube.
[RGPV June 2008]
10.6 Engineering Graphics

d ′,4′

50

18
p ,
p′,s′ q ′,r
,r ′
V T

c ′,3′
a′,1′

X Y
b ′,2 ′

a p b,d q c
50

1 s 2,4 r 3
Fig. 10.6

Construction: Fig. 10.6

1. Draw a square a′b′b′d ′ keeping edges at 45º with XY, to represent the front view. Project all the
corners and obtain ac31 to get the top view.
2. Draw section plane V.T. parallel to XY and 18 mm below edge d ′4′.
3. Let the section plane cut the edges of the prism a′d ′ at p′ and s′, c′d ′ at q′ and r′. Project points
p′, q′, r′ and s′ on edges ad, cd, 3-4 and 1-2 to obtain points p, q, r and s. Join pqrs and hatch the
enclosed portion with lines inclined at 45º to XY.

Note: When a solid is cut by a horizontal section plane the true shape of the section is seen in the top
view.

Example 10.2 (Fig. 10.7)

A triangular prism of 30 mm base side and 50 mm long axis is lying on the H.P. on one of its
rectangular faces with its axis inclined at 30º to the V.P. It is cut by a horizontal section plane
at a distance of 12 mm above the ground. Draw its front view and sectional top view.
[RGPV Dec. 2007]
 Sections of Solids 10.7

c ′,3′ c′ 3'

30
p′ q′ s′ r′
V T

12
X Y
a′,1′ b′,2′ a′ b′ 1' 2'

30°
a c b b
q
c
p
50

a 2
r
3
s
1 3 2 1
Fig. 10.7

Construction: Fig. 10.7

1. Draw a triangle a′b′c′ keeping a′b′ on XY to represent the front view. Project all the corners to
obtain ab21 to represent the top view.
2. Reproduce this top view keeping c3 at 30º with XY. Project it to meet locus lines from the front
view of the first stage and obtain the new front view.
3. Draw section plane V.T. parallel to and 12 mm above XY.
4. The section plane cuts a′c′ at p′, b′c′ at q′, 2′3′ at r′, and 1′3′ at s′. Project points p′, q′, r′
and s′ to meet ac, bc, 2-3 and 1-3 at points p, q, r and s. Join pqrs and hatch the enclosed
portion.

Example 10.3 (Fig. 10.8)

A hexagonal prism of 20 mm base and 60 mm height is resting on one of its corners on the
ground with the base making 60º with the ground. The axis is parallel to V.P. A section
plane parallel to H.P. and perpendicular to V.P. cuts the object such that it is 15 mm from
the base as measured along the axis. Draw its sectional view from the above and the view
from the front.
[RGPV Dec. 2001]
10.8 Engineering Graphics

1 2 ,6′ 3 ,5′ 4 1
2 ,6

p′ q r ,s ′
V T
3′,5′
a

60
4
b′,f

,e
X Y
a′ b f ′ c ,e′ d ′ d
f ,6 e5 f e t 6 5

a,1 d a d 4

b,2 c,3 b c q 2 r3

HEX 20
Fig. 10.8

Construction: Fig. 10.8

1. Draw a hexagon abcdef keeping diagonal ad parallel to XY to represent the top view. Project all
the corners and obtain a′d ′4′1′ to represent the front view.
2. Reproduce the front view of the first stage keeping d ′ on XY and d ′a′ at 60º to XY. Project the top
view to meet locus lines from the front view of the first stage and obtain the new front view.
3. Draw section plane V.T. parallel to XY passing through a point 15 mm away from the base along
the axis.
4. The section plane cuts a′1′ at p′, b′2′ at q′, 2′3′ at r′, 5′6′ at s′ and f ′6′ at t′. Project p′, q′, r′, s′ and t′ to
meet edges a1, b2, 2-3, 5-6 and f 6 at points p, q, r, s and t. Join pqrst and hatch the enclosed portion.

xample 10.4 (Fig. 10.9)

A hexagonal pyramid of 30 mm side of base and 60 mm long axis rests with its base on H.P. and
one of the edges of the base is parallel to V.P. It is cut by a horizontal section plane at a distance
30 mm above the base. Draw the front view and sectional top view. [RGPV Feb. 2011]
o

p′ r
60

V T
u t
30

X Y
a b′,f ′ c′,e′ d ′
f e
u t
p s d
a
q r

b HEX30 c

Fig. 10.9
 Sections of Solids 10.9

Construction: Fig. 10.9

1. Draw a hexagon abcdef keeping ef parallel to XY. Locate the centroid o and join it with all the
corners of the hexagon. The figure represents the top view. Project all the corners to obtain a′d ′o′
as the front view.
2. Draw section plane V.T. parallel to and 30 mm above XY.
3. The section plane cuts o′a′ at p′, o′b′ at q′, o′c′ at r′, o′d ′ at s′, o′e′ at t ′ and o′f ′ at u′. Project p′, q′,
r′, s′, t ′ and u′ to meet edges oa, ob, oc, od, oe and of at points p, q, r, s, t and u. Join pqrstu and
hatch the enclosed portion.

Example 10.5 (Fig. 10.10)

A right circular cone of the 45 mm base diameter and 55 mm axis long is lying on one of its
generators on the H.P. It is cut by a horizontal section plane passing through the mid-point
of the axis. Draw the projections of the cone and its true section.
[RGPV Feb. 2008, April 2010]

o′

a′
b ′,l ′
c ′,k ′
55

d ′,j ′

′, ′ ′
V T
, 2
f ′ h′
X Y
a′ b l′ c′ k′ d ′,j ′ e′ i′ f ′ g′ g o′
j j
k i i k

l h 8
7
g
f 45

g
a 5 o

3
b f f 2
c e 1,e c
d d
Fig. 10.10

Construction: Fig. 10.10

1. Draw a circle adgj to represent the top view. Divide the circle into 12 equal parts to repre-
sent generators in the top view. Project ends of the generators and obtain a′g′o′ as the front
view.
2. Reproduce the front view of the first stage keeping generator g′o′ on XY. Project the front view to
meet locus lines from the top view of the first stage and obtain the new top view.
10.10 Engineering Graphics

3. Draw section plane V.T. parallel to XY bisecting the axis.

4. The section plane cuts the base at points 1′ and 9′ while the generators d ′o′, e′o′, f ′o′, g′o′, h′o′,
i′o′, j′o′ at points 2′, 3′, 4′, 5′, 6′, 7, 8′. Project points 1′, 2′, 3′, 4′, 5′, 6′, 7, 8′ and 9′ to meet the
corresponding generators in the top view at points 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9. Join 123456789 and
hatch the enclosed portion.

10.5 SECTIONS OF SOLIDS BY PLANE PARALLEL TO V.P.

Example 10.6 (Fig. 10.11)

A cube of 30 mm long edges is resting on the H.P. on one of its faces with a vertical face inclined
at 30º to the V.P. It is cut by a section plane parallel to the V.P. and 10 mm away from the
axis and further away from the V.P. Draw the sectional front view and top view of the cube.
[RGPV June 2009]

1′ q ′ 4′ 2′ r ′ 3′ 30

X Y
a′ p′ d ′ b′ s′ c′
d,4
30°

c,3

a,1
10

H T
p,q r,s
30 b,2

Fig. 10.11

Construction: Fig. 10.11

1. Draw a square abcd keeping cd at 30º to XY in the top view. Project all the corners to obtain
a′b′3′1′ as front view.
2. Locate centre o of the square abcd. Draw section plane H.T. parallel to XY and 10 mm from the
centre o.
3. The section plane cuts the edges ab, 1-2, 2-3 and bc at points p, q, r and s. Project points p, q, r
and s to meet the edges a′b′, 1′2′, 2′3′ and b′c′ at points p′, q′, r′ and s′. Join p′q′r′s′ and hatch the
enclosed portion.
 Sections of Solids 10.11

Note: When a solid is cut by a vertical section plane, the true shape of the section is seen in the front
view.

Example 10.7 (Fig. 10.12)

A pentagonal prism of 30 mm base side and 60 mm long axis rests on one of its rectangular
faces on H.P. with its axis inclined at 30º to V.P. A section plane parallel to V.P. cuts the solid
through the centre of the axis into two halves. Draw the projections of the solid.
[RGPV June 2008(o)]

e′,5′ e′ u′ 5′
30
v′ t′
d ′,4′ d′ 1′ 4′
a ′,1′ a′

p′ s′
X Y
b′,2′ c′′,3′ b′ q′ c′ 2′ r ′ 3′
30°

a b e c d d
c,d c

e
4
b
60

s,t
H T
p,v
v q u r 3
a

30 5

1 2 5 3 4 2
1
Fig. 10.12

Construction: Fig. 10.12

1. Draw a pentagon a′b′c′d ′e′ keeping b′c′ on XY. This represents the front view. Project the corners
and obtain ad41 as its top view.
2. Reproduce this top view keeping the axis at 30º to XY. Project it to meet locus lines from the front
view of the first stage and obtain the new front view.
3. Draw section plane H.T. parallel to XY bisecting the axis.
4. The section plane cut the edges ab at p, b2 at q, c3 at r, 3-4 at s, 4-5 at t and e5 at u. Project points
p, q, r, s, t and u to meet their corresponding edges in the front view at points p′, q′, r′, s′, t ′ and u′.
Join p′q′r′s′t ′u′ and hatch the enclosed portion.
10.12 Engineering Graphics

Example 10.8 (Fig. 10.13)

A cylinder of 50 mm base diameter and 60 mm long axis is resting on its base on H.P. A
section plane parallel to V.P. cuts the cylinder at a distance 17 mm from the axis. Draw its
sectional front view and top view.

12′ 11′ 9′ 8′
1′ 2′ s′ 3′ 4′,10′ 5′ r ′ 6′ 7′

60

a′ b′,l ′ p′ c′,k ′ d′, j ′ e′,i′ q ′ f ′,h′ g′

j,10
k,11 i,9

l,12
2 h,8

a,1
g,7
0
f5
17

b,2 f,6
H T
p,s q,r
c,3 e,5
d,4
Fig. 10.13

Construction: Fig. 10.13

1. Draw a circle adgj of 50 mm diameter as the top view. Divide it into 12 equal parts. Project the
circle and obtain a′g′7′1′ as the front view.
2. Draw section plane H.T. parallel to XY and passes through a point 17 mm from the axis o towards
the observer.
3. The section plane cuts the base circle at p, q, r and s. Project p, q, r and s and obtain p′, q′, r′ and
s′ in the front view. Join p′q′r′s′ and hatch the enclosed portion.
 Sections of Solids 10.13

Example 10.9 (Fig. 10.14)

A pentagonal pyramid side of 35 mm base and 60 mm long axis rests with its base on H.P.
such that one of the edges of the base is perpendicular to V.P. A section plane perpendicular
to H.P. and parallel to V.P. cuts the pyramid at a distance of 20 mm from the corner of the
base nearer to the observer. Draw its top and sectional front views.
[RGPV June 2008, Aug. 2010]

o′

r′

q′
60

p′
X Y
a′′,b′ c ′,e′ s′ d′

d
35

o
H T
p q r s
20

Fig. 10.14

Construction: Fig. 10.14

1. Draw a pentagon abcde keeping ab perpendicular to XY. Locate the centroid o and join it with all
the corners of the pentagon. This figure represents the top view. Project the corners and obtain
a′d ′o′ as the front view.
2. Draw section plane H.T. parallel to XY and passing through a point 20 mm from
point c.
3. The section plane cuts the edges ab at p, ob at q, oc at r and cd at s. Project points p, q, r and s to
meet their respective edges a′b′, o′b′, o′c′ and b′d ′ at points p′, q′, r′ and s′. Join p′q′r′s′ and hatch
the portion enclosed by it.
10.14 Engineering Graphics

Example 10.10 (Fig. 10.15)

A cone of 50 mm base diameter and 60 mm long axis is resting on its base on the H.P. It is cut
by a section plane parallel to the V.P. and passing through a point 15 mm away from the axis
towards the observer. Draw its sectional front view.

o′

60

r1′ r′
q′ s′

X Y
a′ b ′ p′c′′,k′ d′,j ′ e′,i ′ t ′ f ′ g ′
l′ h′

j
k i

l h

r1 g
f 50

a
o
15

b f
H T
p q r s t
c e
d

Fig. 10.15

Construction: Fig. 10.15

1. Draw a circle adgj in top view. Divide it into 12 equal parts and project to get a′g′o′ as the front
view.
2. Draw section plane H.T. parallel to XY and 15 mm away from o.
3. The section plane cuts the base circle and generators at p, q, r, s and t. Project p, q, s and t to meet
b′c′, o′b′, o′e′ and e′f ′ at points p′, q′, s′ and t ′ respectively.
4. Point r cannot be directly projected to meet o′d ′. For this draw an arc with centre o and radius ro
to meet oa at point r1. Project points r1 to meet o′a′ at points r1′. Draw horizontal line from r1′ to
meet o′d ′ at r′. Join p′q′r′s′t ′ and hatch the portion enclosed by it.
 Sections of Solids 10.15

10.6 SECTIONS OF SOLIDS BY AUXILIARY INCLINED PLANE

Example 10.11 (Fig. 10.16)

A square prism (25 mm base side × 60 mm height ) is kept on H.P. with its axis vertical and
two adjacent base sides equally inclined to V.P. It is cut by a section plane whose V.T. makes
an angle of 30º with the reference line and bisects the axis. Draw sectional top view and true
shape of section. [RGPV Dec. 2008]

q
1
r1

p Y1
1
s1

1′ 2′,4
4′ 3′

X1 T
r′ 60
q ′,s ′
30°
30

V p′

X Y
a′ b′,d ′ c′
45°

d,4 s

a,1 c,3
p r
25

q
b,2

Fig. 10.16

Construction: Fig. 10.16

1. Draw a square abcd keeping edges at 45º to XY in the top view. Project all the corners and obtain
a′c′3′1′ as the front view.
2. Draw section plane V.T. inclined at 30º to XY bisecting the axis.
3. The section plane cuts the edges a′1′ at point p′, b′2′ at point q′, c′3′ at point r′ and d ′4′ at point s′.
Project p′, q′, r′ and s′ to meet the edges a1, b2, c3 and d4 at point p, q, r and s. Join pqrs and hatch
10.16 Engineering Graphics

the portion enclosed by it. Since the boundary lines of pqrs are inclined at 45º to XY the hatching
lines should be drawn at 30º or 60º to XY.
4. Draw another reference plane X1Y1 parallel to the V.T. and project points p′, q′, r′ and s′ on X1Y1.
Locate points p1, q1, r1 and s1 on these projectors such that their distances from X1Y1 are equal to
distances of p, q, r and s from XY respectively. Join p1q1r1s1 and hatch the portion enclosed by it.

Note 1: When the boundaries of the sectional surface are inclined at 45º to the reference line, the
hatching lines may be drawn at 30º or 60º to XY.

Note 2: When a solid is cut by an A.I.P. the true shape of the section is seen on the plane parallel to
the A.I.P.

Example 10.12 (Fig. 10.17)

A cylinder of 45 mm diameter and 70 mm long is resting on one of its bases on H.P. It is cut
by a section plane inclined at 60º with H.P. and passing through a point on the axis at 15 mm
from one end. Draw the two views of the solid. Also obtain the true shape of the section.
[RGPV Dec. 2010]
x1
G1

w1
p1
T

v1 T.S. 1' 2′,12′3′,11′ 4',10'

10' 5′,9′6′,8′ 7'
q1 p ′,x ′
15

u1 z
r1 q ′,w ′
t1
s1
70

A1 r ′,v ′

u′
s′,u
60

t′
°

V
X Y
a′ b′,l ′ c′,k ′ d ′,j ′ e′,i ′f′ ′,h′′ g′
j,10
,
k 1
k,1 q p i,9 9
r h,8
l,12
2
s

a,1 t g,7
f 45

u
b,2 f,6
v w x e,5
c,3 ,
d,4

Fig. 10.17
 Sections of Solids 10.17

Construction: Fig. 10.17

1. Projections: Draw a circle adgj to represent the top view. Divide it into 12 equal parts. Project the
circle and obtain a′g′7′1′ as its front view.
2. Sectional plane: Mark a point z on the axis, 15 mm below top end, i.e. 55 mm above XY. Draw a
V.T. in the front view inclined at 60º to XY and passes through point z.
3. Sectional top view: Let the cutting plane cut the generators and the rim of the cylinder in the front
view 9′10′ at p′, j′10′ at q′, k′11′ at r′ and l′12′ at s′, a′1′ at t ′, b′2′ at u′, c′3′ at v′, d ′4′ at w′, and
4′5′ at x′. Project points p′, q′, r′, s′, t ′, u′, v′, w′ and x′ to meet their corresponding edges at points
p, q, r, s, t, u, v, w and x. Join pqrstuvwx and hatch the enclosed portion.
4. True shape: Draw X1Y1 parallel to V.T. Project points p′, q′, r′, s′, t ′, u′, v′, w′ and x′ perpendicular
on X1Y1 and extend them. Locate points p1, q1, r1, s1, t1, u1, v1, w1 and x1 on the projectors such
that their distance from X1Y1 is equal to distance of points p, q, r, s, t, u, v, w and x from XY. Join
p1q1r1s1t1u1v1w1x1 and hatch the enclosed portion.

Example 10.13 (Fig. 10.18)

A hexagonal pyramid of 30 mm base side and axis 65 mm long is resting on its base on the
H.P. with two edges parallel to the V.P. It is cut by a section plane perpendicular to the V.P.
inclined at 45º to the H.P. and intersecting the axis at a point 25 mm above the base. Draw the
front view, sectional top view and true shape of the section.
[RGPV June 2004, Dec. 2007, April 2010]

r1
s1
q1
t1 Y1
T.S.
o′
p1

u1 T
v1 s′
r ′,t ′
65
45°

z′

q ′,u ′
25

X1 p ′,v ′
X Y
a′ b ′,f ′ c ′,e′ d′
f e
u
t
v
a o d
s
p
r
q
b c
HEX30

Fig. 10.18
10.18 Engineering Graphics

Construction: Fig. 10.18

1. Draw a hexagon abcdef keeping ef parallel to XY. Join the corners with centroid o. This represents
the top view. Project the corners and obtain a′d ′o′ as the front view.
2. Mark z′ on the axis 25 mm above the base. Draw V.T. at 45º to XY passing through z′.
3. Let V.T. cut the edges a′b′ at p′, o′b′ at q′, o′c′ at r′, o′d ′ at s′, o′e′ at t ′, o′f ′ at u′ and e′a′ at v′.
Project p′, r′, s′, t ′, u′ and v′ to meet their respective edges ab, oc, od, oe, of and ea in the top view
at points p, r, s, t, u and v.
4. Draw X1Y1 parallel to V.T. Project p′, q′, r′, s′, t ′, u′ and v′ on X1Y1. Locate points p1, q1, r1, s1, t1, u1
and v1 on these projectors such that their distances from X1Y1 are equal to distances of p, q, r, s, t, u
and v from XY respectively. Join p1q1r1s1t1u1v1 and hatch to represent the true shape of the section.

Example 10.14 (Fig. 10.19)

A square pyramid of 40 mm base side and 60 mm long axis is resting with its base on H.P.
with a side of base parallel to the V.P. Draw its sectional views and true shape of the section,
if it is cut by a plane perpendicular to the V.P. inclined at 60º to the H.P. bisecting the axis.

r1
s1
Y1 o′
T

q1 s′
r ′,s
m′
60
60°

p1
30

X1
X Y
a′,b′ p′,q ′ c′,d′
a p d
V
s
40

o
r

bq c
Fig. 10.19

Construction: Fig. 10.19

1. Draw a square abcd keeping side ad parallel to XY and join the corners with centroid o. This rep-
resents the top view. Project the corners and obtain a′b′o′ as the front view.
2. Draw section plane V.T. inclined at 60º to XY bisecting the axis.
3. The section plane cuts the edges a′d ′ at p′, b′c′ at q′, o′b′ at r′ and o′d ′ at s′. Project p′, q′, r′ and s′
to meet their respective edges ad, bc, oc and od in the top view at points p, q, r and s.
4. Draw X1Y1 parallel to the V.T. Project points p′, q′, r′ and s′ on X1Y1. Locate points p1, q1, r1 and s1
on these projectors such that their distances from X1Y1 are equal to distances of p, q, r and s from
XY respectively. Join p1q1r1s1 and hatch to represent the true shape of the section.
 Sections of Solids 10.19

Example 10.15 (Fig. 10.20)

A square pyramid of 40 mm base side and 65 mm long axis has its base on the H.P. and all the
edges of the base equally inclined to the V.P. It is cut by a section plane perpendicular to the
V.P. and inclined at 45º to H.P. and bisecting the axis. Draw the sectional top view and true
shape of the section.
[RGPV April 2009]

q1 r1

s1 Y1
o′
p1
T

r′
m1′

65
m′
q′,s′′

45°
32.5
X1 p′
X Y
a′ b′,d ′ c′
V
d

a p o c
r m1

q
40

b
Fig. 10.20

Construction: Fig. 10.20

1. Draw a square abcd keeping sides at 45º to XY. Join the corners with centroid o. This represents
the top view. Project the corners and obtain a′c′o′ as the front view.
2. Draw section plane V.T. inclined at 45º to XY bisecting the axis.
3. Let V.T. cut the edges o′a′ at p′, o′b′ at q′, o′c′ at r′ and o′d ′ at s′. Project p′ and r′ to meet oa and
oc at p and r respectively.
4. Points q′ and s′ cannot be projected directly on ob and od. For this, draw a horizontal line
from q′ and s′ to meet o′c′ at m1′. Project m1′ to meet oc at m1. Draw an arc with centre o and
radius om1 to meet ob and od at points q and s respectively. Join pqrs and hatch the enclosed
portion.
5. Draw X1Y1 parallel to V.T. Project points p′, q′, r′ and s′ on X1Y1. Locate points p1, q1, r1 and s1 on
these projectors such that their distances from X1Y1 are equal to distances of p, q, r and s from XY
respectively. Join p1q1r1s1 and hatch to represent the true shape of the section.
10.20 Engineering Graphics

Example 10.16 (Fig. 10.21)

A square pyramid of 40 mm base side and 70 mm long axis rests with its base on H.P. with
all the edges of the base equally inclined to the V.P. It is cut by a section plane perpendicular
to the V.P. and inclined at 60º to H.P. and passing through a point on the axis at 30 mm from
the base. Draw the sectional top view and front view of the pyramid.
[RGPV June 2008(o)]
r1
q1
o′
Y1
s1 T
p1 r′

70
z1′

60
t1 z ′ q′,s′

°
30
X1
X Y
a′ p′,t ′ b ′,d ′ c′
V d
s
t
a o c
r z1
p
q
40
b

Fig. 10.21

Construction: Fig. 10.21

1. Draw a square abcd keeping sides at 45º to XY. Join the corners with centroid o. This represents
the top view. Project the corners and obtain a′b′o′ as the front view.
2. Draw section plane V.T. inclined at 60º to XY, 30 mm on the axis above the base.
3. Let V.T. cut the edges a′b′ at p′, o′b′ at q′, o′c′ at r′, o′d ′ at s′ and d ′a′ at t ′. Project p′, r′ and t ′ to
meet ab, oc and da at p, r, and t respectively.
4. Points q′ and s′ cannot be projected directly on ob and od. For this, draw a horizontal line
from q′ and s′ to meet o′c′ at z1′. Project z1′ to meet oc at z1. Draw an arc with centre o and
radius oz1 to meet ob and od at points q and s respectively. Join pqrst and hatch the enclosed
portion.
5. Draw X1Y1 parallel to the V.T.. Project points p′, q′, r′, s′ and t ′ on X1Y1. Locate points p1, q1, r1,
s1 and t1 on these projectors such that their distances from X1Y1 are equal to distances of points
p, q, r, s and t from XY respectively. Join p1q1r1s1t1 and hatch to represent the true shape of the
section.
 Sections of Solids 10.21

Example 10.17 (Fig. 10.22)

A right circular cone with 50 mm diameter of base and 65 mm height rests on its base on H.P.
A section plane perpendicular to V.P. and inclined to H.P. at 45º cuts the cone meeting its axis
at a distance of 36 mm from its base. Draw its front view, sectional top view and true shape
of the section. [RGPV June 2007]

51 61 7 G1
41 o′
8
31

21 T.S. 91 T
101 7′
11 5′
111 p1′
A1 121 4 10

65
3′,1 ′
2′ ′

36
1′

V
X Y
a′ b l′ ′ k′ d′ j′ ′, ′ f , g′

j
i

l 10 h
12
g
f 50

a 1 7
6 p1
2
4
b 3
f
c e
d
Fig. 10.22

Construction: Fig. 10.22

1. Draw a circle adgj to represent the top view. Divide it into 12 equal parts and project to obtain
a′g′o′ as the front view.
2. Draw section plane V.T. inclined at 45º to XY 36 mm on the axis from the base.
3. Let V.T. cut the generators o′a′ at 1′, o′b′ at 2′, o′c′ at 3′, o′d ′ at 4′, o′e′ at 5′, o′f ′ at 6′, o′g′ at 7′,
o′h′ at 8′, o′i′ at 9′, o′j′ at 10′, o′k′ at 11′ and o′l′ at 12′. Project points 1′, 2′, 3′, 5′, 6′, 7′, 8′, 9′, 11′
and 12′ to meet in the top view at points 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 11 and 12.
4. Points 4′ and 10′ cannot be projected directly on od and oj. For this draw a horizontal line from 4′
to meet o′g′ at p1′. Project p1′ to meet og at p1. Draw an arc with centre o and radius op1 to meet od
and oj at points 4 and 10 respectively.
10.22 Engineering Graphics

5. Join 1-2-3-4-5-6-7-8-9-10-11-12 and hatch the enclosed portion.

6. Draw A1G1 parallel to the V.T. Project 1′, 2′, 3′, 4′, 5′, 6′, 7′, 8′, 9′, 10′, 11′ and 12′ on A1G1. Locate
points 11, 21, 31, 41, 51, 61, 71, 81, 91, 101, 111 and 121 on the projectors such that their distances from
A1G1 are equal to distances of points 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 and 12 from line ag, respectively.
Join 112131415161718191101111121 and hatch to represent the true shape of the section.

Example 10.18 (Fig. 10.23)

A cone of 50 mm base diameter and 65 mm long axis is resting on its base on the H.P. It is cut
by an A.I.P. passing through a point on the axis 25 mm below the apex parallel to one of the
extreme generators. Draw its sectional top view and obtain true shape of the section.
G1
51 61
41 71 o′
31 81 T
6′
91

25
5′,7
7′
4′,8′
z1′
21 T.S. 3′,9′

65
101
11

2′,10′

111
A1 11′
X Y
a′b′,l′1′ c′,k ′d′′, j ′ e′,i ′ f ′,h
h ′g ′

V j
i
11 k
10
l h
9
8
g
f 50

a o 7
6 z1
5
4
3
b f
2
1c e
d
Fig. 10.23

Construction: Fig. 10.23

1. Draw a circle adgj to represent the top view. Divide it into 12 equal parts and project to obtain
a′g′o′ as the front view.
2. Draw section plane V.T. parallel to o′a′ 25 mm on the axis below the apex.
3. Let V.T. cut the base and generators b′c′ at 1′, o′c′ at 2′, o′d ′ at 3′, o′e′ at 4′, o′f ′ at 5′, o′g′ at 6′,
o′h′ at 7′, o′i′ at 8′, o′j′ at 9′, o′k′ at 10′ and k′l′ at 11′. Project points 1′, 2′, 4′, 5′, 6′, 7′, 8′, 10′ and
11′ to meet the top view at points 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10 and 11.
 Sections of Solids 10.23

4. Points 3′ and 9′ cannot be projected directly on od and oj. For this draw a horizontal line from 4′
to meet o′g′ at z1′. Project z1′ to meet og at z1. Draw an arc with centre o and radius oz1 to meet od
and oj at points 3 and 9 respectively.
5. Join 1-2-3-4-5-6-7-8-9-10-11 and hatch the enclosed portion.
6. Draw A1G1 parallel to the V.T. Project points 1′, 2′, 3′, 4′, 5′, 6′, 7′, 8′, 9′, 10′ and 11′ on A1G1. Lo-
cate points 11, 21, 31, 41, 51, 61, 71, 81, 91, 101 and 111 on the projectors such that their distances from
A1G1 line are equal to distances of points 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 and 11 from ag respectively.
Join 112131415161718191101111 and hatch to represent the true shape of the section.

10.7 SECTIONS OF SOLIDS BY AUXILIARY VERTICAL PLANE

Example 10.19 (Fig. 10.24)

A square prism, having a 40 mm base side and an 60 mm long axis, rests on its base on H.P.
such that one of its rectangular faces makes an angle of 30º with V.P. It is cut by a section
plane perpendicular to H.P. and inclined at 60º to V.P. passing through the prism such that
the face which makes 60º with V.P. is bisected. Draw its sectional front view, top view and
true shape of section.
°
30

Fig. 10.24

Construction: Fig. 10.24

1. Draw a square abcd of 40 mm side keeping cd at 30º to XY to represent the top view. Project the
corners and obtain a′c′3′1′ as the front view.
2. Draw section plane H.T. at 60º to XY bisecting ad.
10.24 Engineering Graphics

3. The H.T. cuts ad at p, ab at q, 2-1 at r and 1-4 at s. Project p, q, r, and s to meet the front view at
p′, q′, r′ and s′. Join p′q′r′s′ and hatch the enclosed portion.
4. Draw X1Y1 parallel to H.T. Project p, q, r and s on X1Y1. Locate points p1′, q1′, r1′ and s1′ on these
projectors such that their distances from X1Y1 line are equal to distances of p, q, r and s from XY.
Join p1q1r1s1 and hatch the enclosed portion to represent the true shape of the section.

Note: When a solid is cut by an A.V.P. the true shape of the section is seen on any plane parallel to
A.V.P.

Example 10.20 (Fig. 10.25)

A cylinder with 50 mm base diameter and 60 mm long axis, is resting on its base on the H.P.
It is cut by an A.V.P. inclined at 60º to the reference line at a distance 17 mm from the axis.
Draw its sectional front view, top view and true shape of the section.

f 50

Fig. 10.25

Construction: Fig. 10.25

1. Draw a circle with a 50 mm diameter in the top view. Divide it into 12 equal parts and project it
to obtain a′g′7′1′ as its front view.
2. Draw section plane H.T. at 60º to XY tangent to the arc with centre o and 17 mm radius.
 Sections of Solids 10.25

3. Let H.T. cut the top view p, q, r and s. Project these points to meet the front view at p′, q′, r′ and
s′ respectively. Join p′q′r′s′ and hatch the enclosed portion.
4. Draw X1Y1 parallel to H.T. Project points p, q, r and s on X1Y1. Locate points p1′, q1′, r1′ and s1′ on
the projectors such that their distances from X1Y1 line are equal to distances of points p, q, r and s
from XY. Join p1q1r1s1 and hatch the enclosed portion to represent the true shape of the section.

Example 10.21 (Fig. 10.26)

A pentagonal pyramid having a base with 30 mm sides and 70 mm long axis, is resting on its
base in the H.P. such that an edge of the base nearer to the V.P. is parallel to it. A vertical
section plane inclined at 45º to the V.P. cut the pyramid at a distance of 8 mm from the axis.
Draw its top view, sectional front view and true shape of the section.
45°

30

Fig. 10.26

Construction: Fig. 10.26

1. Draw a pentagon abcde keeping de parallel to XY and join the corners with centroid o. This repre-
sents the top view. Project the corners and obtain a′c′o′ as the front view.
2. Draw H.T. at 45º to XY and tangent to an arc with centre o and radius 8 mm.
3. Let H.T. cut the edges ae at p, oa at q, ob at r and bc at s. Project p, q and s to meet their corre-
sponding edges a′e′, o′a′ and b′c′ at points p′, q′ and s′.
4. Point r cannot be directly projected to o′b′. For this draw an arc with centre o and radius oq to meet
oc at point z1. Project z1 to meet o′c′ at z1′. Draw horizontal line from z1′ to meet o′b′ at point r′.
Join p′q′r′s′ and hatch the enclosed portion.
10.26 Engineering Graphics

5. Draw X1Y1 parallel to H.T. and project p, q, r and s on X1Y1. Locate points p1′, q1′, r1′ and s1′ on
these projectors such that their distances from X1Y1 are equal to the distances of points p′, q′, r′ and
s′ from XY respectively. Join p1′q1′r1′s1′ and hatch the enclosed portion to represent the true shape
of the section.

Example 10.22 (Fig. 10.27)

A cone with 60 mm base diameter and 70 mm long axis is resting on its base on the H.P. It is
cut by a section plane whose H.T. is inclined at 60º to the reference line and passes through a
point that is 20 mm away from the axis. Draw its sectional front view and obtain true shape
of the section.

o′
70

r′
q′ s′

X Y
a′ p ′ b′,l′cc ′,k ′ t ′ d ′,j ′ e′,i ′ f ′,h′ g ′
°
60

j
k i
H
l h
X1 p
Ø 60

a g
p1′ q

r
b f
q1′
s
c e
t d
r1′ 20
s 1′
t 1′
T
Y1
Fig. 10.27

Construction: Fig. 10.27

1. Draw a circle adgj to represent the top view. Divide it into 12 equal parts and project to obtain
a′g′o′ as the front view.
 Sections of Solids 10.27

2. Draw H.T. at 60º to XY and tangent to an arc with centre o and 20 mm radius.
3. Let H.T. cut the top view at p, q, r, s and t. Project these points to get p′, q′, r′, s′ and t ′. Join
p′q′r′s′t ′ and hatch the enclosed portion.
4. Draw X1Y1 parallel to H.T. Project points m, n, p, q and r on X1Y1. Locate points p1′, q1′, r1′, s1′ and t1′
on the projectors such that their distances from X1Y1 are equal to distances of points p′, q′, r′, s′ and t ′
from XY. Join p1′q1′r1′s1′t1′ and hatch the enclosed portion to represent the true shape of the section.

10.8 SECTIONS OF SOLIDS BY A PROFILE PLANE

Example 10.23 (Fig. 10.28)

A square prism having base with 40 mm sides and 60 mm long axis, rests on its base on the
H.P. such that one of its rectangular faces is inclined at 30º to the V.P. It is cut by a section
plane perpendicular to both the H.P. and the V.P., and passes through one of the vertical
edges. Draw its front view, top view and sectional side view.

A
X1
1′ 4′ q ′ 2′ 3′ 4″ 3″ 1″ q ″ 2″

60

X Y
a′ d ′ p′ b′ c′ d″ c″ a″ p″ b″
30°

d,4
40

c,3

a,1

p,q

b,2
A Y1
Fig. 10.28

Construction: Fig. 10.28

1. Draw a square abcd keeping cd at 30º to XY. This represents the top view. Project the corners and
obtain a′c′3′1′ as the front view. Also, obtain d″b″2″4'' as the side view.
10.28 Engineering Graphics

2. Draw line AA perpendicular to XY and passing through d-4. This represents both the V.T. and the
H.T. of the cutting plane.
3. Let AA cut the edges in the top view at p and q. Transfer points p and q in the side view to meet
the corresponding edges a″b″ and 1″2″ at points p″ and q″. Join d″p″q″1″ and hatch the enclosed
portion. As the section plane is parallel to the profile plane, d″p″q″1″ represents the true shape of
the section.

Note: When a solid is cut by a profile plane the true shape of the section is seen in the side view.

Example 10.24 (Fig. 10.29)

A pentagonal pyramid having a base with 40 mm sides and 70 mm long axis is resting on the
H.P. on an edge of its base such that axis is inclined at 45º to the H.P. and parallel to the V.P.
It is cut in such manner that H.T. and V.T. of the section plane are perpendicular to the XY
and pass through the edge on which the pyramid is resting. Draw the front view, top view and
sectional side view.

Fig. 10.29

Construction: Fig. 10.29

1. Draw a pentagon abcde keeping ab perpendicular to XY and join the corners with centroid o. This
represents the top view. Project the corners and obtain a′d ′o′ as the front view.
2. Reproduce the front view such that a′b′ is on XY and axis o′o1′ is inclined at 45º to XY. Project the
front view to meet horizontal lines from the top view of the first stage and obtain obcdea as the
new top view.
3. Also, obtain the side view by taking projectors from the front and top views.
4. Draw AA perpendicular to the XY passing through a′b′ and ab to represent V.T. and H.T. in the
front and top views respectively.
 Sections of Solids 10.29

5. Let H.T. cut the edges oc at r, od at s and oe at t. Project r, s and t to mark r′, s′ and t ′ in the front
view. Also project r, s and t to meet their respective edges in the side view at points r″, s″ and t″.
Join a″b″r″s″t″ and hatch the enclosed portion.

10.9 MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES

Example 10.25 (Fig. 10.30)

A rectangular block of 66 × 48 × 22 mm dimensions has a rectangular hole of 40 × 20 mm cut
centrally through it. It rests on its base on H.P. A section plane perpendicular to V.P. and in-
clined at 45º to H.P. passes through the top end of the axis in front view. Draw its front view,
sectional top view and true shape of the section. [RGPV Feb. 2007]
r1

s1

q1 t1
w1
u1
v1 Y1

p1 T
t ′,u ′
1′,2′ 5′,6′ 7′,8′ 3′,4′
r ′,s′
22

X1 v ′,w ′
45°

X Y
a′,b′ p′ q ′ e′,f ′ g′,h′ c′,d ′
V
p u d,4
a,1

v
e,5 t h,8
48
20

f,6 s g,7
w

b,2 q r c,3
40
66

Fig. 10.30

Construction: Fig. 10.30

Assumption: Solid rests on the H.P. with a side of the base parallel to the V.P.

1. Draw two concentric rectangles abcd and efgh keeping longer side parallel to XY. This represents
the top view. Project the corners and obtain b′c′3′1′ as the front view.
10.30 Engineering Graphics

2. Draw V.T. at 45º to XY bisecting the top edge.

3. Let V.T. cut the edges a′d ′ at p′, b′c′ at q′, 2′3′ at r′, 6′7′ at s′, 5′8′ at t ′, 1′4′ at u′, e′5′ at v′ and f ′6′
at w′. Project points p′, q′, r′, s′, t ′, u′, v′ and w′ to meet their respective edges at points p, q, r, s, t,
u, v and w. Join pqrswvtu and hatch the enclosed portion.
4. Draw X1Y1 parallel to the V.T. Project points p′, q′, r′, s′, t ′, u′, v′ and w′ on X1Y1. Locate points p1,
q1, r1, s1, t1, u1, v1 and w1 on the projectors such that their distances from X1Y1 is equal to distance
of points p, q, r, s, t, u, v and w from XY respectively. Join p1q1r1s1w1v1t1u1 and hatch to represent
the true shape of the section.

Example 10.26 (Fig. 10.31)

A cylinder of 60 mm base diameter and 70 mm long axis is resting on its base in the H.P. It is
cut by two auxiliary inclined planes which make angles of 60º and 45º with the H.P. passing
through the top end of the axis. Draw its sectional top view and true shape of the section.

70
f

Fig. 10.31

Construction: Fig. 10.31

1. Draw a circle adgj as the top view. Project and obtain a′g′7′1′ as the front view.
 Sections of Solids 10.31

2. Draw V1T1 and V2T2 inclined at 60º and 45º with XY respectively and passing through the top end
of the axis.
3. As the cutting planes cut all the generators. Hatch the circle in the top view to represent the sec-
tional top view. It may be noted that a line 4-10 will be visible in the top view.
4. Draw X1Y1 parallel to V1T1 and project points 10′, m′, n′, o′, p′, q′ and 4′ on X1Y1. Locate 101, m1,
n1, o1, p1, q1 and 41 on the projectors such that their distances from X1Y1 are equal to distances of
points 4, m, n, o, p, q and 10 from XY. Join 101m1n1o1p1q141.
5. Draw X2Y2 parallel to V2T2. Project points 4′, r′, s′, t ′, u′, v′ and 10′ on X1Y1 . Locate 42, r2, s2, t2, u2,
v2 and 102 on these projectors such that their distances from X2Y2 are equal to distances of points
4, r, s, t, u, v and 10 respectively from XY. Join 42r2s2t2u2v2102.

Example 10.27 (Fig. 10.32)

A pentagonal prism of 25 mm base and 60 mm height has an edge of its base on the H.P. and
the axis parallel to the V.P. and inclined at 60º to the H.P. A section plane having its H.T. per-
pendicular to XY Y and the V.T. inclined at 60º to XY and passing through the highest corner
cuts the prism. Draw the sectional top view and true shape of the section. [RGPV Feb. 2008]
p1
X1 q1

t1 T.S.
T. S.
1′
p′
2′,5′ r1
1′ 2′,5′o 1′ 3′,4′ o 1′
q ′,t ′ 3′,4′ s1

Y1
r ′,s'
60

a′
T
60

b′,e′
°
°

60

o 2′
X Y
a′ b′,e′ o 2′ c′,d ′ c ′,d ′
e,5 e t 5
d,4 d
4
s

a,1 a 1
o1,o2 p

r
3
25

c,3 c

b,2 b q 2

Fig. 10.32
10.32 Engineering Graphics

Construction: Fig. 10.32

1. Draw a pentagon abcde keeping cd perpendicular to XY. This represents the top view. Project the
corners and obtain a′d ′4′1′ as its front view.
2. Reproduce the front view of the first stage keeping c′d ′ on XY and o1′o2′ inclined at 60º to it. Project this
front view to meet the horizontal lines from the top view of the first stage and obtain the new top view.
3. Draw V.T. inclined at 60º to XY passing through the highest corner 1′.
4. V.T. cuts the edges a′1′ at p′, b′2′ at q′, c′3′ at r′, d ′4′ at s′ and e′5′ at t ′. Project points p′, q′, r′, s′
and t ′ to meet their corresponding edges a1, b2, c3, d4 and e5 at points p, q, r, s and t. Join pqrst
and hatch the enclosed portion.
5. Draw X1Y1 parallel to V.T. Project points p′, q′, r′, s′ and t ′ on X1Y1. Locate points p1, q1, r1, s1 and
t1 on these projectors such that their distance from X1Y1 line are equal to distance of points p, q, r,
s and t from XY. Join p1q1r1s1t1 and hatch the enclosed portion.

Example 10.28 (Fig. 10.33)

A hexagonal prism having a base with 30 mm sides and 70 mm long axis, is resting on a face
on the ground with axis parallel to the V.P. It is cut by an A.V.P. which makes an angle of
45º with the V.P. and passes through a point 25 mm on the axis from one of its ends. Draw its
sectional front view and obtain true shape of the section.
HEX30
X

Fig. 10.33

Construction: Fig. 10.33

1. Draw a hexagon a″b″c″d″e″f″ keeping b″c″ on XY to represent the side view. Project the corners
to get b′2′5′e′ as the front view and a14d as the top view.
2. Mark point o on the axis o1o2 25 mm from o2. Draw H.T. inclined at 45º to XY passing through a
point o.
 Sections of Solids 10.33

3. H.T. cuts the edges a1 at p, b2 at q, c3 at r, 3-4 at s, 4-5 at t, e5 at u and f6 at v. Project p, q, r, u

and v to points p′, q′, r′, u′ and v′ respectively in the front view.
4. Points s′ and t ′ cannot be obtained directly by projecting from the top view. Project s and t in the
side view as s″ and t″. Draw horizontal lines from s″ and t″ to meet 3′4′ at s′ and 4′5′ at t ′. Join
p′q′r′s′t ′u′v′ and hatch the enclosed portion.
5. Draw X1Y1 parallel to H.T. Project p, q, r, s, t, u and v on X1Y1. Locate p1′, q1′, r1′, s1′, t1′, u1′ and v1′,
etc., on the projectors such that their distances from X1Y1 are equal to distance of points p′, q′, r′,
s′, t ′, u′ and v′ from XY. Join p1′q1′r1′s1′t1′u1′v1′ and hatch the enclosed portion.

xample 10.29 (Fig. 10.34)

A cylinder with 50 mm base diameter and 80 mm long axis, is lying on a generator on the H.P.
with its axis parallel to the V.P. It is cut by an A.I.P. inclined at 30º to the H.P. and passes
through a point on the axis 30 mm from one of its ends. Draw its sectional top view and obtain
true shape of the section.

X
f

80
Y
Fig. 10.34

Construction: Fig. 10.34

1. Draw a circle a″d″g″j″ touching the reference line to represent the side view. Project the side view
and obtain d ′4′10′j′ as its front view and a-1-7-g as the top view.
2. Mark a point on the axis o1′o2′ 30 mm from o1′. Draw V.T. inclined at 45º to XY passing through point o1′.
3. Sectional top view: Let V.T. cut the edges in the front view as j′10′ at m′, a′1′ at p′, 1′4′ at r′, 4′7′
at s′, g′7′ at u′. Project m′, p′ and u′ to meet their corresponding projectors at points m, p and u.
10.34 Engineering Graphics

4. Points r′ and s′ cannot be projected directly. For this project r′ and s′ to meet at points r″ and s″
in the side view. Project r″ and s″ perpendicular on XY and then rotate them through 90º and then
draw horizontal lines from them such that they meet 1-4 at r and 4-7 at s. Join mprsu and hatch the
enclosed portion.
5. Draw a line X1Y1 parallel to V.T. Project points m′, p′, r′, s′ and u′ on X1Y1. Locate points m1, p1, r1,
s1, u1 on the projectors such that their distances from X1Y1 are equal to the distances of m, p, r, s, u
from XY. Join m1p1r1s1u1 and hatch the enclosed portion by it.

xample 10.30 (Fig. 10.35)

A cylinder of 50 mm diameter and 70 mm long is resting on H.P. with its axis inclined at 30º
to H.P. and parallel to V.P. A section plane inclined at 45º to V.P. passes through the axis at
25 mm from one end of it. Draw the projections of the cut solid. Also obtain the true shape of
the section. [RGPV Feb. 2011]

1′p′
q′ 2′,12′
1 2 12 3 ,11 4 ,10 5′,9′ 6′ ′ 7′
3′ 11′
r
2′ 4′,10′
z′
s′ 5′,9′
a′
′ 6 ,8′
b ′,l
70

7′
c′ ′ t′
′
d ′,j ′
o1
u′ w′
′,i ′ v
X f′ ′ Y
a′ ′ l′ c ′ k′ d′ j ′ e i ′ f ′ h′g H
j,10 j
k k
9
l
p x1
g,7 a o q,w 1 o2
a 7
o
r,v
b,2 b f 2
,5 c e 3 5
c,3
d d t 4
x1′ ′
w′
T
z1′
v′

u′
Y
p1′
t1′
q1
s1 r′

Fig. 10.35
 Sections of Solids 10.35

Construction: Fig. 10.35

1. Draw a circle adgj to represent the top view. Divide it into 12 equal parts and project to obtain
a′g′7′1′ as the front view.
2. Reproduce the front view of the first stage keeping g′ on XY with axis inclined at 45º to it. Project the
front view to meet the horizontal lines from the top view of the first stage and obtain the new top view.
3. Mark point o′ on the axis o1′o2′ 25 mm from o2′. Project it to meet o1o2 at point o. Draw H.T. in-
clined at 45º to XY passing through point o.
4. H.T. cuts 1-2 at p, a1 at q, b2 at r, c3 at s, d4 at t, e5 at u, f6 at v, g7 at w, h8 at x, i9 at y and 9-10
at z. Project p, q, r, s, t, u, v, w, x, y and z to meet at points p′, q′, r′, s′, t ′, u′, v′, w′, x′, y′ and z′ and
hatch the enclosed portion.
5. Draw X1Y1 parallel to H.T. Project points p, q, r, s, t, u, v, w, x, y and z to X1Y1. Locate points p1′, q1′, r1′, s1′,
t1′, u1′, v1′, w1′, x1′, y1′ and z1′ on the projectors such that their distances from X1Y1 are equal to distances of p′,
q′, r′, s′, t ′, u′, v′, w′, x′, y′ and z′ from XY. Join p1′q1′r1′s1′t1′u1′v1′w1′x1′y1′z1′ and hatch the enclosed portion.

Example 10.31 (Fig. 10.36)

A cone of 60 mm base diameter and 70 mm long axis is resting on its base in the H.P. It is cut by a
horizontal plane and an A.I.P. which makes 45º with the H.P. Both the planes meet at a point on
the axis 40 mm above the base. Draw its sectional top view and obtain true shape of the section.
71
G1 o′
61

51 11
T..S.
T .S

41 21 M′ 8′
T
31 7′
1′,7
70

A1
2′,6′′

5′
40

3′,5
4′
45°

V
X Y
a′ b ′,l ′ c ′,k′ d ′,j ′ e ′,i ′ f ′,h′ g ′
j
k i

l 2 1 h
3

4 8
f 60

a o g

5
b 6 7 f

c e
d
Fig. 10.36
10.36 Engineering Graphics

Construction: Fig. 10.36

1. Draw a circle adgj to represent the top view. Divide it into 12 equal parts project to obtain a′g′o′
as the front view.
2. Mark point M′ on the axis 40 mm above the base. Draw VM′ inclined at 45º to XY and M′T parallel
to XY.
3. V.T. cuts the generators o′j′ at 1′, o′k′ at 2′, o′l′ at 3′, o′a′ at 4′, o′b′ at 5′, o′c′ at 6′, o′d ′ at 7′ and
o′g′ at 8′. Project point 8′ to meet at point 8. Draw a semicircle to meet oj and od at points 1 and 7
respectively. Project points 2′, 3′, 4′, 5′ and 6′ to meet at points 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7. Join 1-2-3-4-5-
6-7-8 and hatch the enclosed portion.
4. True shape: Draw A1G1 parallel to the V.T. Project points 1′, 2′, 3′, 4′, 5′, 6′ and 7′ perpendicu-
lar on A1G1 and extend them. Locate points 11, 21, 31, 41, 51, 61 and 71 on the projectors such that
their distance from A1G1 line is equal to distance of points 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7 from line ag. Join
11213141516171 and hatch. 11213141516171 and 1-8-7 represent the true shape.

Example 10.32 (Fig. 10.37)

A pentagonal pyramid of 30 mm base side and 60 mm long axis is on a triangular face in the H.P.
with its axis parallel to the V.P. It is cut by an A.I.P. making an angle of 60º to the H.P. and passing
through the highest point of the base. Draw its sectional top view and true shape of the section.

o' p1
V
p′
a′ T.S.
S. q1
60

b′,e′
q′,tt ′ t1 r1
s1 O
°
60

1
c′,d ′ o′ Y
X c′′,d ′
a′ b′,e′ r ′,s′
e e
t T
d d
s
a a o
o p
r
30

c c q
b b
Fig. 10.37

Construction: Fig. 10.37

1. Draw a pentagon abcde keeping cd perpendicular to XY and join the corners with centroid o. This
represents the top view. Project the corners and obtain a′d ′o′ as its front view.
2. Reproduce the front view keeping c′d ′o′ on XY. Project it to meet the horizontal lines from the top
view of the first stage and obtain the new top view.
 Sections of Solids 10.37

3. Draw V.T. inclined at 60º to XY passing through a′.

4. Let V.T. cut the edges b′o′ at q′, c′o′ at r′, d ′o′ at s′ and e′o′ at t ′. Project q′, r′, s′ and t ′ to meet bo,
co, do and eo at points q, r, s and t. Join pqrst and hatch the enclosed portion.
5. Draw X1Y1 parallel to V.T. Project points p′, q′, r′, s′ and t ′ on X1Y1. Locate p1, q1, r1, s1 and t1 on
the projectors such that their distances from X1Y1 line are equal to distances of points p, q, r, s and
t from XY. Join p1q1r1s1t1 and hatch the enclosed portion.

Example 10.33 (Fig. 10.38)

A cone base of 60 mm diameter and 60 mm long axis is lying on the ground on one of its generators
with axis parallel to the V.P. A vertical section plane parallel to the generator which is tangent to
the ellipse in the top view cuts the cone bisecting the axis and removing a portion containing the
apex. Draw its sectional front view and true shape of the section. [RGPV June 2003]

o
a′
y′
b′ l′

c′ k′ x′
60

d j′

′
e′,i ′
p′ ′
u
q t′
f ′h′ o′
X Y
a′ b ,l′ c′ k ′ d ,j′ e′ i f ′ h′g g′ r′
j j
k i i k

T
l h
u
w
g g Y
f 60

a o1 a rx o
y
′
f f b r1 s u1′
b
p v′
c e e c w′
d ′
d
H T.

X p1′ x′

y1

ig. 10.38
10.38 Engineering Graphics

Construction: Fig. 10.38

1. Draw a circle adgj to represent the top view. Divide it into 12 equal parts and project to obtain
a′g′o′ as the front view.
2. Reproduce the front view keeping the generator g′o′ on XY. Project the front view to meet horizon-
tal lines from the top view of the first stage and obtain the new top view.
3. Draw the section plane H.T. parallel to o′d ′ bisecting the axis oo1.
4. Let the section plane cut the base at points p and y while the generators of, og, oh, oi, oj, ok, ol, oa
at points q, r, s, t, u, v, w and x. Project points q, r, s, t, u, v, w and x to meet at points p′, q′, r′, s′,
t ′, u′, v′, w′, x′ and y′. Join p′q′r′s′t ′u′v′w′x′y′ and hatch the enclosed portion.
5. Draw X1Y1 parallel to H.T. Project points p, q, r, s, t, u, v, w, x and y to X1Y1. Locate points p1′, q1′,
r1′, s1′, t1′, u1′, v1′, w1′, x1′ and y1′ on the projectors such that their distances from X1Y1 are equal to
distances of p′, q′, r′, s′, t ′, u′, v′, w′, x′ and y′ from XY. Join p1′q1′r1′s1′t1′u1′v1′w1′x1′y1′ and hatch
the enclosed portion.

Example 10.34 (Fig. 10.39)

A pentagonal pyramid of 30 mm base side and 60 mm long axis is on a triangular face in the H.P.
with its axis parallel to the V.P. It is cut by a vertical section plane making an angle of 60º to the
V.P. and passing through the centre of the base. Draw its sectional front view and obtain true
shape of the section retaining the apex.
o′

d′
s′
60

r′ c′,e′

a′,b′
X Y
a′′,b′ c ′,e′ d′ o′ q′′ p′
60

e e T
°

a a
p Y1
p1′
d o d
30

o
s o1
q
b
b q1′
r
c c
H
s1′
X1 r1′

Fig. 10.39

Construction: Fig. 10.39

1. Draw a pentagon abcde keeping ab perpendicular to XY and join the corners with centroid o. This
represents the top view. Project the corners and obtain a′d ′o′ as its front view.
 Sections of Solids 10.39

2. Reproduce the front view keepng o′a′b′ on XY. Project it to meet the horizontal lines from the top
view of the first stage and obtain the new top view.
3. Draw H.T. inclined at 60º to XY passing through the centre of the base o1.
4. Let H.T. cut the edges ab at p, ob at q, oc at r and cd at s. Project points p, q, r and s to meet their
corresponding edges a′b′, o′b′, o′c′ and c′d ′ at points p′, q′, r′ and s′. Join p′q′r′s′ and hatch the
enclosed portion.
5. Draw X1Y1 parallel to H.T. Project points p, q, r and s on X1Y1. Locate points p1′, q1′, r1′ and s1′ on
the projectors such that their distances from X1Y1 are equal to distances of points p′, q′, r′ and s′
from XY. Join p1′q1′r1′s1′ and hatch the enclosed portion.

Example 10.35 (Fig. 10.40)

A right regular hexagonal pyramid (30 mm base edge ë 75 mm long axis) has one of its slant edges
in H.P. and the vertical plane containing this edge and axis is inclined at 30º to the V.P. Draw the
projection when apex is 20 mm in front of V.P. It is now cut by a section plane whose H.T. makes
an angle of 60º with the reference line. Draw sectional view and true shape of section when the
section plane bisects the axis. [RGPV Dec. 2008]
o

a′ a′

f′ ′
b′f ′
′ t′

c′,e′ e′ p′ s

o
X Y
a′ b′,f ′ c′ e′ d ′ d′ o′ d′ q′

20
f e e f T
s o
f Y
r
e qt r′
a o d d a o s1′
′
a

d u t1′
b c c b
30 b
p
c
H
p1′ u1′

ig. 10.40

Construction: Fig. 10.40

1. Draw a hexagon abcdef keeping ef parallel to XY and join the corners with centroid o. This repre-
sents the top view. Project the corners and obtain a′d ′o′ as its front view.
10.40 Engineering Graphics

2. Reproduce the front view keepng o′d ′ on XY. Project the front view to meet the horizontal lines
from the top view of the first stage and obtain the new top view.
3. Reproduce the top view of the second stage keeping od at 30º to XY. Project this top view to meet
the horizontal lines from the front view of the second stage and obtain the new front view.
4. Draw H.T. inclined at 60º to XY bisecting the axis oo1. (It may be noted that there are two possible
ways of drawing H.T. One of them is shown here.)
5. Let H.T. cut the edges cd at p, od at q, oe at r, of at s, oa at t and ab at u. Project points p, q, r, s, t
and u to meet their corresponding edges at points p′, q′, r′, s′, t ′ and u′. Join p′q′r′s′t ′u′ and hatch
the enclosed portion.
6. Draw X1Y1 parallel to H.T. Project points p, q, r, s, t and u on X1Y1. Locate points p1′, q1′, r1′, s1′, t1′
and u1′ on the projectors such that their distances from X1Y1 are equal to distances of points p′, q′,
r′, s′, t ′ and u′ from XY. Join p1′q1′r1′s1′t1′u1′ and hatch the enclosed portion.

EXERCISE 10

1. A triangular prism having a base of 50 mm sides and 80 mm long axis, is lying on one of its rect-
angular faces in the H.P. with its axis perpendicular to the V.P. It is cut by a section plane parallel
to and 20 mm above the H.P. Draw its front view and sectional top view.
2. A pentagonal pyramid having a base of 30 mm sides and 60 mm long axis, is resting on a triangu-
lar face in the H.P. with its axis parallel to the V.P. It is cut by a horizontal section plane passing
through the centroid of the pyramid. Draw its projections.
3. A cube of 35 mm long edge is resting on H.P. on one of its faces with a vertical face inclined at
30º to the V.P. It is cut by a section plane parallel to V.P. and 9 mm away from the axis. Draw its
sectional front view and top view. [RGPV April 2009]
4. A pentagonal prism having 30 mm base sides and 60 mm long axis, lies on one of its rectangular
faces on the H.P. with its axis inclined at 45º to the V.P. A vertical section plane parallel to the
V.P. cuts the prism at a distance of 20 mm from one of the end faces. Draw its sectional front view
and top view.
5. A pentagonal pyramid having 30 mm base side and 70 mm long axis, is resting on its base on the
H.P. with a side of base parallel to the V.P. and nearer to it. It is cut by a section plane parallel
to the V.P. and 12 mm in front of the axis of the pyramid. Draw its sectional front view and top
view.
6. A square prism having 40 mm base sides and 60 mm long axis, rests on its base on the H.P. such
that one of the vertical faces makes an angle of 30º with the V.P. A section plane perpendicular to
the V.P., inclined at 45º to the H.P. and passing through the axis at a point 20 mm from its top end,
cuts the prism. Draw its front view, sectional top view and true shape of section.
7. A cylinder of 40 mm diameter and 60 mm height and having its axis vertical, is cut by a section
plane perpendicular to V.P. and inclined at 45º to the H.P. and intersecting the axis 32 mm above
the base. Draw its front view, sectional top view and true shape of the section.
[RGPV June 2007]
 Sections of Solids 10.41

8. A hexagonal pyramid of 30 mm side of base and 60 mm long axis is resting on its base on H.P.
with an edge of the base perpendicular to the V.P. It is cut by a section plane inclined at 30º to
the H.P. and passing through the axis at 20 mm from the base. Draw the sectional view, top view
and true shape of the section. [RGPV Feb. 2010]
9. A pentagonal pyramid having 30 mm base sides and 70 mm long axis, is resting on its base in
the H.P. with an edge of the base parallel to the V.P. It is cut by a section plane perpendicular to
the V.P, inclined at 60º to the H.P. and bisecting the axis. Draw its front view and sectional top
view and true shape of the section.
10. A right regular square pyramid, 35 mm edge of base and 50 mm height rests on its base on H.P.
with all the base edges equally inclined to the V.P. A section plane perpendicular to the V.P. and
inclined to the H.P. at 35º, cuts the pyramid bisecting its axis. Draw the front view, sectional top
view and true shape of the section of the truncated pyramid.
[RGPV Sep. 2009]
11. A cone base of 75 mm diameter and 80 mm long axis is resting on its base on the H.P. It is cut
by a section plane perpendicular to V.P. and inclined at 45º to the H.P. and cutting axis at a point
35 mm from the apex. Draw its front view, sectional top view and true shape of the section.
[RGPV Feb. 2007]
12. A cone having a 60 mm base diameter and 70 mm long axis, is resting on its base on the H.P. It
is cut by an A.I.P. inclined at 45º to the H.P. and passes through a point on the axis, 20 mm above
the base. Draw its sectional top view and obtain true shape of the section.
13. A hexagonal prism having a 30 mm base sides and 70 mm long axis has an edge of its base on
the H.P. The axis parallel is to the V.P. and inclined at 45º to the H.P. It is cut by an A.V.P. in-
clined at 45º to the V.P. and passing through a point on the axis, 25 mm from the top end. Draw
its sectional front view and obtain true shape of the section.
14. A pentagonal pyramid having 30 mm base sides and 70 mm long axis, is on a triangular face in
the H.P. with its axis parallel to the V.P. It is cut by a plane whose H.T. makes an angle of 30º
with the reference line and bisects the axis such that the apex is removed. Draw its sectional front
view and obtain true shape of the section.
15. A square prism with 45 mm edge of base and 90 mm long axis has its axis parallel to both H.P.
and V.P. The lateral surfaces are equally inclined to H.P. It is cut by a vertical section plane
inclined at 60º to the V.P. and passing through the axis at 65 mm from one end. Draw the projec-
tions of the solid. Also draw true shape of section. [RGPV Dec. 2010]
16. A hexagonal pyramid having 30 mm base sides and 72 mm long axis, is resting on an edge in
the H.P. The axis is parallel to both H.P. and V.P. A section plane whose V.T. bisects the axis, is
inclined at 30º to the reference line. Draw the sectional front view and true shape of the section,
retaining the portion containing the apex.
17. A hexagonal pyramid having 30 mm base sides and 72 mm long axis, is resting on an edge in the
H.P. The axis is parallel to both H.P. and V.P. A vertical section plane whose H.T. bisects the
axis, is inclined at 30º to the V.P. Draw the sectional front view and true shape of the section,
removing the portion containing the apex.
18. A thin cylindrical glass vessel having 50 mm base diameter and 75 mm height, is resting on the
H.P. contains water up to 45 mm from its base. The vessel is then tilted so that water is just at the
point of tricking out. Draw the projections of the glass in its tilted position, showing clearly the
water surface.
10.42 Engineering Graphics

19. A square pyramid of 50 mm base side and 75 mm long axis, rests on one of its triangular faces
on the ground. The top view of the axis makes an angle of 30º with the V.P. It is cut by a hori-
zontal section plane, the V.T. of which intersects the axis at a point 20 mm from the base. Draw
its front view and sectional top view.

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. State the relationship of an auxiliary vertical plane with the reference planes.
2. Define an auxiliary inclined plane, auxiliary vertical plane and a profile plane.
3. How can the true shape of section be obtained when a solid is cut by an AIP?
4. How can the true shape of section be obtained when a solid is cut by AVP?
5. A solid is cut by a profile plane. Which orthographic view will show the true shape of section?
6. How would you locate the section plane which cuts a cone to get an isosceles triangle as true shape
of section?
7. How would you locate the section plane which cuts a square pyramid to get a trapezium as true
shape of section?
8. How would you locate the section plane which cuts a cube to get an equilateral triangle of largest
possible side as true shape of section?

MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS

Choose the most appropriate answer out of the given alternatives:

i) Name the view that provides the internal features of an object?
(a) sectional view (b) oblique view (c) auxiliary view (d) pictorial view
ii) A cube is resting on a face in the H.P. with vertical faces equally inclined to the V.P. It is cut by
an A.I.P. The true shape of section view is
(a) triangle (b) rhombus (c) hexagon (d) any of these
iii) A cone is cut by a section plane parallel to the profile plane. Its true shape of section is seen in
(a) front view (b) top view (c) side view (d) auxiliary view
iv) A square pyramid resting on its base in the H.P. and a side of base parallel to V.P. It is cut by an
A.I.P. Its true shape will be
(a) square (b) rectangle (c) trapezium (d) parallelogram
v) A square pyramid of 50 mm side resting on its base in the H.P. is cut by a horizontal section plane
bisecting its axis. Its true shape of section is
(a) square of 25 mm side (b) trapezium with parallel sides 25 mm & 50 mm
(c) square of 50 mm side (d) triangle of base 50 mm side
 Sections of Solids 10.43

vi) A square pyramid of 45 mm side and 60 mm long axis, resting on its base in the H.P. is cut by
a horizontal section plane passing through a point on the axis 20 mm below the apex. Its true
shape of section is a square of side
(a) 15 mm (b) 30 mm (c) 40 mm (d) 45 mm
vii) A triangular prism is resting on a rectangular face in the H.P. It is cut by a horizontal plane. Its
sectional top view is a/an
(a) Equilateral triangle (b) Isosceles triangle
(c) Rectangle (d) None of these
viii) A cone resting on its base on the H.P. cut by a section plane parallel to V.P. has its sectional
front view as
(a) ellipse (b) parabola (c) hyperbola (d) semicircle
ix) A cube is resting on a face in the H.P. with vertical faces equally inclined to the V.P. It is cut
by an A.I.P. passing through the solid diagonal. The true shape of the section view is
(a) square (b) rectangle (c) hexagon (d) rhombus
x) A cylinder of 50 mm diameter and 120 mm long axis is lying on its generator in H.P. It is cut
by a vertical section plane to get largest ellipse as the true shape of section. The major axis of
this ellipse will be
(a) 50 mm (b) between 50 mm and 120 mm
(c) 120 mm (d) 130 mm
xi) A cylinder of 60 mm diameter and 80 mm long axis is lying on its generator in H.P. It is cut by a
section plane to get an ellipse as the true shape of section. The minor axis of this ellipse will be
(a) 60 mm (b) 80 mm (c) 100 mm (d) none of these
xii) If a polyhedron is cut by any section plane, the true shape of section is a closed figure made up
of
(a) straight lines (b) curves
(c) combination of lines and curves (d) any of these

Answers
(i) a (ii) d (iii) c (iv) c (v) a (vi) a (vii) c (viii) c (ix) d (x) d (xi) a (xii) a
 11

Develoopment
of Su
urfaces

� Introduction
� Classification of Surfaces
� Methods of Development
� Development of Prism
� Development of Cylinder
� Development of Cone
� Development of Pyramid
� Anti-development
11.2 Engineering Graphics

11.1 INTRODUCTION

In engineering practice, a large number of objects like funnel, bucket, hopper, chimney, duct of air
conditioner, boiler shell, storage tank and tray, etc., are made of metal sheets. The fabrication of these
objects can be planned in an economic way if the accurate shape and size of metal sheet is known. This
chapter deals with proper layout planning of the surface of the object on a single plane called the devel-
opment of surfaces.

11.2 CLASSIFICATION OF SURFACES

Surfaces of various geometrical objects may be classified as:

1. Plane surfaces: Surfaces of objects like prisms, pyramids, cubes and polyhedra are plane surfaces.
2. Singly curved surfaces: Surfaces of object like cylinders and cones are singly curved surfaces.
3. Doubly curved surfaces: Surfaces of spheres, paraboloids, ellipsoids, hyperboloids are doubly
curved surfaces.

11.3 METHODS OF DEVELOPMENT

The methods of development may be classified as:

1. Parallel-line method: This method is adopted in the development of prisms and cylinders.
2. Radial-line method: This method is adopted in the development of pyramids and cones.
3. Triangulation method: This method is generally applied for the development of transition pieces
and oblique solids.
4. Approximation method: Spherical and other doubly curved surfaces are developed by this method.

Note 1: Since the development is the true representation of the surface of an object, it is obtained by
taking true length only.

Note 2: Since it is not possible to spread the doubly curved surface on any plane, one has to be con-
tented by its approximate development only.

11.4 DEVELOPMENT OF PRISM

Prisms are developed by parallel-line method. In this method, first of all, the front view and top view of
the prism are drawn. Two parallel lines called stretch-out lines are drawn from the ends of the prism in
a direction perpendicular to the axis. The length of these lines is same as the perimeter of the base of the
prism. The faces of the prism are marked between the stretched outlines, which represent the develop-
ment of the lateral surface.
 Development of Surfaces 11.3

Example 11.1 (Fig. 11.1)

A square prism of 40 mm side of base and 80 mm long axis is resting on its base on H.P. such
that a rectangular face of it is parallel to V.P. Draw the development of the prism.
[RGPV Feb. 2010]

1 ′,2′ 3 ′,4 ′ 1 2 3 4 1
80

a′, b ′ c ′,d′ A B C D A
a,1 d,4 160
40

b,2 c,3
Fig. 11.1

Visualisation: The lateral surface of the given prism comprises of four rectangles of 80 mm × 40 mm
sides.

Construction: Fig. 11.1

1. Draw a square abcd keeping add parallel to XY Y to represent the top view. Project all the points to
obtain rectangle a′dd ′4′1′ as the front view.
2. Stretch out lines 1-1 and A-A- from the front view, equal to the perimeter of the base.
3. Divide 1-1 and A-A- in four equal parts and name their intermediate points as 2, 3, 4 and B, C, D
respectively. Join vertical edges 1A, 2B, 3C and 4D in the development.

Note 1: In development of the lateral surfaces of the closed objects, the first and the last edge have
same name.

Note 2: Usually, development of the lateral surfaces of the object is drawn and the ends are omitted
from the development. They can easily be added whenever required.
11.4 Engineering Graphics

Example 11.2 (Fig. 11.2)

Draw the development of the surfaces of the part P of the cube whose front view is shown in
Fig. 11.2(a). [RGPV June 2007, April 2009]

a ′,d ′ 2 ′,3 ′ b ′,c ′ D 3

C

1 ′,4 ′ P

a ′,d ′ 2 ′,3 ′ b ′,c ′ A 2 B C 3 D A

e ′,h ′ f ′,g ′
1 ′,4 ′ P 1 4 1
Fig. 11.2(a)

e ′,h ′ f ′,g ′ E F G H E

H G

Fig. 11.2(b)

Construction: Fig. 11.2(b)

1. Redraw Fig. 11.2(a) considering arbitrary length for the sides of the cube (say 40 mm), as the front
view.
2. Stretch out lines A-A
- and E-E from the front view, equal to 4 times the length of the side.
3. Divide A-A- and E-E in four equal parts and name their intermediate points as B, C, D and F, G, H
respectively. Join AE, BF, CG and DH. Attach square EFGH H and rectangle BC32 to add the lower
and upper bases.
4. Draw horizontal lines from points 1′ to meet edges AE E and DH at points 1 and 4 respectively.
5. Also mark point 2 on AB and 3 on CD such that A2 = a′2′ and C3 = c′3′. Also, mark point 3 on CD
in the top square.
6. Join lines 1-2, 2-3, 3-4 and 4-1 and complete the development as shown.
7. Darken the portion of the development which remains, after truncating the prism.

Example 11.3 (Fig. 11.3)

A pentagonal prism, having a base with a 30 mm side and a 70 mm long axis, is resting
on its base on the H.P. such that one of the rectangular faces is parallel to the V.P. It is
cut by an auxiliary inclined plane whose V.T. is inclined at 45º with the reference line and
passes through the mid-point of the axis. Draw the development of the lateral surface of the
truncated prism.
 Development of Surfaces 11.5

1′ 5 ′ 2′ 4′ 3′ 1 2 3 4 5 1
r′ R
s′ S

q′ Q
70

t′ T
35

p′ P P

a ′ e′′ b′ d′ c′ A B C D E A
e,5
e, d,4 150

a,1 c,3

30
b,2

Fig. 11.3

Construction: Fig. 11.3

1. Draw a pentagon abcde keeping de parallel to XY Y to represent the top view. Project all points to
obtain a′c′3′1′ as the front view.
2. In the front view, draw p′rr ′ as V.T. of the cutting plane at 45º to XY passing through the mid-point
of the axis (point q′ ). Line p′rr ′ cuts the edges a′1′ at point p′, b′2′ at point q′, c′3′ at point r ′, d ′4′
at point s′ and e′5′ at point t ′.
3. Consider the seam along 1-a. Stretch out lines 1-1 and A-A - equal to five times the side of the base.
Divide 1-1 and A-A- in five equal parts and name their intermediate points as 2, 3, 4, 5 and B, C, D,
E respectively. Join 1A, 2B, 3C, 4D and 5E.
4. Draw horizontal lines from points p′, q′, r ′, s′ and t ′ to meet corresponding edges A1, B2, C3,
D4 and E5 at points P, Q, R, S and T respectively. Join each of PQ, QR, RS, ST, TP with straight
lines.
5. Darken the portion of the development which remains after truncating the prism.

Example 11.4 (Fig. 11.4)

A hexagonal prism having base with a 30 mm side and a 70 mm long axis, is resting on its
base on the ground with a side of the base inclined at 45º to the V.P. It is cut by an auxiliary
inclined plane making an angle of 45º with the H.P. and passes through a point 15 mm be-
low the top end of the axis. Obtain the development of the lateral surface of the truncated
prism.
11.6 Engineering Graphics

1′ 6′ 2′ 5′r ′,s ′3′ 4′ 1 2 R 3 4 S 5 6 1

t′ T
15

q′ Q
4 5°

u′ U
70

p′ P P

a′ f ′ b′ e′ c′ d′ A B C D E F A
45°

e,5 180
f,6 s

d,4

a,1
H
EX

c,3
r
30

b,2
Fig. 11.4

Construction: Fig. 11.4

1. Draw a hexagon abcdeff keeping edd at 45º with XY Y to represent the top view. Project all points to
obtain a′d ′4′1′ as the front view.
2. Draw line p′r ′ as the cutting plane inclined at 45º to XY, 15 mm below the top end of the axis. Line
p′r ′ cuts a′1′ at p′, b′2′ at q′, 2′ 3′ at, e′5′ at t ′, f ′6′ at u′, 2′3′ at r ′ and 4′5′ at s′.
3. Consider seam at 1-a. Stretch out lines 1-1 and A-A - from the front view equal to the perimeter
of the base. Divide 1-1 and A-A - in six equal parts and name their intermediate points as 2, 3,
4, 5, 6 and B, C, D, E, F respectively. Join vertical edges 1A, 2B, 3C, 4D, 5E and 6F in the
development.
4. Draw horizontal lines from points p′, q′, t ′ and u′ to meet their corresponding edges A1, B2, E5,
F6 at points P, Q, T, U, respectively.
5. To locate r ′ and s′ on the development project r ′s′ to meet the top view at r and s respectively.
Mark points R and S such that 2R (in the development) = 2r (in the top view), and distance 3S (in
the development) = 3s (in the top view).
6. Join all the points with straight lines as shown. Dark the portion of the development which remains
after truncating the prism.
 Development of Surfaces 11.7

Example 11.5 (Fig. 11.5)

Develop the lateral surface of a right regular hexagonal prism of 35 mm base side and
75 mm height, kept vertically with a base side perpendicular to V.P. and having a cylindrical
hole of 40 mm diameter drilled centrally with the axis of hole being perpendicular to V.P.
[RGPV Dec. 2008]

10′ ′ 10 10
11′
12′ 8′ 12
7′ 1 7 7 1
75

1′

′ ′ 2
3′ ′ 5 3
4′ 4 4

X Y
a b′ ′,f d ′,e A B E F A
10
11 f 4 9 c3 c5
5 8
3
1
6
7
c2 c6
a e c1 c7
HEX 35

210

d
b
1 67
12 3 5 8
11 c 4 9
10

Fig. 11.5

Construction: Fig. 11.5

1. Draw a hexagon keeping ab perpendicular to XY as the top view. Project all the points to
obtain the front view.
2. Draw a circle in the front view and divide it into 12 equal parts. Project all the points in the top
view.
3. Consider seam at 1-a. Stretch out lines 1-1 and A A equal to the perimeter of the hexagon. Divide
1-1 and A-A in six equal parts and name their intermediate points as 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and B, C D, E, F
respectively. Join 1A 2B, 3C, 4D 5 and 6F.
4. Mark locus lines of 1, 2, 3,…, etc in the development such that their distances from points and
F is equal to distances of points 1, 2, 3,…, etc., from points c and of the top view.
5. Project 1′, 2′, 3′,…, etc., to meet their respective locus lines in the development at points 1, 2, 3,…,
etc. Join them to obtain the required development as shown.
11.8 Engineering Graphics

xample 11.6 (Fig. 11.6)

Figure 11.6(a) shows the front view of a truncated hexagonal prism
with a 30 mm base edge and 90 mm long axis resting on the H.P. such
that an edge of the base is parallel to the V.P. Draw the development
of its lateral surface.

90
HEX30
f 50

ig. 11.6(a)

K K
k
90

H H

r R T R
q U

p b A B V V A
180

b
EX 30

Fig. 11.6(b)

Construction: Fig. 11.6(b)

1. Draw a hexagon keeping parallel to XY to represent the top view. Project all points to
obtain a′d ′4′1′ as the front view.
2. Draw the cutting planes as given in Fig. 11.6(a). Name the point of intersection as h′ i ′, j ′, k l ′,
p′, r ′, s′, t ′ and v′. For semicircle consider some more points q′ and u′.
 Development of Surfaces 11.9

3. Stretch out lines 1-1 and A A and draw 1A, 2B, 3C, 4D 5E and 6F to complete the development
of the uncut prism.
4. Project points q′ and u′ vertically downwards and obtain points q and u in the top view. In the
development draw locus at a distance aq and dt from points A and D respectively.
5. Draw horizontal lines through points h′, i ′, j ′ k , l ′, and p′, q′ ′ s′ t ′, u′ v′ to meet their cor-
responding locus lines or generators and obtain H I J K L and P Q, R S, T U V
obtain the development as shown.

11.5 DEVELOPMENT OF CYLINDER

Cylinders are also developed by parallel-line method in a way similar to the prisms. Here, the length of
stretch line is equal to the circumference of the base circle of the cylinder.

xample 11.7 (Fig. 11.7)

A cylinder of 40 mm diameter of base and 55 mm long axis is resting on its base on H.P. It is
cut by a section plane perpendicular to V.P. and inclined at 45º to H.P. The section plane is
passing through the top end of an extreme generator of the cylinder. Draw the development
of the lateral surface of the cut cylinder. [RGPV June 2008(o), Aug. 2010]

1 2′,l2′ 3′,11′ 4 ,10′ 5 ,9 6 ,8′7′ 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1

u′ U
t T T

s S S
55

r′ R R
Q Q
p P

a ,l′ c ,k′ d ,j′ e ′ f′ g′ A B C D E F G H I J K L A

j 125
k 1 i,9
l ,8

a1 g,7

b,2

c e,5
d
ig. 11.7

Construction: Fig. 11.7

1. Draw a circle to represent the top view and divide it into 12 equal parts. Project all the points
to obtain a′g′7′1′ as the front view.
11.10 Engineering Graphics

2. In the front view, draw a line p 7′ at 45º to XY passing through 7′. This represents the V.T. of the
cutting plane. Let the line p′7′ cut generators a′1′ at p′, b′2′ at q′, c′3′ at r ′, d ′4′ at s′ …, etc.
3. Stretch out lines 1-1 and A A through the front view equal to the perimeter of the cylinder (i.e.
p × 40 = 125 mm). Divide 1-1 and A A into 12 equal parts and join generators A-1, B-2, C-3,
D-4,..., A-1.
4. Draw horizontal lines from points p′ q′, r ′ s′,…, etc., of line to meet their corresponding genera-
tors A1, B2, C3, D4,…, etc., at points P, Q, R, S,…, etc., respectively.
5. Join all the points with a continuous smooth curve.
6. Dark the portion of the development which remains after truncation of the cylinder.

xample 11.8 (Fig. 11.8)

A right circular cylinder with 40 mm diameter of base 60 mm height
is truncated at its two ends by two different section planes as shown in
Fig. 11.8(a). Develop the lateral surface of the truncated cylinder.
[RGPV June 2009]

60
Fig. 11.8(a)

1′ 2′,l2′ 3′,11′ 4′ ′ 5′ ′ 6′,8′ 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1

x′ X X
w′ W W
v V
60

u′ U
t′ T T
s S S
r R R
q Q Q
p′ P P
a b ,l ,k′ d j e′ i f ,h g′ A B C D E F G H I J K L A
j 125
k i,9
l h,8

a,1 g7

b f

c,3 5
d,4
ig. 11.8(b)
 Development of Surfaces 11.11

Construction: Fig. 11.8(b)

1. Draw a circle to represent the top view and divide it into 12 equal parts. Project all the points
to obtain a′g′ 7′1′ as the front view.
2. Draw V.T. of the cutting planes as given in Fig. 11.8(a). Name the point of intersection of the V.T.
with generators as p′, q′, ′, s′, t ′, u′, v′, w′ and x′
3. Stretch out lines 1-1 and A A of length equal to the perimeter of the cylinder. Divide 1-1 and A A
into 12 equal parts and join them.
4. Draw horizontal lines from points p′, q′, r ′ s , t ′, u , v′ w′ and x′ to meet their corresponding gen-
erators in the development at points P, Q, R S, T U V W and X respectively.
5. Join all the points with smooth curves. Dark the portion of the development which remains after
truncation of the cylinder.

Example 11.9 (Fig. 11.9)

Draw the development of truncated cylinder shown in Fig. 11.9(a).
[RGPV Dec. 2005]

75
f 50

Fig. 11.9(a)

1′ ′,l2′ 3′ 1 ′ 4′,10′ 5′ ′ 6′,8′ ′ 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 2 1

75

r R R
q′ s Q S S Q
p t′ P T T P

a b ′ c ′ d ,j′ e f g A B C D E F G H I J K L A
j,10 157
k,11 i,9

l,12 8

a,1 g,7

b,2 f,6

c,3 e,5
d,4

Fig. 11.9(b)
11.12 Engineering Graphics

Construction: Fig. 11.9(b)

1. Draw a circle adgjj to represent the top view and divide it into 12 equal parts. Project all the points
to obtain a′g′7′1′ as the front view.
2. Draw the cutting planes as given in Fig. 11.9(a). Name the point of intersection of the planes with
generators as p′, q′, r ′, etc.
3. Stretch out lines 1-1 and A-A - of length equal to the perimeter of the cylinder. Divide 1-1 and A-A
-
into 12 equal parts and join them.
4. Draw horizontal lines from points p′, q′, r ′, etc., to meet their corresponding generators in the
development at points P, Q, R, etc., respectively.
5. Join all the points with smooth curves. Darken the portion of the development which remains after
truncation of the cylinder.

Example 11.10 (Fig. 11.10)

A square hole of 25 mm side is cut in a cylindrical drum of 50 mm diameter and 70 mm
height. The faces of the hole are inclined at 45º to the H.P. and axis intersects with that of the
drum at right angles. Draw the development of its lateral surface.

e′ f ′,h′ g′ E F G H E

10′ 10
0 10
0
25

11′ 9′ 11 9 9 11
12′ 8′ 12 8 8 12
70

1′ 7′ 1 7 7 1
2′′ 6′ 2 6 6 2
3′ 5′ 3 5 5 3
4′ 4 4

a′′ b′′,d′ c′ A B C D A
12 11 d,h 9 8
3 5
2 6
1 4,10 7

0
a,e f5 c,g

1 4,10 7
2 6
12 3 b,f 5 8
11 9

Fig. 11.10
 Development of Surfaces 11.13

Construction: Fig. 11.10

1. Draw a circle abcd d to represent the top view. Project all the points to obtain a′b′g′e′ as the front
view.
2. Draw a square 1′4′7′10′ such that all the edges are inclined at 45º to XY keeping the centre 35
mm above the XY. On the edges of the square consider some more points as 2′, 3′, 5′, 6′, 8′, 9′,
11′ and 12′.
3. Stretch out lines A-A- and E-E equal to the perimeter of the cylinder. Divide 1-1 and A-A - into 4
equal parts and join all the generators.
4. Project all the points of the square vertically downwards and obtain points 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9,
10, 11 and 12 in the top view.
5. In the development, draw locus corresponding to 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 and 12 such that
A1 = acr a1, A2 = arc a2, A3 = arc a3 and so on.
6. Draw horizontal lines from points 1′, 2′, 3′, 4′, 5′, 6′, 7′, 8′, 9′, 10′, 11′ and 12′ to meet their
corresponding locus lines or generators in the development at points 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11
and 12 respectively.
7. Join all the points with smooth curves. Darken the portion of the development which remains after
truncation of the cylinder.

Note: In the development of cylinder the cutting lines converges to form arc. Therefore, in the devel-
opment 1-4, 4-7, 7-10 and 10-1 are arcs of circles.

11.6 DEVELOPMENT OF A CONE

Development of lateral surface of a cone is obtained by radial-line method. In this method, the develop-
ment is in the form of sector of a circle, the radius of which is equal to the slant height of the cone. The
r
subtended angle q of this sector is calculated by θ = × 360° where r = the radius of the base circle,
R
and R = the slant height of the cone. In an approximate method, subtended angle q can be determined
1
by transferring arc of length, th of the base circle in the top view, twelve times over the sector of the
12
circle in the development.

Example 11.11 (Fig. 11.11)

Draw the development of lateral surface of the cone whose base diameter is 50 mm and axis
is 60 mm long. The cone is resting on H.P. on its base.
11.14 Engineering Graphics

A
L
K

o' O G

E
60

D
Calculation of q
C
B Slant height of cone
X a c ,k d ,j ,h
YA
j R o′ ′ r = 65 mm
k i
l
Subtended angle
a g
r 25
= × 360° = × °= °( .)
b f R 65
c e
d
Fig. 11.11

Construction: Fig. 11.11

1. Draw a circle adgj as the top view and divide it into 12 equal parts. Project all the points and obtain
a′o′g as the front view.
2. The end generators o′a′ and o g′ gives the true length of the generators because their top views are
parallel to XY OA parallel to o′g′.
3. Determine the subtended angle of the development.
4. Draw a sector A O-A with included angle
tors as OB OC, OD …, etc. This is the required development of the cone.

Example 11.12 (Fig. 11.12)

A cone base of 50 mm diameter and 60 mm long axis rests with its base on H.P. A section
plane perpendicular to V.P. and inclined at 45º to H.P. bisects the axis of the cone. Draw the
development of the lateral surface of the remaining portion of the cone. [RGPV Aug. 2010]
 Development of Surfaces 11.15

A
L
P
K
Q
J
R
I
S
H
T
U
138°

o′ O V G
U
T F
v ′v′′ S
u′
t′ E
s′′ t ′′ R
60

s ′′
r′ D
r ′′ Q
q′
30

q ′′ P C
45°

p′ Calculation of q
p ′′ B
X Y
a ′b ′′,ll ′ c ′′,kk ′ d ′′,jj ′ ′ i ′f ′′,h
e′,i ,h ′g ′ A Slant height of cone
j
k i
R o′ g ′ = r 2 + h2 = 252 + 60 2 = 65 mm
l h

Subtended angle
a g
0 o
f5 r 25
θ= × 360° = × 360° = 138° ( .)
b f R 65
c e
d
Fig. 11.12

Construction: Fig. 11.12

1. Draw a circle adgjj as the top view and divide it into 12 equal parts. Project all the points and obtain
a′o′g′ as the front view.
2. Draw p′v′ as V.T. of the cutting plane in the front view such that it is inclined at 45º to XY Y and
passes through the mid-point of the axis. Line p′v′ cut the generators a′o′ at point p′, b′o′ at point
q′, c′o′ at point r ′, d ′o′ at point s′,…, etc.
3. Determine the subtended angle q as 138º. Draw a sector A-O-A - with included angle q. Divide sec-
tor into 12 equal parts and mark the generators as OB, OC, OD,…, etc.
4. Draw the horizontal lines from points p′, q′, r ′,…, etc., to meet OA in the development at points
p″, q″, r″,…, etc. Draw arcs with O as the centre and radii Op″, Oq″, Or″, …, etc., to meet the cor-
responding generators at points P, Q, R,…, etc.
5. Join all the points obtained in the development with smooth curves. Darken the portion of the
development which remains after truncation of the cone.
11.16 Engineering Graphics

xample 11.13 (Fig. 11.13)

A cone with a 50 mm base diameter and 60 mm long axis, rests with its base on the H.P. Draw
the development of its lateral surface when it is cut by an auxiliary inclined plane bisecting
the axis and inclined at 60º to the H.P.
A
L
P
K

I
R
H

o′ O G

F
u u′′
t
s t
s′′ E
r
60

r
Q D
q′
30

q C Calculation of q
P
B
X
a c ,k d ,j e ,i g
Y
A
Slant height of cone
j
k i R o′ ′ r 65 mm
p
l h
Subtended angle
a g r 25
360° = × °= °( .)
R 65
b f
p
c e
d
Fig. 11.13

Construction: Fig. 11.13

1. Draw a circle adgj as the top view and divide it into 12 equal parts. Project all the points and obtain
a′o′g′ as the front view.
2. Draw p′u ′ as V.T. of the cutting plane in the front view such that it is inclined at 60º to XY and
passes through the mid-point of the axis. Line p′u′ cut the generators c′o′ at point q′ d ′o′ at point
r ′, e′o′ at point s′, f ′o′ at point t ′, g′o′ at point u′ and base circle at point p′
3. Determine the subtended angle as 138º. Draw a sector A-O A with included angle
tor into 12 equal parts and mark the generators as OB OC, OD …, etc.
4. Draw the horizontal lines from points of intersection, i.e. q′, r ′, s , t ′ and u′ which meets line OA
in the development at points q″, r″, s″, t and u″, respectively. Draw arcs with O as the centre and
 Development of Surfaces 11.17

radii Oq″, Or″ Os″, Ot and Ou″ to meet the corresponding generators at points Q, R, S, T and U
respectively.
5. Project point p′ vertically downwards to meet the circle in the top view at point p. Locate point P
in the development such that BP LP bp and obtain point P.
6. Join all the points obtained in the development with smooth curves. Darken the portion of the
development which remains after truncation of the cone.

xample 11.14 (Fig. 11.14)

The frustum of a cone of 60 mm base diameter 20 mm top diameter and 50 mm height is resting
on its base in the H.P. It is cut by an A.I.P. inclined at 30º to the H.P., the H.T. of which is tan-
gential to the base circle. Draw the development of the lateral surface of the retained frustum.

A
L
P
K
Q
J
R
I
1 S
f 20 H
T
o′ O U
G
Calculation of q
1′ 1′ 1 F

R E Δa′g′o′ and Δ1′1′o′ are similar

t′ u ′′
D 60 20
50

s Q
r s ∴ = ⇒ ′ = 75 mm
q′ r
P
C − 50
′ q
B
a b ,l c ,k d ,j e ,i ′f ′ g′ A Slant height of cone
j
k i
R o′ ′ r 80. m
l

ubtended angle
f 60

a g

r 30
b f = × 360° = × °= °( .)
e
R 80 8
d
Fig. 11.14

Construction: Fig. 11.14

1. Draw two concentric circles of 60 mm and 20 mm diameter as the top view and divide it into 12
equal parts. Project all the points and obtain a′g′1′1′ as the front view.
2. Draw a′u as V.T. of the cutting plane in the front view such that it is inclined at 30º to XY a′u cut the
generators b′o at point p′ c′o at point q′ ′o at point r ′, e′o at point s′ f ′o at point ′ and g′o at point u′
11.18 Engineering Graphics

3. Determine the subtended angle as 134º. Draw a sector A O A with included angle
tor into 12 equal parts and mark the generators as OB OC, OD,…, etc.
4. Draw the horizontal lines from 1′ to meet OA at point 1. Draw an arc 1-1 with O as the centre and
radius O 1.
5. Draw the horizontal lines from p′, q′, r ′, s′, t ′ and u′ to meet line OA at points p″, q″, r″, s″, t and
u″, respectively. Draw arcs with O as the centre and radii Op″, Oq″, Or″, Os″ Ot″ and Ou″ to meet
the corresponding generators at points P Q R, S, and U
join APQRSTUTSRQPA

xample 11.15 (Fig. 11.15)

Draw the development of the lateral surface of the truncated cone shown in fig. 11.15(a) with
a base of diameter 40 mm. [RGPV June 2009]
A L
10

K
J
40

H
S
Fig. 11.15(a) P
G

V
o O F
10

T
E

p v′ p P
q
D
40

q r
r′ s t s

B
X Y
a b ,l ′ c ′,k ′ d ,j ′ e ,i f ′g A
Calculation of q j
k i

Slant height of cone l h

R o′ ′ r 44. m a g

Subtended angle b f

r 20 c e
360° = × °= °( .) d
R 44 7
Fig. 11.15(b)

Construction: Fig. 11.15(b)

1. Draw a circle adgj as the top view and divide it into 12 equal parts. Project all the points and obtain
a′o′g′ as the front view.
 Development of Surfaces 11.19

2. Draw arc p′v′ as V.T. of the cutting plane in the front view as shown. Line p′v′ cut the generators
a′o′ at point p′ b′o′ at point q′, c′o′ at point r ′, ′o′ at point s′,…, etc.
3. Determine the subtended angle as 161º. Draw a sector A O A with included angle
tor into 12 equal parts and mark the generators as OB OC, OD,…, etc.
4. Draw the horizontal lines from points p′, q′, ′ …, etc., to meet OA in the development at points
p″, q″, r″,…, etc. Draw arcs with O as the centre and radii Op″, Oq″, Or″, …, etc. to meet the cor-
responding generators at points P, Q, R,…, etc.
5. Join all the points obtained in the development with smooth curves. Darken the portion of the
development which remains after truncation of the cone.

xample 11.16 (Fig. 11.16)

A cone of 60 mm base diameter and 75 mm long axis is resting on its base on the H.P. A
square hole of 20 mm side is made in it such that axis of the hole intersect the axis of the cone
at a height of 25 mm from the base and the faces of the hole are equally inclined to the H.P.
Draw the development of its lateral surface.

A1
B1
C1
A B C 4
D E 1
L
F
K E
J G1
F
H
G
o′ O
3

G
I H
F
G
j E
j ′′ L F
k i ′′
l h′ A D E1
′′ B
2
a′ C1
b f′
′ e′ c ′′ B1 Calculation of q
25

d′ d ′′ A

2 ,4′ 3′ 1 Slant height of cone

c,k d, 4 e,i R o′ r m
b,l h
a g

Subtended angle
60

1 3 r 30
360° = × ° ( .)
R 80 8
a g
l f,h
c,k 2,d,j e,i

Fig. 11.16
11.20 Engineering Graphics

Construction: Fig. 11.16

1. Draw a circle 1-2-3-4 as the top view. Project all the points and obtain 1′o′3′ as the front view.
2. Draw a square a′dd ′g′j ′ ′ such that all the edges are inclined at 45º to XY
Y and it centre lies at a distant
of 25 mm above the XY. On the edges of the square mark some more points as b′, c′, e′, f ′, h′, i ′,
k′ and l ′, which may not be equidistant.
3. Determine the subtended angle q as 134º. Draw a sector 1-O-1 with included angle q.
4. Draw generator through the critical points a′ and g′. Also draw generators through points b′, c′, e′,
f ′, h′, i ′, k′ and l ′. Project them to the top view as a, b, c,… etc.
5. Mark the generators in the development as OA1, OB1, OC1,… etc., such that 1A1= arc 1a, 1B1 = arc
1b, 1C1 = arc 1c, etc. They represent the locus line for points A, B, C,… etc.
6. Draw horizontal lines from the points a′, b′, c′, e′, f ′, g′, h′, i ′, k′ and l ′ to meet OA at points a″, b″,
c″,… etc. Draw arcs with O as the centre and radii Oa″, Ob″, Oc″,… etc to meet the corresponding
generators at points A, B, C,… etc.
7. Join all the points to obtain the required development as shown. It may be noted that the cutting edges of
the square converges in the development to form arc. Therefore, AD, DG, GJJ and JA are arcs of circles.

11.7 DEVELOPMENT OF PYRAMID

Development of lateral surface of pyramids consists of a series of isosceles triangles. It can be drawn
using radial line method, similar to that of the cone. The following examples illustrate the development
of the lateral surface of the pyramids.

Example 11.17 (Fig. 11.17)

Draw the development of lateral surface of a square pyramid with a 40 mm base side and a
60 mm long axis, resting on its base in the H.P., such that all the sides of the base are equally
inclined to the V.P.
A

C
o' O
60

X Y
a′ b′,d ′ c′ A
d

a o c
40

Fig. 11.17
 Development of Surfaces 11.21

Construction: Fig. 11.17

1. Draw a square abcd with side ab inclined at 45º to XY. Also, draw the diagonal lines of the square.
This represents the top view. Project all the corners to obtain triangle a′o′c′ as the front view.
Consider seam at o′a′.
2. Slant edges o′a′ and o′c′ in the front view represents the true length because their top views are
parallel to XY. Therefore, draw a line OA parallel to o′c′.
3. Draw an arc with O as the centre and radius OA. Step off a distance of 40 mm on the arc to obtain
B, C, D and A. Thus, AB = BC = CD = DA = 40 mm.
4. Join the base sides AB, BC, CD, DA and slant edges OA, OB, OC, OD, OA. This is the required
development of the pyramid.

Example 11.18 (Fig. 11.18)

Draw the development of lateral surface of a square pyramid with a 40 mm base side and a
60 mm long axis, resting on its base in the H.P. such that a side of the base is parallel to the
V.P.

True Length of
OA,OB,OCC & OD
o′′ O C
60

X Y
a′′,b′ c′′,d′′ h′ A
a d

o h

b c
40
Fig. 11.18

Construction: Fig. 11.18

1. Draw a square abcd with side add parallel to XY. Also, draw the diagonal lines of the square. This
represents the top view. Project all the corners to obtain triangle a′o′c′ as the front view. Consider
seam at o′a′.
11.22 Engineering Graphics

2. As slant edges oa, ob, oc and od, in the top view of are inclined to XY therefore, slant edges o′a′,
o′b′, o′c′ and o′d ′ in the front view do not represent the true lengths. So first determine the true
length of the slant edges.
a. Draw an arc dh with o as the centre and radius od to meet the horizontal line through centre o
at point h.
b. Project point h to meet XY at point h′. Join o′h′. Line o′h′ represents the true length of slant
edges.
3. Draw line OA parallel to and equal to o′h′. Draw an arc with O as the centre and radius OA. Step
off a distance of 40 mm on the arc to obtain B, C, D and A. Thus, AB = BC = CD = DA = 40 mm.
4. Darken the base sides AB, BC, CD, DA and slant edges OA, OB, OC, OD, OA. This is the required
development of the pyramid.

Example 11.19 (Fig. 11.19)

A square pyramid with 30 mm side of base and 50 mm long axis is resting on its base with a
side of the base parallel to V.P. It is cut by a section plane perpendicular to V.P. and inclined
at 45º to H.P. The section plane is passing through the mid-point of the axis. Draw the devel-
opment of the cut pyramid. [RGPV Feb. 2008]

P
D
True Length of P
OA,OB,OC C & OD
o′ O Q
C

q′ Q
q′′
50

p′ P B
25

45°

p′′
X Y
a′′,b′ c′′,d′h′ A
a d

o
h
b c
30

Fig. 11.19

Construction: Fig. 11.19

1. Draw a square abcd with side add parallel to XY. Also, draw the diagonal lines of the square. This
represents the top view. Project all the corners to obtain triangle a′o′c′ as the front view. Consider
seam at o′a′.
 Development of Surfaces 11.23

2. Determine true length of the slant edges: Draw an arc dh with o as the centre and radius odd to meet
the horizontal line through centre o at point h. Project point h to meet XY at point h′. Join o′h′.
3. Draw p′q′ as V.T. of the cutting plane in the front view such that it is inclined at 45º to XY Y and
passes through the mid-point of the axis. Line p′q′ cut the generators o′a′ and o′b′ at point p′, o′c′
and o′d ′ at point r ′.
4. Draw line OA parallel to and equal to o′h′. Draw an arc with O as the centre and radius OA. Step
off a distance of 30 mm on the arc to obtain B, C, D and A. Thus, AB = BC = CD = DA = 30 mm.
5. Draw the horizontal lines from p′ and q′ to meet line OA at points p″″ and q″, respectively. Draw arcs
with O as the centre and radii Op″″ and Oq″″ to meet OA and OB at point P; OC C and OD at point Q.
6. Join all the points to obtain the required development as shown. Darken the portion of the develop-
ment which remains after truncation of the pyramid.

Example 11.20 (Fig. 11.20)

A square pyramid with 30 mm side of base and 50 mm long axis is resting on its base such that
all the sides of the base are equally inclined to the V.P. It is cut by a section plane perpendicu-
lar to V.P. and inclined at 60º to H.P. The section plane is passing through the mid-point of
the axis. Draw the development of the cut pyramid. [RGPV Feb. 2008]

P
D
Q

o′ O R
C
r′
r ′′ Q
q′
50

q ′′
B
25

60

P
°

X Y
a′ p′ b′,d ′ c′ A
d

p
a o c
p
30

Fig. 11.20

Construction: Fig. 11.20

1. Draw a square abcd with side ab inclined at 45º to XY. Also, draw the diagonal lines of the square.
This represents the top view. Project all the corners to obtain triangle a′o′c′ as the front view.
11.24 Engineering Graphics

2. Draw p′rr ′ as V.T. of the cutting plane in the front view such that it is inclined at 60º to XYY and
passes through the mid-point of the axis. Line p′rr ′ cuts the base edges a′b′ and a′d ′ at point p′,
generators o′b′ and o′dd ′ at point q′, o′c′ at point r ′.
3. Line o′c′ represents the true length of the slant edge. Therefore, draw line OA parallel to and equal
to o′c′. Draw an arc with O as the centre and radius OA. Step off a distance of 30 mm on the arc to
obtain B, C, D and A.
4. Draw horizontal lines from points q′ and r ′ to meet line OA at points q″ and r″, respectively. Draw
arcs with O as the centre and radii Oq″ and Or″″ to meet OB and OD at point Q; OC C at point R.
5. Project point p′ vertically downwards to obtain point p in the top view. Mark point P in the devel-
opment such that AP = ap.
6. Join all the points to obtain the required development as shown.

Example 11.21 (Fig. 11.21)

A pentagonal pyramid of 30 mm base side and 60 mm axis, rests on its base in the H.P. It is
cut by two section plane which meet at a height of 20 mm from the base. One of the section
planes is horizontal, while the other is an auxiliary inclined plane whose V.T. makes 45º with
H.P. Draw the development of the lateral surface of the solid when apex is removed.

E
P

T
Q
D
S
M
o′ O
R

C
r ′ r ′′ Q
60

135
° s′
p′ t ′ q′′ s′′ P
p′′ B
20

X Y
a′ e′′ b′′ d′′ c′′ h′′ A
e d T.L. of slant edges

o h
a c
30
b

Fig. 11.21
 Development of Surfaces 11.25

Construction: Fig. 11.21

1. Draw a pentagon abcde with side de parallel to XY

top view. Project all the corners to obtain triangle a′o′c′ as the front view.
2. Draw p′q′ parallel to XY and q′ ′ inclined at 45º to XY to represent the V.T. of the cutting plane in
the front view.
3. With center o and radius oc draw an arc to meet horizontal line through o at point h. Project h to
obtain h′. Join o′h Line o′h′ represents true length of the slant edges.
4. Draw line OA parallel to and equal to o h′ Draw an arc with O as the centre and radius OA. Step
off a distance of 30 mm on the arc to obtain B, C, D E and A
5. Draw horizontal lines from p′ q′ and ′ to meet OA at points p″, q″ and r″ respectively. Draw arcs
with O as the centre and radii Op″ Oq″ and Or″ to meet OA at point P, OB at point Q, OC at point
R, OD at point S, OE at point T Q as the mid-point of chord TM
6. Join all the points to obtain the required development as shown.

Example 11.22 (Fig. 11.22)

A hexagonal pyramid, 30 mm base side and 60 mm long axis rests on the H.P. with a side
of base parallel to V.P. It is cut by planes perpendicular to V.P., to obtain the front view as
hown in Fig. 11.22(a). Draw the development of the lateral surface of the retained solid.

A
F

P
S E
60

Q
40

T
U D
R
o O
ig. 11.22(a) v′ U
u C
T
t′
60

r P
s′ q
40

S B

X Y
a b ′ p c′,e′ d′ A
f e

a d

b HEX30 c

Fig. 11.22(b)
11.26 Engineering Graphics

Construction: Fig. 11.22(b)

1. Draw a hexagon with side parallel to XY

top view. Project all the corners to obtain triangle a′o′ ′ as the front view.
2. Draw a curve p′r ′ and line s′v′ in the front view to represent the V.T. of the cutting planes.
3. Line o′d ′ represents true length of the slant edges. Therefore, draw line OA parallel to and equal
to o′d ′. Draw an arc with O as the centre and radius OA. Step off a distance of 30 mm on the arc
to obtain B, C D, E, F and A
4. Draw horizontal lines from points q′, ′ s′, t ′ u′ and v′ to meet OA, and thereafter rotate them to
meet the corresponding generators at points Q R S, T U and V p′ lies at the mid of base
edges bc and ef Therefore, in the development, mark point P at the mid of and EF
5. Join all the points to obtain the required development as shown.

xample 11.23 (Fig. 11.23)

A frustum of a square pyramid of 40 mm base side, 15 mm top side and 40 mm height, rests
on its base on the H.P. with all the sides of the base equally inclined to the V.P. A rectangular
slot of 30 mm ë 15 mm is cut through it. Figure 11.23(a) shows the front view of the solid.
Draw the development of its lateral surface.
A
40

Q P
D
R
1
30 T

Fig. 11.23(a) o O C
S

1′ 1′ 1 T
R
B
40

q′ r ′ s P
a′
15

X
a′ ′ b ,d′ t c′ A
r

p t
q s
a o c
q s
p t

b,r

Fig. 11.23(b)

Construction: Fig. 11.23(b)

1. Draw two concentric squares to represent the top view. Project all the corners to obtain triangle
a′1′1′c′ as the front view.
 Development of Surfaces 11.27

2. Slant edge o′c′ in the front view represents the true length. Therefore, draw a line OA parallel to o′c′.
3. Draw arcs with O as the centre and radii OA and O-1. Step off a distance of 40 mm on the arc AA
to obtain B, C, D. Similarly, step off a distance of 15 mm on the arc 1-1.
4. Draw the V.T. of the cutting plane to obtain the front view as given. Name the intersecting points
as p′, q′, r ′, s′ and t ′.
5. Project points p′, q′, r ′, s′ and t ′ on the top view to obtain points p, q, r, s and t. Transfer these
points on the edges AB, BC, CD and DA.
6. Draw horizontal lines from q′, r ′ and s ′ up to OA, and thereafter rotate them to obtain Q, R and
S on their corresponding generators. It may be noted that points P, Q, S and T lies on the chords.
Join all the points to obtain the required development as shown.

11.8 ANTI-DEVELOPMENT

In the previous section we have discussed the methods of obtaining the development of surfaces of
any solid. Any point on the object could be transferred to its corresponding position in the develop-
ment. Now we shall do the other way. Any point or a set of points from the development shall be
transferred to its corresponding position in the front view / top view. This is the reverse of the devel-
opment commonly know as anti-development. The following examples illustrate anti-development
of surfaces.

Example 11.24 (Fig. 11.24)

A pentagonal prism, having a base with a 25 mm side and a 60 mm long axis, stands on the
ground on its base such that one of its rectangular faces is parallel to and nearer the V.P. A
thread is wound around the prism, starting from the corner of the lower base farthest away
from the V.P. to the corresponding corner of the upper base. Find the minimum length of the
thread and show it on the front view of the prism.

5′ 4′ 1′ 3′ 2′ 1 2 3 4 5 1

s′ S
R
r′
60

q′ Q
p′ P

X Y
e′ d ′ a′ c ′ b′ A B C D E A
d,,4 c,3
Length of thread APQRS1 = 139 mm (approx)

e,5 b,2
25
a,1
Fig. 11.24
11.28 Engineering Graphics

Construction: Fig. 11.24

1. Draw a pentagon abcde keeping cd parallel to XY to represent the top view. Project all points to
obtain a′c′3′1′ as the front view.
2. Consider the seam is along 1-a Stretch out lines 1-1 and A A from the front view. Locate interme-
diate points 2, 3, 4, 5 and B, C, D, E. Join vertical edges 1A, 2B, 3C, 4D and 5E.
3. Draw a diagonal line APQRS1 to represent the thread. The line meets the vertical edges B2, C3,
D4 and E5 at points P, Q R and S
4. Draw horizontal lines from P Q, R and S to meet b′2′, c′3′, d ′4′ and e′5′ at points p′ q′, r ′ and s′,
respectively.
5. Join points a′p′q′r ′s′1′ as shown. It may be noted that the line joining a′p′ and s′1′ will be visible
because they lies on the faces of the prism which is towards the observer.

xample 11.25 (Fig. 11.25)

Draw the projections of a cone resting on the ground on its base and show on them the
shortest path by which a point P, on the circumference of the base moving around the
cone will return to the same point. Base of cone is 65 mm diameter and axis is 75 mm long.
[RGPV Dec. 2003, Dec. 2004, Feb. 2005]

A,P
L
K
J
Q
I
R
S H
T
U G
o′ O V

F
v′ v
t R
s′ E
r′ s ′′
75

r Q
D
q′ q′
C
p′ B
X Y
a′ b ,l c ′ d′ ,i f ′ g A,P
j Slant height of the cone
k i
l r R o′ ′ r = 4m
t
a
f 65

s g
p
Subtended angle
q
r s f
b
r 32.5
c = × 360° = × °= ° ( )
d R 81 75
Fig. 11.25
 Development of Surfaces 11.29

Construction: Fig. 11.25

1. Draw a circle adgj to represent the top view. Divide it into 12 equal parts. Project all the points and
obtain a′o′g′ as the front view.
2. Determine the subtended angle as 138º. Draw a sector A-O A with included angle
tor into 12 equal parts and mark the generators as OB OC, OD,…, etc.
3. Assume that P starts from the point A. Join A A on the development to represent the shortest path.
Let line P P meets the generators at points Q, R, S, T U and V in the development as shown.
4. Draw arcs with O as the centre and radii OQ, OR, OS, OT OU and OV to meet line OA at points
q″, r ″ s ″, t ″, u ″ and v ″. Draw horizontal lines from q ″ r ″, s ″, t ″, u ″ and v to meet their cor-
responding generators at points q′ r ′, s′ t ′, u′ and v′ in the front view. Join the points and obtain
the front view of the shortest path.
5. Transfer points q′, r′ t′, u′ and ′ to the top view on the respective generators and mark as q r, t, u
and v. To transfer points s′, draw horizontal line from point p′ to meet o′g′ at s1′ Project it vertically
downwards t meet og at point s1. With centre o and radius os1, draw arcs to meet and oj at points s
6. Join the points pqrstuvutsrqp by a smooth curve which represents the required shortest path in the
top view.

xample 11.26 (Fig. 11.26)

A semicircle of 100 mm diameter represents the development of lateral surface of a right
circular cone. Inscribe the largest possible circle in the development and draw the projec-
tions of the cone resting on its base in H.P. and showing the projection of the circle in them.
[RGPV Sep. 2009]
L K J
A I
8
H
7
10 G
6

11 5 F
o
O 4 E

′ 1 1 2
3
D
2′ 2

p 3′ 3 C
4 4
′ 5 B
X a ' g ′A

j
8
i
9
l 7 Radius of base circle of the cone
a p 11 g
50

1 6 180°
r= × = × = 25 mm
b
2 5
f
360 360°
3 4
e
d
Fig. 11.26
11.30 Engineering Graphics

Construction: Fig. 11.26

1. As semicircle in the development has a 100 mm diameter, the slant height of the cone is 50 mm.
Calculate the radius of the base circle of the cone as 25 mm.
2. Draw a circle adgj of 25 mm radius to represent the top view. Divide it into 12 equal parts. Project
all the points to obtain a o′g′ as the front view.
3. Draw a semicircle A-O A to represent the development of the cone. Divide it into 12 equal parts
and mark the generators as OB, OC, OD …, etc.
4. Draw a circle of 50 mm diameter on the development to represent the required circular hole. Mark
the points of intersection of the generators with the circular hole as 1, 2, 3,… etc.
5. Draw arcs with O as the centre and radii O1, O2, O3,… etc., to meet OA at points 1″, 2″, 3″,… etc.
Draw horizontal lines from 1″, 2″, 3″,… etc. to meet their corresponding generators in the front view
at points 1′, 2′, 3′, etc. Join the points to obtain the mark of the circular hole in the front view.
6. Project points 1′, 2′, 3′, 5′, 6′, 7′, 8′, 9′ and 11′ vertically downwards to meet the respective genera-
tors in the top view and obtain points 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 and 11.
7. Draw horizontal line points 4′ and 10′ to meet to o′a′ at point p′. Project p′ to meet oa at point p. Draw
arc with o as the centre and op as the radius to meet od and oj at points 4 and 10 respectively.
8. Join all the points in the top view as shown to represent mark of the circular hole in the top view.

11.9 MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES

Example 11.27 (Fig. 11.27)

The projection of a solid composed of a truncated half cylinder and a half prism are shown in
Fig 11.27(a). Draw the development of its lateral surface. [RGPV June 2004]

′ 2',9' 3',8' 4 ,7′ 5 ,6 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1

s R S S R
r Q Q
p′ P
P
60

u v′ V V
60

U U
t T T

a b ,i ′ c′,h′ d ′ e ,f A B C D E F G H I A

h,8 t
u
i, f,6

a,1
b,2 e,5
R24
u
R24 c,3 t

Fig. 11.27(a) Fig. 11.27(b)

 Development of Surfaces 11.31

Construction: Fig. 11.27(b)

1. Draw front and top views of the solid as given. Draw generator of the half-cylinder.
2. Name the points of intersection of V.T. in the front view as p′, q′, ′, s′, t ′, u′ and v′
3. Consider seam at 1-a Stretch out 1-1 and A-A from the front view and step off AD = arc ad
DE = de, EF = ef FG = fg GA = arc ga Draw generators B2, C3, H I
lines for points T and U on the faces DE54 and FG76 respectively.
4. Draw horizontal lines from points p′, q′ ′ s , t ′ u′ and v ′ to meet the corresponding generators
in the development at points P, Q, R, S, T U and V
5. Join all the points in the development as shown to represent the development of the lateral surface
of the solid.

Example 11.28 (Fig. 11.28)

A solid is composed of half-pyramid and half-cone. It is cut by an auxiliary inclined plane
bisecting the axis and making 45º with the H.P., as shown in Fig. 11.28(a). Draw the develop-
ment of the lateral surface of the retained sol

A
I
P
H
60

Q
G
30

R
S
F
o' O
25

T
E
t
R25
s s R
60

Fig. 11.28(a) r r D
30

q
p P C
p
X Y B
a b ,i c ,h ,g e A
g
h
i f
25

b e
R 25
c
d
ig. 11.28(b)
11.32 Engineering Graphics

Construction: Fig. 11.28(b)

1. Draw front and top views of the solid as given. Draw generator of the half-cone.
2. Name the points of intersection of V.T. in the front view as p′, q′, r ′, s′ and t ′
3. Draw a line OA of length equal to the true length. Draw an arc with O as the centre and radius OA
On the arc AA. Step off arcs of ab bc, cd, de ef fg gh, hi and ia and obtain points B, C, B E, F,
G H and OB, OC, OD,…, etc.
4. Draw the horizontal lines from points p′, q′, r ′, s′ and ′ to meet OA at points p ″, q ″, r ″ s ″ and t ″
Draw arcs with O as the centre and radii Op ″, Oq ″, ″, Os and Ot to meet the corresponding
generators at points P, Q, R S and T
5. Join all the points obtained in the development as shown.

xample 11.29 (Fig. 11.29)

A cone with a 60 mm base diameter and 75 mm long axis stands on its base on the H.P. An
auxiliary vertical plane having H.T. inclined at 45º to the V.P. cuts the cone, at a distance of
12 mm away from the axis. Draw the sectional front view and develop the lateral surface of
the retained cone.
A
L
K

H
U
o′ O T
R G

F
s′ Q
r
r ′′ E
75

q′ q′ t
q ′′ D
P
C
p ′ B
X Y
a b ,l ,k d ,j e f ′g A

q1
60

a g
t

b r f
q
c p e
d

ig. 11.29
 Development of Surfaces 11.33

Construction: Fig. 11.29

1. Draw a circle adgj as the top view and divide it into 12 equal parts. Project all the points and obtain
a′o′g′ as the front view.
2. Draw pu as H.T. of the cutting plane in the top view such that it is inclined at 45º to XY and meets
tangentially an arc of 12 mm radius. The line pu cuts the generator at point q, oe at point r, of
at point s og at point t and base circle at points p and u
3. Project p, q, r, s t and u vertical to meet their respective generators in the front view at points p′,
q′ ′ s′, ′ and u′
4. Determine the subtended angle as 134º. Draw a sector A O A with included angle
tor into 12 equal parts and mark the generators as OB OC, OD …, etc.
5. Locate points P and Q in the development such that CP = and GU gu.
6. Draw horizontal lines from points q ′, r ′, s′ and t ′ up to OA and thereafter rotate them to obtain
points Q, R, S and T
7. Join all the points obtained in the development as shown.

xample 11.30 (Fig. 11.30)

f 96
Develop the lateral surface of the funnel as shown in Fig 11.30(a).
[RGPV June 2003]

30

48
72
108
ig. 11.30(a)

f 96

A
48

BB
108

AA

ig. 11.30(b)
11.34 Engineering Graphics

Construction: Fig. 11.30(b)

1. Draw the front view of the funnel as shown in Fig. 11.30(a).

2. Divide the front view in two parts A and B as shown.
3. Part A is a truncated cone. Follow the steps of Example 11.12 to obtain its development as AA
4. Part B is a truncated cylinder. Follow the steps of Example 11.7 to obtain its development as BB
5. These two developed pieces AA and BB are required to prepare the funnel.

Example 11.31 (Fig. 11.31)

Draw the shape of metal sheet required to prepare a pipe
joint whose front view is shown in Fig. 11.31(a).

f 40
60
20
20
45
f 40

Fig. 11.31(a)
CC

BB

A AA

ig. 11.31(b)
 Development of Surfaces 11.35

Construction: Fig. 11.31(b)

1. Draw the front view of the pipe joint as shown in Fig. 11.31(a).
2. Divide the front view in three parts A, B and C.
3. Part A and C are truncated cones from one end only. Follow the steps of Example 11.7 to obtain
its development as AA and CC.
4. Part B is a truncated cone from both ends. Follow the steps of Example 11.7 for both ends of the
cylinder to obtain its development as BB.
5. Thus, the three pieces AA, BB and CC C are required to prepare the pipe joint.

EXERCISE 11

Prisms
1. A pentagonal prism of 30 mm base side and axis 65 mm long is resting on its base in the H.P.
with a rectangular face parallel to V.P. It is cut by a section plane perpendicular to V.P., making
30º with the H.P. and passing through a point on the axis, 25 mm from one of the bases. Draw the
development of its lateral surface.
2. A hexagonal prism of 25 mm base side and 50 mm axis is resting on H.P. on its base with two of its
vertical faces perpendicular to V.P. It is cut by a plane inclined at 50º to H.P. and perpendicular to
V.P. and meets the axis of the prism at a distance 10 mm from the top end. Draw the development
of the lateral surface of the prism.
[RGPV Dec. 2001]
3. A square prism of 50 mm edges and 65 mm height stands on its base in H.P. with its vertical
faces inclined at 45º to the V.P. A horizontal hole of 25 mm diameter is drilled centrally with
the axis normal to the V.P. Draw the development of the surface of the prism with the hole.
[RGPV June 2006]

Cylinders
4. A cylinder of 45 mm base diameter and 55 mm long axis rests with its base on H.P. It is cut
by a plane perpendicular to V.P. inclined at 60º to H.P. and passing through a point on the axis
12 mm from its top. Draw the top view and development of lateral surface of the truncated cylinder.
[RGPV Feb. 2011]
5. A vertical chimney of 60 cm diameter joins a roof slopping at an angle of 30º with the horizontal.
The shortest portion over the roof is 30 cm. Determine the shape of the sheet metal from which the
chimney can be fabricated. [RGPV June 2002]
6. A cylinder of 50 mm base diameter and 70 mm long axis is resting on its base in the H.P. It is cut
by two section planes inclined at 30º and 60º with the H.P. respectively. Both the planes are per-
pendicular to the V.P. and pass through top end of axis. Draw development of the lateral surface
of the retained solid.
11.36 Engineering Graphics

7. A cylinder has been truncated by a circular surface as shown in the

Fig. E11.1. Draw the development of the surface of the cylinder. 5
R2
[RGPV Apr. 2010]
8. A cylinder of 60 mm base diameter and 80 mm long axis is resting on

75
its base on the H.P. A circular hole of 44 mm diameter is drilled through
the cylinder such that the axis of the hole is perpendicular bisector of the
axis of the cylinder. Draw the development of its lateral surface.

Cone
9. A right circular cone diameter of base 40 mm and height 50 mm rests
on its base on H.P. A section plane perpendicular to V.P. and inclined to
H.P. at 45º cuts the cone bisecting the axis. Draw the projections of the 0
f5
truncated cone and develop its lateral surface.
[RGPV Dec. 2007]
10. A cone of 50 mm base diameter and 65 mm height rests with its base in
H.P. A section plane perpendicular to V.P. and inclined at 30º to H.P. Fig. E11.1
bisects the cone. Draw the development of the lateral surface of the
truncated cone. [RGPV June 2008]
11. A right cone of 50 mm base diameter and 60 mm long axis is resting on its base in the HP. It is
cut by an auxiliary inclined plane parallel to and 8 mm away from the extreme generator. Draw
the development of the lateral surface of the remaining solid.
12. A cone of 60 mm base diameter and 75 mm long axis is resting on its base on H.P. A profile sec-
tion plane cut the cone, 10 mm away from the axis. Draw the development of the cone retained.
13. An isosceles triangle having a 60 mm base and 75 mm altitude, has a circular hole of 30 mm
diameter at a height of 25 mm from the base. The figure is the front view of a truncated cone.
Draw the development of its lateral surface.

Pyramid
14. A pentagonal pyramid of side of base 30 mm and axis 60 mm long is resting on its base on H.P.
with an edge of the base parallel to V.P. Draw the development of the lateral surface of the pyramid.
[RGPV Dec. 2010]
15. The frustum of a square pyramid has a 60 mm base side, 25 mm top side and 70 mm height
is resting in H.P. with one of its edges parallel to V.P. Draw the lateral surface development.
[RGPV Dec. 2006]
16. A frustum of a square pyramid has its 50 mm base side, 25 mm top side and 75 mm height. Draw
the development of its lateral surface. [RGPV Feb. 2006]
17. Draw the development of the frustum of a hexagonal pyramid of side of base 35 mm at the bot-
tom and 15 mm at the top, the height of the frustum being 50 mm. [RGPV Dec. 2010]
18. A pentagonal pyramid of side of base 30 mm and height 52 mm stands with its base on H.P. and
an edge of the base parallel to V.P. It is cut by a plane perpendicular to V.P. and inclined at 40º
to H.P. and passing through a point 30 mm above the base. Draw the development of the lateral
surface of the truncated pyramid. [RGPV Feb 2011]
19. A square pyramid, 40 mm base side and 70 mm long axis, is resting on the ground with a side of
base inclined at 30º to V.P. It is cut by a section plane perpendicular to V.P., making 45º to H.P.
and bisects the axis. Draw the development of the lateral surface of truncated pyramid.
 Development of Surfaces 11.37

20. A hexagonal pyramid, 30 mm base side and 70 mm long axis rests on the ground with a side of
base parallel to V.P. A circular hole of 30 mm diameter is cut through the faces of the pyramid
such that axes of the hole and the pyramid intersect at right angles, 25 mm above the base. Draw
the development of its lateral surface.

Anti-development
21. A hexagonal prism, 30 mm base side and 75 mm long axis stand on ground on its base. A thread is
wound around the prism, starting from the corner of the lower base to the corresponding corner of
the upper base. Find the minimum length of the thread and show it on the elevation of the prism.
22. The development of a truncated cylinder of 80 mm height is an isosceles triangle of 175 mm base
and 80 mm altitude. Draw the projections of the truncated cylinder.
23. In a semi-circular plate of 120 mm diameter, a square hole is made such that center line of the
semi-circle is one of the diagonals of the square. The plate is then folded to form a cone. Draw
the two views of the cone.
24. In a semicircular plate of 120 mm diameter, an equilateral triangle of largest size is made. The
plate is folded to form a truncated cone. Draw the two views of the truncated cone.
25. The frustum of a square pyramid has its 40 mm base side, 20 mm top side and height 60 mm, is
placed on its base on the H.P. with an edge of the base perpendicular to V.P. A wire connects the
mid-point of bottom edge of the front face to the mid-point of the top edge of the opposite face
by passing over the surfaces of the frustum by the shortest distance. Draw the projections of the
frustum and show path of the wire in the front view, top view and the development.

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Differentiate between singly curved surface and doubly curved surface.

2. Name the method used for drawing the development of prism and cylinder.
3. Name the method used for drawing the development of pyramid and cone.
4. What precaution should be taken while drawing the development of pyramid?
5. What are the dimensions of the cone whose development is a semicircle of 120 mm diameter?
6. State a few practical applications of development of surfaces.

MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS

Choose the most appropriate answer out of the given alternatives:

i) Methods for the development can be

(a) parallel line method (b) radical line method
(c) triangulation method (d) all of them
11.38 Engineering Graphics

ii) The nature of lateral surface of a cylinder is

(a) plane surface (b) singly curved surface
(c) doubly curved surface (d) singly or doubly curved surface
iii) If a semicircular thin sheet is folded to form a cone then the front view looks like
(a) equilateral triangle (b) isosceles triangle
(c) rectangle (d) semicircle
iv) Sector of a circle of 60 mm radius and 120º represents development of the lateral surface of a
cone. The top view of the cone is a circle of diameter
(a) 20 mm (b) 40 mm (c) 60 mm (d) 80 mm
v) If the front view of a cone is represented by an equilateral triangle of 60 mm side. The area of
its lateral surface is
(a) 1200 p (b) 1800 p (c) 3600 p (d) 120 p
vi) The development of surface of a tetrahedron of 60 mm edge can be represented by an equilat-
eral triangle of side
(a) 60 mm (b) 90 mm (c) 120 mm (d) None of these
vii) The development of suface of a tetrahedron of 60 mm edge can be represented by a parallelo-
gram of adjacent sides
(a) 60 mm and 90 mm (b) 60 mm and 120 mm
(c) 90 mm and 120 mm (d) None of these
viii) A rectangle of 120 mm × 60 mm represents the development of the lateral surface of
(a) a square prism of side 30 mm (b) a hexagonal prism of side 20 mm
(c) a cylinder of diameter 120/p (d) all of these
ix) A string is wound around a hexagonal prism of 20 mm base side and 50 mm long axis, to con-
nect opposite ends of the same longer edge. The minimum length of string required is
(a) 110 mm (b) 120 mm (c) 130 mm (d) 140 mm
x) When a semicircular plate with diameter D is folded to for a cone, the cone formed will have
(a) diameter and height equal to D (b) diameter and generator equal to D
(c) diameter and height equal to D/2 (d) diameter and generator equal to D/2

Answers
(i) d (ii) b (iii) a (iv) b (v) b (vi) c (vii) b (viii) d (ix) c (x) d
 12

Isometric
Projections

� Introduction
� Principle of Isometric Projection
� Construction of an Isometric Scale
� Isometric Projection and Isometric View
� Dimensioning on Isometric Projection
� Four-Centre Method to Draw Ellipse
� Isometric View of Right Solids
� Isometric View of Truncated Solids
� Isometric View of Composite Solids
� Isometric Views of Objects from
Orthographic Views
12.2 Engineering Graphics

12.1 INTRODUCTION

Isometric projection is a type of single-view projection in which a pictorial view is obtained by keeping
the object in such a way that all the three mutually perpendicular geometrical axes are equally inclined
to the plane of projection. The projectors follow the rules of multi-view projections, i.e. projectors are
parallel to each other and perpendicular to the plane of projection.

In multi-view orthographic projections, each view provides information of two axes (length and breadth,
length and height, or breadth and height). For a complete understanding, there is always a need of more
than one view of the object. These views can only be correctly interpreted and visualized by those
persons who have a good knowledge of principles used for these projections. Whereas in isometric
projection, a single view is drawn in such a manner that it gives an overall view of the object at the first
sight. Thus, it is necessary to draw a pictorial view of one kind or the other so as to enable a common
man to understand.

12.2 PRINCIPLE OF ISOMETRIC PROJECTION

Consider a cube which rests on one of its corners on the H.P. with a solid diagonal perpendicular to the
V.P. See Fig. 12.1. The final front view is the isometric projection of the cube.

a′ a′

b′,d′ b′ d′
a′ b′,d ′ c′
e e′ c′
c′
e′
h′
f ′,h′ f′
X Y
e′ f′,h′ g′ g′ g′
d,h h d e

f a h
c,g e a g
a,e c

b g d

b,f f b
c
Fig. 12.1

The front view obtained in the final stage of Fig. 12.1 is redrawn for the analysis in Fig. 12.2(a), where
hidden lines are removed. The corners are renamed in capital letters. A close observation of this view
reveals the following information.
 Isometric Projections 12.3

A′

A A

O
B D B D
120°
30°

30°
C,E C,E

0°
12

12
0°

F F C′
H H
° 60
°
60
30°

30°

G G
Fig. 12.2(a) Fig. 12.2(b)

1. The outer boundary ABFGHDA is a regular hexagon.

2. All the faces of the cube which are actually square in shape appear as rhombus.
3. The three lines CB, CD and CG meeting at C, represent three edges of the cube
a. They make equal angles of 120º with each other.
b. They are equal in length but smaller than the true length of the edge of the cube.
c. The line CG is vertical, and the other lines CB and CD make 30º with the horizontal.
4. All other lines representing the edges of the cube are parallel to one or the other of the above three
lines, i.e. CB, CD and CG, and are equally foreshortened.
5. The diagonal BD of the top face ABCD is parallel to V.P., and hence shows its true length.

A comparison of the rhombus ABCD of the front view with the square face of the cube (represented by
′ ′D
A′BC′ in the figure) is shown in Fig. 12.2(b).

12.3 TERMINOLOGY

1. Isometric axes: The three lines CB, CD and CG, meeting at point C and inclined at an angle of
120° with each other are called isometric axes.
2. Isometric lines: The lines parallel to the isometric axes are called isometric lines. Here lines AB,
BF, FG, GH, DH and AD are isometric lines.
3. Non-isometric lines: The lines which are not parallel to isometric axes are known as non-isometric
lines. For example, diagonals BD, AC, CF, BG, etc., are non-isometric lines.
4. Isometric plane: A plane representing any face of the cube as well as other plane parallel to it is
called an isometric plane. For example, ABCD, BCGF, CGHD, etc., are isometric planes.
5. Isometric scale: It is the scale which is used to convert the true length into isometric length. Math-
ematically, Isometric length = 0.816 × True length
12.4 Engineering Graphics

12.4 CONSTRUCTION OF AN ISOMETRIC SCALE

Fig. 12.2(b) shows that all the edges of the cube are equally foreshortened. Therefore, the square faces are
seen as rhombuses in the isometric projection. The foreshortening of the edge can be calculated as follows:

BA 1 2
In triangle ABO, = =
BO cos 30 0 3

BA ’ 1 2
′ ,
In triangle A′BO = 0
=
BO cos 45 1

Isometric length BA 2 2 2 9
Therefore, = = × = = (approx) orr 0.816 (approx)
True length
t ’ 3 1 3 11

This reduction of the true length can be obtained either

by multiplying it by a factor 0.816 or by taking the measure- a′

ment with the help of an isometric scale. Fig. 12.3(a) shows 40′
the isometric scale. The steps of construction are as follows:

th
ng
30′

-le
1. Draw a horizontal line bo.

ue
a

Tr
2. Draw lines ba′ and ba inclined at 45º and 30º with line 20′
bo, respectively. 40
3. Mark off the true scale on the line ba′ as 0′, 10′, 20′, 30′, 10′ g th
30 en
t r ic l
etc. 20 me
0′ Iso
4. Draw vertical lines from points 0′, 10′, 20′, 30′, etc. to 10 30°
5′

°
45°

90
meet line ba at points 0, 10, 20, 30, etc. The mark-off 0
divisions of ba represents the isometric length. b 10′ 5 o
10
Fig. 12.3(a)
Simplified form of isometric scale
The isometric scale can also be constructed in a simplified way by using the principles of plane or di-
agonal scales taking R.F. = 2 : 3. Figs. 12.3(b) and (c) show plano and diagono-isometric scales for
2
a maximum length of 11 cm. The length of scale can be calculated as Ls = × 11 = 8.98 cm ≈ 9 cm
3
(approx). The steps of construction are self explanatory.

10 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

MILLIMETRE CENTIMETRE
R.F. = 2: 3
Fig. 12.3(b) Plano-isometric scale
 Isometric Projections 12.5

10

MILLIMETRE
8
6
4
2
0
1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

CENTIMETRE
R.F. = 2: 3
Fig. 12.3(c) Diagono-isometric scale

12.5 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PRINCIPAL LINES IN ISOMETRIC PROJECTION

The following are the characteristics of the principal lines in an isometric projection.

1. All lines that are parallel on the object are parallel on the isometric projection.
2. Vertical line on the object remains vertical in the isometric projection.
3. The horizontal lines on the object are drawn at an angle of 30º with the horizontal.
4. The lines parallel to the principal lines known as isometric lines are equally foreshortened.
5. The lines which are not parallel to principal lines known as non-isometric lines are not equally
foreshortened. For example, diagonals BD and AC C are of equal lengths in front view but are of dif-
ferent lengths in the isometric projection. The non-isometric lines are drawn by locating positions
of their ends on isometric planes.

12.6 ISOMETRIC PROJECTION AND ISOMETRIC VIEW

In an isometric projection, a scale factor of 0.816 is used to prepare the drawing whereas in an isometric
view the true length is used. Thus, the isometric view of an object is larger than the isometric projection.
Because of ease of construction and advantage of measuring the dimensions directly from the drawing,
it has become a general practice to use the true lengths instead of isometric lengths.
50
15

30

Fig. 12.4 (a) Orthographic projection (b) Isometric projection (c) Isometric view
12.6 Engineering Graphics

Fig. 12.4(a) shows the orthographic views of a cuboid. Fig. 12.4 (b) shows its isometric projection
whereas Fig. 12.4 (c) shows its isometric view. Thus, isometric projection looks smaller in size than the
isometric view.

12.7 DIMENSIONING ON ISOMETRIC PROJECTION

1. While dimensioning isometric projection or isometric view, the true lengths are written as dimen-
sion values.
2. As far as possible, all extension lines and dimension lines must be isometric lines, lying in isomet-
ric planes.
3. It is usual practice to avoid the hidden lines unless they are essential to make the drawing clear.

12.8 FOUR-CENTRE METHOD TO DRAW ELLIPSE

In an isometric projection, a circle on an isometric plane appears as an ellipse as shown in Fig. 12.5(a)-(c).
The ellipse can be drawn with the help of a compass by the four-centre method. Steps of construction
are described below.

1. Draw rhombus ABCD with sides equal to the diameter of the circle to represent an isometric
plane.
2. Mark 1, 2, 3 and 4 as the mid-points of the sides AB, BC, CD and DA respectively.
3. Join the ends of the minor diagonal B to meet mid-points 3 and 4 and D to meet mid-points 1 and
2. Let lines B4 and D1 meet at point E whereas lines B3 and D2 meet at point F. Then B, E, D and
F are the four-centres for construction of the ellipse.

C C

3 3

F F
2 D
D D 2

4 3

E F C
B 4 A 4 B
E E

1 1 2 1
f6
f

0 f
A B A

Fig. 12.5(a) Fig. 12.5(b) Fig. 12.5(c)

4. With centre B and radius B3 draw arc 3-4. With centre D and radius D1, draw arc 1-2. With centre
E and radius E1 draw arc 1-4. With centre F and radius F2 draw arc 2-3. The ellipse thus con-
structed represents the circle of diameter AB in the isometric view.
 Isometric Projections 12.7

12.9 ISOMETRIC VIEW OF RIGHT SOLIDS

For drawing the isometric view of a square prism, rectangular prism, etc., the edges are drawn parallel
to the three isometric axes. The following points should be kept in mind.
1. The isometric view should be drawn such that maximum possible details are visible.
2. For every outer corner of the solid, at least three lines for the edges must converge. Of these, at
least two must be for the visible edges.
3. It is usual practice to avoid the hidden lines unless they are essential to make the drawing clear.
However, it is advisable to check every corner so that no line for a visible edge is left out.
4. Two lines showing visible edge will never intersect each other.

Example 12.1 (Fig 12.6)

Draw an isometric view of a square prism of base 40 mm side and axis 60 mm long resting on
the H.P. (a) on its base with axis perpendicular to the H.P., (b) on its rectangular face with
axis perpendicular to the V.P., and (c) on its rectangular face with axis parallel to the V.P.
C
3 3

D 4
B 4
C C
A

1 D D
1
4 B B
2

1 A A

Fig. 12.6(a) Fig. 12.6(b) Fig. 12.6(c)

Construction:

Case a [Fig. 12.6(a)]: Draw rhombus ABCD such that AB and AD are inclined at 30º to the horizontal.
Draw 60 mm long vertical lines A1, B2 and D4. Join 412.

Cases b and c [Fig. 12.6(b and c)]: Draw rhombus ABCD such that AB is inclined at 30º to the horizon-
tal and AD is vertical. Draw 60 mm long lines A1, C3 and D4 inclined at 30º to the horizontal. Join 143.
If the object is viewed along the face ABCD the axis would be perpendicular to the V.P. and if the object
is viewed along the rectangular face AD41 the axis would be parallel to the V.P.

12.10 ISOMETRIC VIEW OF OBJECTS CONTAINING NON-ISOMETRIC LINES

The inclined lines of an object are represented by non-isometric lines. These are drawn by one of the
following methods.
12.8 Engineering Graphics

1. Box method: In the box method, the object is assumed to be enclosed in a rectangular box and
both the isometric and non-isometric lines are drawn by locating the corresponding points of con-
tact with the surfaces and edge of the box.
2. Offset method: In the offset method, the lines parallel to the isometric axes are drawn from every
corner or the reference point of an end to obtain the corner or the reference point at the other end.

Example 12.2 (Fig 12.7)

Draw isometric view of a hexagonal prism with side of base 25 and 60 mm long axis. The prism is
resting on its base on the H.P. with an edge of the base parallel to the V.P. [RGPV Dec. 2010]
C1
S1 S1
R1 R1
T T
d t s c D1 B1
Q1 Q1
U1 U
P P

60
60
u r A1
C C
S S
R R
a p q b T T
25
D B D B
Q Q
U U
P P
A A
ig. 12.7(a) Fig. 12.7(b) Fig. 12.7(c)

Construction:

1. Draw a hexagon pqrstu with 25 mm side to represent the top view of the prism. Enclose the hexa-
gon into a rectangle abcd as shown in Fig 12.7(a).

Box method: Fig. 12.7(b)

2. Draw a parallelogram ABCD of sides ab and ad keeping AB and AD at 30º to the horizontal.
3. Draw 60 mm long vertical lines AA1, BB1, CC1 and DD1. Join A1B1C1D1.
4. Mark points P, Q, R, S, T and U in the isometric view such that AP = ap, AQ = aq, BR = br,
DT = dt, DS = ds and DU = du. Also Mark points P1, Q1, R1, S1, T1 & U1 such that A1P1 = ap,
A1Q1 = aq, B1R1 = br, D1T1 = dt, D1S1 = ds and D1U1 = du.
5. Join all the corners as shown to get the required isometric view.

Offset method: Fig. 12.7(c)

2. Draw a parallelogram ABCD of sides ab and ad keeping AB and AD at 30º to the horizontal.
3. Mark points P, Q, R, S, T and U in the isometric view such that AP = ap, AQ = aq, BR = br, DT = dt,
DS = ds and DU = du.
4. Draw 60 mm long vertical lines PP1, QQ1, RR1, SS1, TT1 and UU1. Join P1Q1R1S1T1U1 to get the
required isometric view.
 Isometric Projections 12.9

xample 12.3 (Fig 12.8)

Draw an isometric projection of a pentagonal prism of 40 mm base side and 70 mm long
axis resting on its base on the H.P. with an edge of the base parallel to the V.P.
S R1
d s c

T Q1
t r
C P1

70
S R

a b D QB
T
AP
Fig. 12.8(a) Fig. 12.8(b)

Construction: Fig. 12.8(b)

1. Use isometric scale for all measurements because we have to draw isometric projection.
2. Draw a pentagon pqrst taking 40 mm side on isometric scale. Enclose it in a rectangle abcd as
shown in Fig 12.8(a).
3. Draw a parallelogram ABCD of side ab and keeping AB and AD at 30º to the horizontal.
4. Mark points P, Q, R, S and T in the isometric view such that AP ap, AT at, BQ bq, BR br
and DS = ds.
5. Draw (70 × 0.816) mm long vertical lines PP1, QQ1, RR1, SS1 and TT1. Join P1Q1R1S1T1 to obtain
the required isometric view. Dotted lines may be drawn for clarity.
6. Dimension the figure indicating true lengths.

Note: In case of isometric projection, although the measurements are taken on isometric scale, while
dimensioning, only the original lengths are marked.

xample 12.4 (Fig 12.9)

Draw isometric view of a cylinder of 50 mm base diameter and 70 mm long axis when the
axis is perpendicular to the (a) H.P., (b) V.P.
D1

C
E F
D F
70

B1
B
E D1
F1

A E F C A
E1 B1

B
Fig. 12.9(a) Fig. 12.9(b)
12.10 Engineering Graphics

Construction: Offset method Fig. 12.9(a) and Fig. 12.9(b)

1. Draw a rhombus ABCD with 50 mm long sides. In case (a), AB and BC C are inclined at 30º to the
horizontal while in case (b), AB is inclined at 30º to the horizontal and AD is vertical.
2. Inscribe ellipse in ABCD using four-centre method, as explained in Article 12.8.
3. Draw 70 mm long lines BB1, EE1, DD1 and FF1 along the third isometric axis. Draw ellipse with
the help of the centre-points B1, E1, D1 and F1, using four-centre method.
4. Draw common tangents to the above two ellipse.
5. Erase the inner half of the ellipse [lower half in case (a), rear half in case (b)] to obtain the required
isometric view.

Example 12.5 (Fig 12.10)

Draw isometric view of a pentagonal pyramid of 30 mm base side and 50 mm long axis (a)
when its axis is vertical, and (b) when its axis is horizontal.

C
O
d s c S
R
50

D
t r
o O′
e S
R T
B
B E Q 50
D
O′ Q
a p f q b F O
T F
30 A P 30
P
A
Fig. 12.10(a) Fig. 12.10(b) Fig. 12.10(c)

Construction: Offset method Fig. 12.10(b) and Fig. 12.10(c)

1. Draw a pentagon pqrstt to represent the top view of the prism, as shown in Fig. 12.10(a). Enclose
this pentagon into a rectangle abcd.
2. Draw a parallelogram ABCD of side lengths ab and ad. In case (a) AB and AD are inclined
at 30º to the horizontal while in case (b) AB is inclined at 30º to the horizontal and AD is
vertical.
3. Mark points P, Q, R, S and T on the edges of the rhombus such that AP = ap, BQ = bq, AT = at,
BR = brr and DS = ds.
4. Mark point O′ such that its distance from AB = off and from AD = eo. Draw a 50 mm long line OO′
along the isometric axis. [In case (a) OO′ is vertical and in case (b), OO′ is inclined at 30º to the
horizontal].
5. Join points P, Q, R, S and T with apex O to obtain the required isometric view.
 Isometric Projections 12.11

Example 12.6 (Fig 12.11)

Draw isometric projection of a cone of 50 mm base diameter and 70 mm long axis when the
base is (a) on the H.P. (b) in the V.P.

O
C
50
70

D F
D
O′

B
E

50
70
A E F C
O′
50 50 O
A
B

Fig. 12.11(a) Fig. 12.11(b)

Construction: Offset method Fig. 12.11(a) and (b)

1. Draw a (50 × 0.816) mm side rhombus ABCD. In case (a), AB and BC are inclined at 30º to the
horizontal while in case (b), AB is inclined at 30º to the horizontal and AD is vertical.
2. Inscribe ellipse in the rhombus ABCD using four-centre method, as explained in Article
12.8.
3. Mark point O′ as the mid-point of the rhombus ABCD. Draw a (70 × 0.816) mm long line OO′
along the isometric axis. [In case (a) OO′ is vertical and in case (b) OO′ is inclined at 30º to the
horizontal].
4. Draw two tangents from point O to the ellipse.
5. Erase the inner half of the ellipse and obtain the required isometric view.

12.11 ISOMETRIC VIEW OF TRUNCATED SOLIDS

Example 12.7 (Fig 12.12)

Draw an isometric projection of the frustum of a hexagonal pyramid having 40 mm base side,
25 mm long top side and 60 mm height.
[RGPV June 2006]
12.12 Engineering Graphics

5 4 G1
d c 10
9
11 F

60
h 11 10 g H1
8
12
6 12 9 3 7
E C
4
3
G
e 7 8 f
5
F B
D H
a 1 b
HEX25
E
HEX40 6
1
A
Fig. 12.12(a) Orthographic view Fig. 12.12(b) Isometric view

Construction: Fig. 12.12(b)

1. Draw two concentric hexagons 1-2-3-4-5-6 and 7-8-9-10-11-12 to represent the top view of the
frustum of the hexagonal pyramid. Enclose hexagons into rectangles and efgh as shown in
Fig. 12.12(a).
2. On a scale factor of 0.816, draw two concentric parallelograms ABCD and EFGH with their sides
inclined at 30º to the horizontal.
3. Mark points 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 on the edges of the rhombus ABCD such that A1 = a1, B2 = b2,
B3 = b3, 4 c4, D5 d5 and A6 = a6. Join 1-2-3-4-5-6 to represent the hexagon of the lower
base.
4. Draw (60 × 0.816) mm long vertical lines EE1, FF1, GG1 and HH1. Join E1F1G1H1 to represent the
rhombus for the upper face of the frustum.
5. Mark points 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 and 12 on the edges of the rhombus E1F1G1H1 such that E17 = e7, F18 =
f 8, F19 f 9, G110 g10, H111 = h11 and E112 e12. Join 7-8-9-10-11-12 to represent the hexagon
for the upper base.
6. Join 1-7, 2-8, 3-9, 4-10, 5-11, 6-12 to represent the slant edges. Show visible edges of the frustum
with dark lines and dimension the figure as shown.

xample 12.8 (Fig 12.13)

Draw the isometric projection of the frustum of a cone of 50 mm base diameter, 25 mm top
diameter and 60 mm height.
[RGPV June 2006
 Isometric Projections 12.13

O1
T U R
P

60
Q

E F C
A
O

ig. 12.13

Construction: Offset method Fig. 12.13

1. Draw a (50 × 0.816) mm side rhombus ABCD. Locate centre O.

2. Inscribe an ellipse in the rhombus ABCD using four-centre method, refer Article 12.8.
3. Locate centre O1 at a height of (60 × 0.816) mm from the centre O. Describe another rhombus
EFGH about centre O1 having a (25 × 0.816) mm side.
4. Inscribe an ellipse in the rhombus ABCD using four centre method, refer Article 12.8.
5. Darken the visible edges to obtain the required isometric view.

Example 12.9 (Fig 12.14)

Draw isometric view of a sphere of 60 mm diameter truncated by a horizontal plane at a dis-
tance of 20 mm from the centre.
f 45 D

p q
E P F C
A
20

20

o
O

SR30 SR30 (TL)

Fig. 12.14(a) Orthographic view ig. 12.14(b) Isometric view
12.14 Engineering Graphics

Construction: Fig. 12.14(b)

1. Draw a 60 mm diameter circle. Also, draw a horizontal line pq such that it passes through a point
20 mm above the centre, shown in Fig. 12.14(a). The figure represents the front view of the solid.
Measure the length pq as 45 mm, the diameter of circle at the cut surface.
2. Draw a circle of 30 mm true radius with O as the centre, to represent the isometric projection of
the whole sphere.
3. Mark a point P at a height of (20 × 0.816) mm from centre O, to represent centre of the cut surface.
About point P, describe a rhombus ABCD having ((pq × 0.816) mm side.
4. Inscribe ellipse in the rhombus ABCD using four centre method, refer Article 12.8. The ellipse
touches the sphere tangentially at two points.
5. Erase the part of the sphere lying above the tangent point to obtain the required isometric view or
projection.

Note: Isometric view and projection of a sphere are drawn on the isometric scale, using scale factor
of 0.816.

12.12 ISOMETRIC VIEW OF COMPOSITE SOLIDS

Example 12.10 (Fig 12.15)

A cube of 25 mm edge is placed centrally on the top of another square block of 40 mm edge
and 15 mm thickness. Draw the isometric drawing of two solids. [RGPV June 2009]

N
P 3

M
J F
H L 2

I
1 B
D
E

A
Fig. 12.15 Isometric view

Construction: Fig. 12.15

1. Draw a centre line 1-2-3 such that distance between points 1-2 = 15 mm and 2-3 = 25 mm.
 Isometric Projections 12.15

2. Draw a rhombus ABCD with 40 mm side, keeping point 1 as its centre.

3. Draw another rhombus EFGH with 40 mm side, keeping point 2 as its centre.
4. Join AE, BF, CG and DH to represent the vertical edges of the square block.
5. Draw rhombuses IJKL and with 25 mm side each, keeping point 2 and poin 3 as their cen-
tres respectively. Join IM JN KO and to represent the vertical edges of the cube.
6. Darken the visible portion of the solid and dimension the figure.

Example 12.11 (Fig 12.16)

A square pyramid rests centrally over a cylindrical block. Draw the isometric projection of
the arrangement. Consider the pyramid has a base with 25 mm side and 40 mm long axis
whereas the cylindrical block has a base with 50 mm diameter and 20 mm thickness.

40
M
D
N J H L

20
K
A E F
1 C
G

Fig. 12.16 Isometric view

Construction: Fig. 12.16

1. Draw a line 1-2-O such that distance between points 1-2 = (20 × 0.816) mm and 2-O = (40 × 0.816)
mm.
2. Draw a (50 × 0.816) mm side rhombus ABCD keeping point 1 as its centre. Determine points E
and F and inscribe an ellipse inside rhombus ABCD using four-centre method, refer Article 12.8.
3. Draw (20 × 0.816) mm long vertical lines BG FH DI and EJ to transfer the centre points for the
upper face of the cylinder. Draw another ellipse using four centre method where G, H I and J
are the centre-points. [Alternatively, draw a (50 × 0.816) mm side rhombus keeping point 2 as its
centre. Inscribe an ellipse inside this rhombus using four centre method.]
4. Draw rhombus KLMN with 25 mm side keeping point 2 as its centre to represent the base of the
pyramid. Join OK, OL, OM and ON to represent the slant edges of the pyramid.
5. Darken the visible portion of the solid and dimension the figure.
12.16 Engineering Graphics

xample 12.12 (Fig 12.17)

Orthographic projections of a square funnel made of very thin sheet are shown in Fig.
12.17(a). Draw the isometric projection of the funnel. [RGPV Feb. 2008]

D
C
S D
25

B R
A

25
10
Q
P

20
50

ig. 12.17(a) Orthographic view Fig. 12.17(b) isometric projection

Construction: Fig. 12.17(b)

1. Draw a centre line A B C D such that AB = (10 × 0.816) mm, BC = (25 × 0.816) mm and
CD (10 × 0.816) mm.
2. Draw a (50 × 0.816) mm side rhombus P, keeping point A as its centre
3. Draw another (50 × 0.816) mm side rhombus Q, keeping point B as its centre. Join the corners of
rhombus P with the corresponding corners of rhombus Q to represent the vertical edges.
4. Draw a (20 × 0.816) mm side rhombus R, keeping point C as its centre. Join the corners of rhom-
bus Q with the corresponding corners of rhombus R to represent the slant edges.
5. Draw another (20 × 0.816) mm side rhombus S, keeping point D as its centre. Join the corners of
rhombus R with the corresponding corners of rhombus S to represent the vertical edges.
6. Darken the visible portion of the solid and dimension the figure.

xample 12.13 (Fig 12.18)

Draw the isometric projection of a sphere of 25 mm radius which rests centrally on the top of a
square prism of base edge 60 mm and height 30 mm. [RGPV Dec. 2004, Feb. 2005, June 2008]

SR25

F
H 2
30

D E B

A
Fig. 12.18 Isometric projection
 Isometric Projections 12.17

Construction: Fig. 12.18

1. Draw a centre line 1-2-O such that distance between points 1-2 = (30×0.816) mm and 2-O = (25 ×
0.816) mm.
2. Draw a rhombus ABCD of (30 × 0.816) mm keeping point 1 as its centre.
3. Draw another rhombus EFGH H of (30 × 0.816) mm keeping point 2 as its centre.
4. Join AE, BF, CG and DH H to represent the vertical edges of the square prism.
5. Draw a circle with O as the centre and radius 25 mm to represent the sphere.
6. Darken the visible portion of the solid and dimension the figure.

Example 12.14 (Fig 12.19)

A sphere of 60 mm diameter is placed centrally on the top of a frustum of square pyramid.
The base of the frustum is 60 mm square, the top is 40 mm square and its height is 50 mm.
Draw the isometric projection of the arrangement.
[RGPV Dec. 2007]

SR30

H F
2
50

D 1
B

Fig. 12.19 Isometric projection

Construction: Fig. 12.19

1. Draw a centre line 1-2-O such that distance between points 1-2 = (50 × 0.816) mm and 2-O = (30
× 0.816) mm.
2. Draw a rhombus ABCD of (60 × 0.816) mm side keeping point 1 as its centre.
3. Draw another rhombus EFGH H of (40 × 0.816) mm side with point 2 as its centre.
4. Join AE, BF, CG and DH H to represent the slant edges of the frustum of the square pyramid.
5. Draw a circle with O as the centre and radius 30 mm to represent the sphere.
6. Darken the visible portion of the solid and dimension the figure.
12.18 Engineering Graphics

xample 12.15 (Fig 12.20)

A hemisphere of 50 mm diameter rests centrally with its flat surface at the top, over a frustum
of a cone of 80 mm base diameter, 60 mm top diameter and 50 mm height. Draw isometric
projection of the arrangement.

SR25

25
R
Q
B

50
P
A

Fig. 12.20

Construction: Fig. 12.20

1. Draw a centre line such that AB 50 × 0.816 mm and BC 25 × 0.816 mm.

2. Draw a rhombus of (80 × 0.816) mm side keeping point A as its centre. Inscribe an ellipse inside
this rhombus using four-centre method.
3. Draw another rhombus of (60 × 0.816) mm side keeping point B as its centre. Inscribe another
ellipse Q inside this rhombus using four-centre method.
4. Connect the ellipses drawn in step 2 and 3 by tangent lines.
5. Draw a semicircle R with B as the centre and 25 mm radius to represent the sphere.
6. Draw another rhombus of (25 × 0.816) mm side keeping point as its centre. Inscribe an ellipse
S inside the rhombus using four-centre method.
7. Darken the visible portion of the solid and dimension the figure.

xample 12.16 (Fig 12.21)

The front view of an object is shown in Fig. 12.21(a). Draw the isometric projection of the
object.
[RGPV Dec. 2002]
 Isometric Projections 12.19

L U
E
E
D
SR25

40
40

T
C C
S
f

60
R
60

f B
Q
B

40
A
40

P
A
80

Fig. 12.21(a) Front view Fig. 12.21(b) Isometric projection

Construction: Fig. 12.21(b)

1. Draw the front view of the sphere and determine length L for the top circle.
2. Draw a centre line ABCDE such that AB = 40 × 0.816 mm; BC 60 × 0.816 mm; CD 25 ×
0.816 mm and CD = 40 × 0.816 mm.
3. Draw a rhombus P of (80 × 0.816) mm side keeping point A as its centre.
4. Draw another rhombus Q of (64 × 0.816) mm side keeping point B as its centre. Also inscribe
an ellipse R inside the rhombus Q using four-centre method.
5. Draw lines connecting the corners of the rhombuses and Q to represent the slant edges of the
frustum of the pyramid.
6. Draw another rhombus of (50 × 0.816) mm side keeping point as its centre. Inscribe an el-
lipse S inside the rhombus using four-centre method.
7. Connect the ellipses R and S by tangent lines.
8. Draw a circle T with D as the centre and 25 mm radius to represent the sphere.
9. Draw another rhombus of (40 × 0.816) mm side keeping point as its centre. Inscribe an ellipse
U inside the rhombus using four-centre method.
10. Darken the visible portion of the solid and dimension the figure.
12.20 Engineering Graphics

Example 12.17 (Fig 12.22)

Draw the isomeric projection of a hexagonal prism with a hemispherical top touching all the
sides. The sides of the hexagonal prism are 60 mm and height 100 mm.
[RGPV Dec. 2001]
Sf D

S1
Sf D R1
t s T
d c
O
Q1
U1
u r P
d S
R
T
a p q b B
D
HEX Q

U
P
A
Fig. 12.22(a) Top view Fig. 12.22(b) Isometric projection

Construction: Fig. 12.22(b)

1. Draw a 60 mm side hexagon pqrstu and inscribe a circle inside it. This represents the top view of the solid.
2. Enclose the hexagon in a rectangle abcd as shown in Fig. 12.22(a). Also measure the diameter of
the circle SØD as 104 mm to represent the diameter of the sphere.
3. Draw a parallelogram ABCD of (ab × 0.816) mm and (ab × 0.816) mm sides.
4. Locate points P Q, R, S, T and U on the edges of the parallelogram such that AP = ap × 0.816;
BQ = bq × 0.816; BR = br × 0.816, CS cs × 0.816; DT dt × 0.816 and AU au × 0.816.
5. Draw (100 × 0.816) mm vertical lines PP1 QQ1, RR1, SS1, TT1 and UU1 to represent the vertical
edges of the prism. Join P1Q1R1S1T1U1 to represent the hexagon for the top surface.
6. Join mid-points of the edges P1Q1, Q1R1, R1S1, S1T1 and T1P1 to get a smooth ellipse.
7. Locate the centre of the ellipse as point O and describe a semicircle of SØD as shown.
8. Darken the visible portion of the solid and dimension the figure.

12.13 ISOMETRIC VIEWS OF OBJECTS FROM ORTHOGRAPHIC VIEWS

12.13.1 Objects Extruded in One Direction Only

Plane figures with holes or cut of certain shape, called features, when extruded give a solid object. The
orthographic projections of such objects show features on either front, top or side view and the remain-
ing two views show rectangular boxes with straight lines running across. The isometric views of such
objects are prepared by drawing the features on one of the isometric plane and thereafter extruding it to
a mentioned depth. Consider the following examples.
 Isometric Projections 12.21

xample 12.18 (Fig 12.23)

Front and top views of a casting are shown in Fig. 12.23(a). Draw its isometric view.

H
30

I
L J
60 K G
A E
a l i h F
D
k j C
B
20
50

d e
c f
15 15 g

Fig. 12.23(a) ig. 12.23(b) ig. 12.23(c)

Visualization: The basic feature of the casting is seen in the top view while the front view shows the
extruded thickness of 30 mm. As the object is symmetrical, length with 60 mm side can be plotted on
either x or y rection.

Construction: Fig. 12.23(c)

1. Draw ABCDEFGHIJKL on the x-y plane to represent the top view, shown by shading in Fig.
12.23(b).
2. Extrude all the corners 30 mm in z-axis direction and join their end points.
3. Darken the visible edges of the object and dimension the figure to obtain Fig. 12.23(c).

xample 12.19 (Fig 12.24)

Front and top views of a casting are shown in Fig. 12.24(a). Draw its isometric view.
a l
i h
k j
A
40
20
60

L
d e
K
60

f
20

g I
c J H
15 15
40

D
B
30

E
C
F
60 G

Fig. 12.24(a) ig. 12.24(b) Fig. 12.24(c)

12.22 Engineering Graphics

Visualization: The basic feature of the casting is seen in the front view while the top view shows the
extruded thickness of 30 mm. To view major portion of the object in the isometric, the length with 60
mm side should be plotted along y-axis.

Construction: Fig. 12.24(c)

1. Draw ABCDEFGHIJKL on the y-z plane to represent the front view, shown by shade in Fig.
12.24(b).
2. Extrude all the corners 30 mm in x-axis direction and join their end points.
3. Darken the visible edges of the object and dimension the figure to obtain Fig. 12.24(c).

Example 12.20 (Fig 12.25)

The front and side views of an I-beam are shown in Fig. 12.25(a). Draw the isometric view of
the beam.
[RGPV June 2008]

A
8

8
L
K
50

50
D
I J
8

60 40 E
H F

Fig. 12.25(a) Fig. 12.25(b) Fig. 12.25(c)

Visualization: The basic feature of the casting is seen in the front view while the right hand side view
shows the extruded thickness of 60 mm. To obtain the right hand side view visible in the isometric, the
40 mm side should be plotted along the y-axis.

Construction: Fig. 12.25(c)

1. Draw ABCDEFGHIJL on the y- plane to represent the front view, shown by shade in Fig.
12.25(b).
2. Extrude all the corners 60 mm in x-axis direction and join their end points.
3. Darken the visible edges of the object and dimension the figure to obtain Fig. 12.25(c).
 Isometric Projections 12.23

Example 12.21 (Fig 12.26)

Front and left-hand side views of a casting are shown in Fig. 12.35(a). Draw its isometric
view.

a j

15
J
b c
15
e d A

60
15

C
g f
B D
15

h i E
15 30
F I
30 G
40
H

Fig. 12.26(a) ig. 12.26(b) Fig. 12.26(c)

Visualization: The basic feature of the casting is seen in the front view while the left-hand side view
shows the extruded thickness of 30 mm. To obtain the left hand side view the length with 40 mm side
should be plotted along the x-axi

Construction: Fig. 12.26(c)

1. Draw ABCDEFGHIJ on the x- plane to represent the front view, shown by shade in Fig.
12.26(b).
2. Extrude all the corners 30 mm in y-axis direction and join their end points.
3. Darken the visible edges of the object and dimension the figure to obtain Fig. 12.26(c).

12.13.2 Isometric Projections of Extruded Object with Holes, Slots, Ribs and/or
Webs
The objects extruded may have holes, slots, ribs and/or web in the perpendicular direction. The isomet-
ric projections of such objects can be drawn by carefully extruding the plane to obtain the basic solid
and then placing the web or cutting the holes/slots at the specified location. Consider the following
examples.

Example 12.22 (Fig 12.27)

Front and top views of a casting are shown in Fig. 12.27(a). Draw its isometric view.
12.24 Engineering Graphics

15
p
Web
15
s A P
H
50

q r

30

50
20
Q

20
70 G
B F

30
D
40
10

C
Fig. 12.27(a) Fig. 12.27(b) Fig. 12.27(c)

Visualization: The basic feature of the casting is seen in the front view while the top view shows the
extruded thickness of 40 mm. The shaded portion in the front and the top view represents the web. To view
major portion of the object in the isometric, the length with 70 mm side should be plotted along the y-axis.

Construction: Fig. 12.27(c)

1. Draw ABCDDEFGH on the isometric y- plane corresponding to the front view excluding web.
Extrude all the points by 40 mm along the x-direction and join their end points.
2. Mark points P Q, R and S on the extruded surface, 15 mm away towards x-direction from points
H G, F and respectively. Join PQRS.
3. Extrude points P, Q, R and S, 10 mm in x rection and join their end points.
4. Darken the visible edges of the object to obtain Fig. 12.27(c) and dimension it.

xample 12.23 (Fig 12.28)

Front and top views of a casting are shown in Fig. 12.28(a). Draw its isometric view.
20
15

15 f 15
2 Holes
15
40

f 15, 2 holes
20

30
120

ig. 12.28(a) ig. 12.28(b)

 Isometric Projections 12.25

Visualization: The basic feature of the casting is seen in the front view while the top view shows the
extruded thickness of 40 mm. The front and the top views also show that there are two holes of 15 mm
diameter on the base. As the object is symmetrical, the length of 120 mm can be taken along either x or
y-axi

Construction: Fig. 12.28(b)

1. Draw the front view without hole on the isometric y- plane. Draw semi-ellipse by four-centre
method. Extrude all the points 40 mm towards the x axis and join them.
2. On the extruded surfaces, draw rhombus ABCD of side equal to 15 mm side (hole diameter).
Inscribe an ellipse in the rhombus using four-centre method. Transfer all the centres 25 mm down-
ward and ensure that the ellipse corresponding to the lower edge of the hole is not visible through
the upper ellipse.
3. Precede to the other side of the object and the draw the visible part of the edges of the drilled
hole.
4. Darken the visible edges of the object and dimension the figure.

12.13.3 Isometric Projections of Angle Plates

Angle plate is composed of two plates of any arbitrary shape placed at an angle (usually at right angles)
to each other. A careful observation may help in separating both the plates. The isometric projections of
angle plates can also be drawn by extruding. Consider the following examples.

xample 12.24 (Fig. 12.29)

Front and top views of an angle plate are shown in Fig. 12.29(a). Draw its isometric view.

15

A C
F
65

F
C
65

D F
20

E
E D
65
B
20

B
D
40

ig. 12.29(a) Fig. 12.29(b) Fig. 12.29(c) Fig. 12.29(d)

Visualization: The front view shows that angle plates are at right angles to each other and the top
view shows that they are of rectangular cross-sectional area. To view major portion of the object in the
isometric, the length with 65 mm side should be plotted along the y-axis.
12.26 Engineering Graphics

Construction: Method 1, Fig. 12.29(d)

1. Draw on the y-z plane to represent the front view, shown by shade in Fig. 12.29(b).
2. Extrude all the corners, 40 mm in x-axis direction and join their end points.
3. Darken the visible edges of the object and dimension the figure to obtain Fig. 12.29(d).

Construction: Method 2, Fig. 12.29(d)

1. Draw the parallelogram ABCD on the x-y plane. Extrude ABCD 20 mm along the z-axis in down-
ward direction.
2. On the surface of ABCD mark points E and 20 mm
along the z-axis in upward direction.
3. Finally darken the visible edges and dimension the figure to obtain Fig. 12.29(d).

Example 12.25 (Fig 12.30)

Front and right-hand side views of an angle plate are shown in Fig. 12.30(a). Draw its isomet-
ric view.

B
15

25
C
45

20
40 65

Fig. 12.30(a) Fig. 12.30(b) Fig. 12.30(c)

Visualization: The front view shows that angle plates are at right angles to each other and the side
view shows that one of the plates has a semicircular shape on the upper end. To view major portion of
the object in the isometric, the length with 65 mm side should be plotted along the y-axis.

Construction: Method 1, Fig. 12.30(c)

1. Draw the angle plate by any one of the methods explained in Example 12.24, and obtain the figure
similar to Fig. 12.29(d).
2. On the vertical surface of the angle plate, draw the rhombus ABCD of 40 mm side as shown in
Fig. 12.30(b). Draw a semi-ellipse using four-centre method inside the ellipse to represent the
semicircle seen in the side view.
 Isometric Projections 12.27

3. Extrude the points of the semi-ellipse 15 mm in the y axis direction and obtain another semi-
ellipse.
4. Darken the visible edges of the object and dimension to obtain Fig. 12.30(c).

Example 12.26 (Fig. 12.31)

Front and top views of a casting are shown in Fig. 12.31(a). Draw its isometric view.

A E
45

25
20

FB

20
A E
C

45 D

Fig. 12.31(a) Fig. 12.31(b) Fig. 12.31(c)

Visualization: The front view shows that angle plates are at right angles to each other and the top
view shows that one of the plate is of cylindrical cross-sectional area. To view major portion of the
object in the isometric, the length should be plotted along the y-axis.

Construction: Fig. 12.31(c)

1. Draw the parallelogram ABCD on the x-y plane. Also mark a rhombus ABEF and inscribe an el-
lipse, as shown in Fig. 12.31(b), to represent the cylinder at its end.
2. Extrude all the points 20 mm along the z axis in downward direction and complete the bottom
plate.
3. Extrude the points of the ellipse 25 mm along the z-axis in upward direction.
4. Join all the ellipses by tangent lines. Darken the visible edges and dimension the figure to obtain
Fig. 12.31(c).

12.13.4 Isometric Projections of Angle Plates with Holes, Slots and/or Ribs
The orthographic view of angle plate gets complicated when slots are cut or ribs are extended. The iso-
metric projections of such objects can be drawn by first drawing the angle plate and then drawing slots
or ribs in the given position. So there is a need first to observe the basic shape of angle plates and then
to observe the holes drilled and/or ribs attached. Consider the following examples.
12.28 Engineering Graphics

Example 12.27 (Fig. 12.32)

Front and top views of an angle plate are shown in Fig. 12.41(a). Draw its isometric view.
45

65 15 B

15
40

20

H
15 30 10
Fig. 12.32(a) Fig. 12.32(b) Fig. 12.32(c)

Visualization: The front view shows that the angle plates are at right angles to each other and the top
view shows that they are of rectangular cross-sectional area. The top view also shows that a rectangular
hole has been created on the base plate. To enable major portion of the object visible, length with 65 mm
side should be plotted along the y axis.

Construction: Fig. 12.32(c)

1. Draw the isometric view of the angle plate using one of the methods explained in Example 12.24.
2. Draw a parallelogram ABCD of 30 mm × 20 mm on the top surface of the horizontal plate to rep-
resent the rectangle of the slot, as shown in Fig. 12.32(b).
3. Extrude the points of the parallelogram ABCD 15 mm along the z axis in downward direction to
obtain EFGH
4. Darken the portion of the parallelogram EFGH falls within parallelogram ABCD and dimension
to obtain Fig. 12.32(c).

Example 12.28 (Fig. 12.33)

Front and top views of an angle plate are shown in Fig. 12.33(a). Draw its isometric view.
30 15
20

F
40

G
40

65 H A
D
40

Fig. 12.33(a) Fig. 12.33(b) Fig. 12.33(c)

 Isometric Projections 12.29

Visualization: The front view shows that the angle plates are at right angles to each other and the top
view shows that they are of rectangular cross-sectional area. The views also show that there is a rectan-
gular block of 30 mm × 20 mm × 10 mm placed in contact with both the plates of angle plate. To enable
major portion of the object visible, length with 65 mm side should be plotted along the x xis.

Construction: Fig. 12.33(c)

1. Draw the isometric view of the angle plate using a method explained in Example 12.24.
2. Locate a point A at a distance of 15 mm from point O in the y-axis direction. Draw a parallelogram
ABCD of 30 mm × 10 mm to represent the rectangle, as shown in Fig. 12.33(b). Extrude all the
points 10 mm in y-axis direction and obtain EFGH
3. Darken the visible edges of the rectangular block and dimension to obtain Fig. 12.33(c).

xample 12.29 (Fig 12.34)

Front and side views of an angle plate are shown in Fig. 12.34(a). Draw its isometric view.

15 10 F

B
45

35
35
15

D
65 40 A
O

ig. 12.34(a) Fig. 12.34(b) Fig. 12.34(c)

Visualization: The front view shows that the angle plates are at right angles to each other and the
left-hand side view shows that they are of rectangular cross-sectional area. The views also show that one
of the plates has a semicircular shape on the upper end. In addition to this the view show that there is a
rib strengthening the angle plates. To enable major portion of the object visible, there is a need to plot
length with 65 mm side on the x-axis.

Construction: Fig. 12.34(c)

1. Draw the isometric view of the angle plate using a method explained in Example 12.25.
2. Locate a points A and B on the top surface of the horizontal plate at a distance of 15 mm from
points O and P
3. Draw a triangle ABC to represent the right angled triangle of the rib, as shown in Fig. 12.34(b).
Extrude all the points 10 mm in y-axis direction and obtain DEF
4. Darken the visible edges of the rib and dimension to obtain Fig. 12.34(c).
12.30 Engineering Graphics

12.14 MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES

xample 12.30 (Fig 12.35)

Draw the isometric view of the block shown in Fig. 12.35(a).
[RGPV Apr. 2010]
25

10
25

15 25 10

Fig. 12.35(a) ig. 12.35(b)

Fig. 12.35(b) shows the required isometric view.

xample 12.31 (Fig 12.36)

Front and top views of a casting are shown in Fig. 12.36(a). Draw its isometric view.
30
25

35
50

25 15
60

Fig. 12.36(a) Fig. 12.36(b)

 Isometric Projections 12.31

Fig. 12.36(b) shows the required isometric view. Construction lines are left intact for guidance.

Example 12.37 (Fig 12.37)

Front and left-hand side views of a casting are shown in Fig. 12.37(a). Draw its isometric view.

40

15

60
15
25 30
55

Fig. 12.37(a) Fig. 12.37(b)

Fig. 12.37(b) shows the required isometric view. Construction lines are left intact for guidance.

Example 12.33 (Fig 12.38)

Front and right-hand side views of a casting are shown in Fig. 12.38(a). Draw its isometric view.

20
70
40
20

20

Fig. 12.38(a) Fig. 12.38(b)

Fig. 12.38(b) shows the required isometric view. Construction lines are left intact for guidance.
12.32 Engineering Graphics

xample 12.34 (Fig 12.39)

Fig. 12.39(a) shows the orthographic projections of an object. Draw its isometric view.

15
15

40
20
60

60
20

40
30
1

60
Fig. 12.39(a) ig. 12.39(b)

Fig. 12.39(b) shows the required isometric view.

xample 12.35 (Fig 12.40)

Two orthographic views of a block are given in Fig. 12.40(a). Draw the isometric view of the
block. [RGPV Feb. 2007]
30 20
G
10

F
R25 E
10
50

C
D Q
B

H
70 P

R
25

A
25

ig. 12.40(a) ig. 12.40(b) ig. 12.40(c)

 Isometric Projections 12.33

Construction: Fig. 12.40(c)

1. Draw the polygon ABCDEFGH on the x-z plane. Also, draw a rhombus and mark semi-
ellipse, as shown in Fig. 12.40(b).
2. Extrude the points of the polygon 25 mm along the y-axis in a direction towards V.P. and complete
the back plate.
3. Extrude the points of the semi-ellipse 25 mm along the y axis in a direction away from the V.P.
Join the semi-ellipses by tangent lines.
4. Darken the visible edges and dimension the figure to obtain Fig. 12.40(c).

xample 12.36 (Fig 12.41)

Draw the isometric projection of the object shown in Fig. 12.41(a). [RGPV Feb. 2007]
20
44

20

44
E
P R

22
D
16 16 S
F
82
A C

B
38
19

Fig. 12.41(a) Fig. 12.41(b) Fig. 12.41(c)

Construction: Fig. 12.41(c)

1. Draw the polygon on the x- plane, as shown in Fig. 12.40(b). Extrude the points of the
polygon 38 × 0.816 mm along the y-axis and complete the base plate.
2. On the top surface of the main block mark a rhombus PQRS and inscribe an ellipse using four-
centre method.
3. Extrude the ellipse 20 × 0.816 mm along z-axis in upward direction. Join the ellipses by tangent
lines.
4. Darken the visible edges and dimension the figure to obtain Fig. 12.40(c).

xample 12.37 (Fig 12.42)

Fig. 12.42(a) shows the orthographic projections of an object. Draw its isometric view.
12.34 Engineering Graphics

40

40
60

60
40 60
60

ig. 12.42(a) Fig. 12.42(b)

Fig. 12.42(b) shows the required isometric view.

Example 12.38 (Fig 12.43)

An object has its front, top and side views as shown in Fig. 12.43(a). Draw its isometric view.
60

60
40

40

40
60

Fig. 12.43(a) Fig. 12.43(b)

Fig. 12.43(b) shows the required isometric view.

 Isometric Projections 12.35

Example 12.39 (Fig 12.44)

Draw isometric view of the casting shown in two views of Fig. 12.44(a). [RGPV Dec. 2005]

48
16
16

75

48
36

16
100

25 25
Fig. 12.44(a) Fig. 12.44(b)

Fig. 12.44(b) shows the required isometric view

Example 12.40 (Fig 12.45)

Fig. 12.45(a) shows three orthographic views of an object. Draw its isometric view.
15
R20
20

50

15 50 25
20

Fig. 12.45(a) Fig. 12.45(b)

Fig. 12.45(b) shows the required isometric view. Length is taken on the left hand side to visualize its
major portion. Construction lines are left intact for guidance.
12.36 Engineering Graphics

Example 12.41 (Fig 12.46)

Fig. 12.46(a) shows the orthographic projections of an object. Draw its isometric view.
15

45
20
6

45
15 10
80

20
b
45

25
9

Fig. 12.46(a) Fig. 12.46(b)

Fig. 12.46(b) shows the required isometric view. The following may be noted :

1. Length should be taken on the right-hand side as to visualize its major portion.
2. Draw all the three lines converging from both points a and b carefully.

Example 12.42 (Fig 12.47)

Fig. 12.47(a) shows the orthographic projections of an object. Draw its isometric view.
20

30

R30
20
30
10

25 10
50

Fig. 12.47(a) ig. 12.47(b)

Fig. 12.47(b) shows the required isometric view. Construction lines are left intact for guidance.
 Isometric Projections 12.37

xample 12.43 (Fig 12.48)

Fig. 12.48(a) shows the orthographic projections of an object. Draw its isometric view.

15
a

70
15

70
60
R30 20

15

15 15

Fig. 12.48(a) Fig. 12.48(b)

Fig. 12.48(b) shows the required isometric view. Construction lines are left intact for guidance. The
following may be noted :

1. All the three lines converging from point a should be drawn.

2. Lines for the visible lower edges of the circular hole should be drawn.
xample 12.44 (Fig 12.49)
Fig. 12.49(a) shows the orthographic projections of an object. Draw its isometric view.

a
50

15

55
80
15

60
15

35
ig. 12.49(a) ig. 12.49(b)
12.38 Engineering Graphics

Fig. 12.49(b) shows the required isometric view. Construction lines are left intact for guidance. Two
lines and a curve converging from point a should be drawn.

Example 12.45 (Fig 12.50)

Fig. 12.50(a) shows the orthographic projections of an object. Draw its isometric view.

x 15

b
30

a
80

30
30

60 55

Fig. 12.50(a) Fig. 12.50(b)

Fig. 12.50(b) shows the required isometric view. Construction lines are left intact for guidance. The
following may be noted:

1. Length x has to be determined in order to transfer it in the isometric view.

2. Two lines and a curve converging from point a should be drawn.
3. Lines for the visible edge of the circular hole should be drawn at point b.

Example 12.46 (Fig 12.51)

The front view and top view of an object are shown in Fig. 12.51(a). Draw the isometric view
of the object.
 Isometric Projections 12.39

50

35
10
90

30
R15
10

f15

Fig. 12.51(a) ig. 12.51(b)

Fig. 12.51(b) shows the required isometric view. Construction lines are left intact for guidance. Two
lines and a curve converging from point a, need be drawn.

Example 12.47 (Fig 12.52)

The front view and top view are shown in Fig. 12.52(a). Draw the isometric view of the object.
[RGPV Sep. 2009]
20
15 10
15
20
15

25 15 20 20

Fig. 12.52(a) Fig. 12.52(b)

Fig. 12.52(b) shows the required isometric view.

12.40 Engineering Graphics

Example 12.48 (Fig 12.53)

Fig. 12.53(a) shows the orthographic projections of an object. Draw its isometric view.
15

50

60
5

70
R30
15
15

20
40
Fig. 12.53(a) Fig. 12.53(b)

Fig. 12.53(b) shows the required isometric view. Construction lines are left intact for guidance.

Example 12.49 (Fig 12.54)

Fig. 12.54(a) shows the orthographic projections of an object. Draw its isometric view.
R30
20

20
50
R30
20

50
Fig. 12.54(a) ig. 12.54(b)
 Isometric Projections 12.41

Fig. 12.54(b) shows the required isometric view. Construction lines are left intact for guidance.

Example 12.50 (Fig 12.55)

Fig. 12.55(a) shows the orthographic projections of an object. Draw its isometric view.

30 40 15
R30

15
15

100
40
60

10

Fig. 12.55(a) Fig. 12.55(b)

Fig. 12.55(b) shows the required isometric view. Construction lines are left intact for guidance.

EXERCISE 12

Simple Solids
1. Draw an isometric view of a pentagonal prism with 30 mm base side and 60 mm long axis resting
on its base in the H.P. with a face parallel and nearer to the V.P.
2. Draw an isometric view of a hexagonal prism with 30 mm base side and 70 mm long axis, which
is lying on its face in the H.P. with axis parallel to both H.P. and V.P.
3. A cylindrical block of base 60 mm diameter and height 90 mm, standing on the H.P. with its axis
perpendicular to the H.P. Draw its isometric view. [RGPV Feb. 2006]
4. Draw isometric view of a pentagonal pyramid with the 25 mm base side and 60 mm long axis. The
pyramid is resting on its base on the H.P. with an edge of the base parallel to V.P.
[RGPV June 2008]
5. Draw isometric projection of the frustum of a pentagonal pyramid of 40 mm base side, 20 mm top
side and 35 mm height resting on its base in the H.P.
6. Draw isometric projection of the pentagonal pyramid, the projections of which is given in
Fig. E12.1. [RGPV June 2007]
12.42 Engineering Graphics

7. Draw the isometric view of the pentagonal pyramid shown in Fig. E12.2. [RGPV June 2009]
8. Draw isometric projection of a frustum of the hexagonal pyramid shown in Fig. E12.3.
[RGPV June 2007]
9. Draw the isometric view of the frustum of the cone shown in Fig. E12.4. [RGPV June 2009]

70
50
70
50

f6
0 f 40
30

25
25 45
Fig. E12.1 Fig. E12.2 Fig. E12.3 Fig. E12.4
Composite Solids
10. A composite solid is made up of a rectangular block of 80 mm × 40 mm × 30 mm high and semi-
cylinders of 80 mm diameter 30 mm high at both the rectangular faces (80 mm × 30 mm) of the
block. Draw its isometric projection.
11. A cone with a base diameter of 30 mm and 50 mm long axis, rests centrally over a square prism
of base 50 mm side and 30 mm thick. Draw an isometric projection of the arrangement.
12. The frustum of a cone of 60 mm base diameter, 40 mm top diameter and 50 mm height is sur-
mounted centrally over a cylindrical block of 80 mm diameter and thickness 30 mm. Draw its
isometric projection.
13. A cube of 40 mm sides rests centrally on a square block of 60 mm edge and 20 mm thickness.
Draw the isometric projections of the two objects with the edges of the two blocks mutually
parallel to each other. [RGPV June 2005]
14. Draw the isometric projection of a sphere (R = 25 mm) resting centrally on the top of a square
prism (base = 60 mm, height = 20 mm). [RGPV Apr. 2009]
15. Draw the isometric view of a sphere of 20 mm radius which rests centrally on top of a square
prism of 50 mm base and 60 mm height. [RGPV Aug. 2010]
16. Draw the isometric projection of a spherical ball of 40 mm diameter resting centrally on the top
of a pentagonal disc of 30 mm base side and 50 mm height. [RGPV Dec. 2008]
17. A sphere of radius 15 mm is placed on the top base of a square prism of side base 40 mm and
height 50 mm. The square prism is place on the top of a cylinder of 30 mm height and 65 mm
diameter. All the three solids have the common axis. Draw the isometric view of the combination
of solids. [RGPV June 2011]
Sectioned Solids
18. A hexagonal prism of 30 mm base and 45 mm axis has an axial hole of 30 mm diameter. Draw
its isometric projection.
 Isometric Projections 12.43

19. A triangular pyramid having a 60 mm base side and 80 mm long axis is resting on its base in the
H.P. with a side of the base parallel to the V.P. It is cut by an A.I.P. inclined at 45º with the H.P.
and bisecting the axis. Draw its isometric view.
20. A cone of 50 mm base diameter and 60 mm axis rests with its base on H.P. A section plane
perpendicular to V.P. and inclined at 30º to H.P. passes through the axis at a distance of 25 mm
above base. Draw the isometric view of the truncated cone. [RGPV Feb. 2011]
21. A cube of 60 mm side has square holes of 30 mm side, cut through from all the six faces. The sides
of the square holes are parallel to the edges of the cube. Draw the isometric view of the cube.

Solids Extruded in One Direction

22. Figs. E12.5-E12.16 show shows the orthographic projections of an object extruded in single
direction. Draw their isometric views.

70
20
60

60 40
25

20
20
20
40

40

40

15 15 70 20

Fig. E12.5 Fig. E12.6 Fig. E12.7

25 15
40
15

20
45

20
15

15

30
20
60
70
30

20 20
15

70 80 50 60
Fig. E12.8 Fig. E12.9 Fig. E12.10
12.44 Engineering Graphics

80
40 45
15

15
150°
60

40
40
20

10
15 15 5
f2

20
20

45
30

20
60 20 55
Fig. E12.11 Fig. E12.12 Fig. E12.13

15 10 15
20

20
18
15

30

50
R
R2
0

0
0
f7

R2
20

f7
0
15

f 30

10
40

Fig. E12.14 Fig. E12.15 Fig. E12.16

23. Figs. E12.17-E12.19 show the orthographic projections of an object extruded in single direction
and having hole, web or rib in the perpendicular direction. Draw their isometric views.

30
R1 R
5
25
55
15

20

15 20
15

15 15
10
25
55
40

15
20
40

15

35 30
70 120 40 40

Fig. E12.17 Fig. E12.18 Fig. E12.19

 Isometric Projections 12.45

Angle Plates
24. Figs. E12.20-E12.22 show the orthographic projections (in first angle) of angle plates with cer-
tain additional features such as ribs, slots, holes, etc. Draw their isometric views.

30
35

15
25

60
50

20
15

15
80 110
15

20
20
50

20
60
0
f3
50

15
30
20 35

Fig. E12.20 Fig. E12.21 Fig. E12.22

Typical Problems
25. Figs. E12.23-E12.30 show the orthographic projections of objects in first angle projections.
Draw their isometric views.

15
20

25 15
70

40
10 15
25

5 10
30

20

100 35 20
60
20

60
15

40
10
40

15

35 35 75

Fig. E12.23 Fig. E12.24 Fig. E12.25

12.46 Engineering Graphics

20 20 20 30 25

20
25

25

60

60
20

20
20 60 65 100 75

Fig. E12.26 Fig. E12.27

25
20 60

25
25 15 15

40
30 30

20
40

25
15

40
15

25
75 45 60 20
Fig. E12.28 Fig. E12.29 Fig. E12.30

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. What is the R.F. of an isometric scale?

2. How would you construct an isometric scale?
3. Differentiate between isometric lines and non-isometric lines.
4. What is the relation among projectors in isometric projection?
5. State the relation between true length and isometric length?
6. Differentiate between isometric projection and isometric view.
7. Name the methods preferred for drawing ellipse in isometric projections.
8. Define isometric axes and isometric planes.
9. What are the principles of dimensioning in isometric projections?
10. What are the advantages of drawing isometric views?
 Isometric Projections 12.47

MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS

Choose the most appropriate answer out of the given alternatives:

i) The projectors in isometric view are

(a) converging (b) diverging
(c) parallel to plane of projection (d) perpendicular to plane projection
ii) Pictorial views drawn on isometric scale are called
(a) isometric drawings (b) isometric projections
(c) isometric views (d) any of these
iii) The exact value of R.F. of an isometric scale is
(a) 9/11 (b) 0.815 (c) 0.8165 (d) √2 / √3
iv) The angle that isometric lines make with each other is
(a) 45º (b) 60º (c) 90º (d) 120º
v) A square in a regular multi-view projection appears in an isometric view as
(a) box (b) square (c) parallelogram (d) rhombus
vi) In comparison to an isometric projection, the appearance of an isometric view is
(a) larger (b) smaller (c) more accurate (d) more realistic
vii) On isometric plane, a circle appears as
(a) an obloid (b) a circle (c) an ellipse (d) an involute
viii) While making isometric projections, the ellipse is preferably drawn by
(a) four-centre method (b) oblong method
(c) concentric circles method (d) parallelogram method
ix) Isometric projections cannot be drawn by
(a) box method (b) coordinate method
(c) offset method (d) zone method
x) A sphere in isometric projection appears as a circle of diameter
(a) equal to the diameter of sphere (b) 0.816 times the diameter of sphere
(c) less than 0.816 diameter of sphere (d) greater than the diameter of sphere
xi) Select the correct isometric view corresponding to the orthographic view shown in Fig.
M12.21.
12.48 Engineering Graphics

Fig. M12.21 (a) (b) (c) (d)

xii) Select the correct isometric view corresponding to the orthographic view shown in Fig. M12.22.

Fig. M12.22 (a) (b) (c) (d)

xiii) Select the correct isometric view corresponding to the front view shown in Fig. M12.23.

Fig. M12.23 (a) (b) (c) (d)

xiv) Select the correct isometric view corresponding to the front view shown in Fig. M12.24.

Fig. M12.24 (a) (b) (c) (d)

xv) Select the correct isometric view corresponding to the orthographic view shown in Fig. M12.25.

All of these
Fig. M12.25 (a) (b) (c) (d)

Answers
(i) d (ii) b (iii) d (iv) d (v) d (vi) a (vii) c (viii) a (ix) d (x) a (xi) c
(xii) b (xiii) c (xiv) b (xv) d
 13

Computer
Aided Drafting
(CAD)

� Introduction
� CAD Application
� Basic Components of a Computer
� Introduction to AutoCAD
� Setting Up Drawing Space
� Sheet Layout
� Methods of Locating a Point
� Regulating the Cursor Movement
� Drawing Lines and Curves
� Editing a Drawing
13.2 Engineering Graphics

13.1 INTRODUCTION

The drafting work can be automated and accelerated through the use of Computer Aided Drafting
(CAD) systems. It may be applied for a wide variety of products in the field of automotive, electronics,
aerospace, naval, architecture, civil and other disciplines of engineering. CAD systems were originally
used for automated drafting only, but now they also include three-dimensional modeling and com-
puter-simulated operations of the models. Sometimes CAD is translated as “computer-assisted draft-
ing”, “computer-aided drafting”, or a similar phrase. Related acronyms are CADD, which stands for
“computer-aided design and drafting”, CAID, for Computer-aided Industrial Design, and CAAD, for
“computer-aided architectural design”. All these terms are essentially synonymous, but there are some
subtle differences in meaning and application.

13.2 CAD APPLICATION

CAD is used to design, develop and optimize products, which can be goods used by end consumers or
intermediate goods used in other products. CAD is also extensively used in the design of tools and equip-
ment required in the manufacturing process, and in the drafting and design of all types of buildings, ranging
from small residential houses to the largest commercial or industrial complexes. CAD enables designers to
layout and to develop their work on a computer screen, print and save it for future editing, thus saving a lot
of time on their drawings. CAD is mainly used for detailed engineering of 3D models and/or 2D drawings
of physical components, but it is also used throughout the engineering process, from conceptual design and
layout of products to definition of manufacturing methods of components. Rather than building prototypes
and changing components to determine the effects of tolerance ranges, engineers can use CAD systems to
simulate operation to determine loads and stresses. The major benefits of such systems include lower prod-
uct development costs and a greatly shortened design cycle. The CAD systems running on workstations
and mainframe computers are increasingly integrated with computer-aided manufacturing systems.

13.3 SOFTWARE PROVIDERS

There are many CAD software products currently in the market. They can be classified into three types,
which are, 2D drafting systems (e.g., AutoCAD, General CADD Pro), mid-range 3D solid feature mod-
elers (e.g., Inventor, TopSolid, IronCAD, SolidWorks, SolidEdge, Alibre Design, VariCAD, Archi-
CAD) and high-end 3D hybrid systems (e.g., CATIA, NX (Unigraphics), Pro/ENGINEER). However,
these classifications cannot be applied too strictly as many 2D systems have 3D modules, the mid-range
systems are increasing their surface functionality, and the high-end systems have developed their user
interface in the direction of interactive Windows systems. More than half of the market is however cov-
ered by Autodesk Inc., Dassault Systems, PTC, and UGS Corp.

13.4 HARDWARE AND OPERATING SYSTEM TECHNOLOGIES

Today, most CAD computer workstations are Windows based PCs. However, some CAD systems also
run on Unix or Linux operating systems. Generally no special hardware is required except a high end
 Computer Aided Drafting 13.3

Graphics card. However, for complex product design, machines with high speed CPUs and large ca-
pacity of RAM are recommended. The human-machine interface is generally via a computer mouse or
keyboard, but can also be via a pen and digitizing graphics tablet.

13.5 BASIC COMPONENTS OF A COMPUTER

A general purpose computer has four main sections, which are the arithmetic and logic unit (ALU),
the control unit, the memory, and the input and output devices. These parts are inter-connected by
busses, often made of groups of wires. The basic components of a computer have been presented in
Fig. 13.1.

Fig. 13.1 Basic components of a computer

13.5.1 Central Processing Unit (CPU)

A CPU, also known as processor, interprets computer program instructions and processes data. In gen-
eral, a CPU consists of:

• Arithmetic logic unit = ALU (addition, multiplication, comparison, etc.)

• Registers (extremely fast special memory for commands and operands)
• Control unit (gets commands, moves data to/from ALU and memory)

The arithmetic logic unit (ALU) is a digital circuit that calculates an arithmetic operation (addition,
subtraction, etc.) and logic operations (Exclusive OR, AND, etc.) between two numbers. Processor reg-
isters are the top of the memory hierarchy, and provide the fastest way for the system to access data. The
control unit fetches instructions from memory and decodes them to produce signals which control the
other part of the computer. This may cause it to transfer data between memory and ALU or to activate
peripherals to perform input or output.

13.5.2 Memory
It is a very fast storage device used to hold data connecting directly to the microprocessor. There are
several types of memory in a computer.
13.4 Engineering Graphics

1. Random-access Memory (RAM) Used to temporarily store information that the computer is
currently working with.
2. Read-only Memory (ROM) A permanent type of memory storage used by the computer for
important data that does not change.
3. Basic Input/Output System (BIOS) A type of ROM that is used by the computer to establish
basic communication when the computer is first turned on.
4. Cach (pronounced as ‘Cash’) Memory The storage of frequently used data in extremely fast
RAM that connects directly to the CPU.
5. Virtual Memory Space on a hard disk used to temporarily store data and swap it in and out of
RAM as needed.

13.5.3 Input Device

Input refers to the process of entering data, programs, commands, and user responses into computer’s
memory. Following are some of the common input devices.

1. Keyboard It is the most commonly used input device which enables to enter data into a com-
puter by pressing keys.
2. Mouse It is basically a pointing or picking device. The optical mouse has two buttons and a
scroll wheel. Electronic circuits translate the mouse’s movement into signals that are sent to the
computer and used to direct the pointer.
3. Trackball It is a pointing device like a mouse with the ball on top. There are usually one to three
buttons next to the ball, which are used just like mouse buttons. The only advantage of trackballs
over a mouse is that the trackball is stationary so it does not require much space to operate it.
4. Touch Pad It is a flat surface that controls the movement of the pointer by sensing the motion
of a finger on its exterior. The position of the pointer can be clicked by tapping the pad. It is
generally integral part of lap-top computers.
5. Pointing Stick It is a device shaped like a pencil eraser that moves the pointer as pressure is
applied.
6. Joystick A joystick uses the movement of a vertical stem to direct the pointer. It is a lever that
moves in all direction and controls the movement of a pointer or some other display symbol. Joy-
sticks are used mostly for computer games, but they are also used occasionally for CAD/CAM
systems and other applications.
7. Pen Input Pen input devices can input data with hand written characters, select items by press-
ing the pen against the screen, and use gestures, which are special symbols, to issue commands.
A light pen can be used to select processing options or to draw on the screen.
8. Touch Screen Touch screen allows users to touch areas of the screen to enter data. The key
benefit of touch screens is enabling users to work interactively and more intuitively than through
separate keypads or other input devices.
9. Digitizing Tablet It consists of an electronic tablet and a cursor or pen. It is used to convert
shapes from a drawing or photograph to digital impulses and transmits them to a computer. Digi-
tizing tablets are also called digitizers, graphics tablets, touch tablets, or simply tablets.
10. Scanner It captures an entire page containing image and/or text and converts it into a digital
file allowing the computer to read and/or display the scanned object.
11. Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR) Magnetic Ink Character Recognition is a char-
 Computer Aided Drafting 13.5

acter recognition system that uses special ink and characters. When a document that contains this
ink needs to be read, it passes through a machine, which magnetizes the ink and then translates
the magnetic information into characters.
12. Terminals It is a device that enables you to communicate with a computer. Generally, a termi-
nal is a combination of keyboard and display screen.
13. Sound Card Sound cards enable the computer to output sound through speakers connected to
the board, to record sound input from a microphone connected to the computer, and manipulate
sound stored on a disk.
14. Voice Input It allows data and commands to be entered with spoken words. Digital cameras
record photographs in the form of digital data. Video material is inputted using a video camera
or a video recorder.
15. Electronic Whiteboard Electronic whiteboard is a modified whiteboard that captures text and
drawing an area on a display screen that multiple users can write or draw on. Whiteboards are
a principal component of tele-conferencing applications because they enable visual as well as
audio communications in a file on an attached computer.

13.5.4 Output Device

Output refers to the processed result that is to be communicated by the computer. Following are some
of the common output devices.

1. Monitor It is a display device that looks like a television screen. The monitor is an external
component of the computer that displays the information produced by it to the user.
2. Printers and Plotters A printer allows the computer to provide the result in a printed form while
a plotter is used to produce high-quality line drawings on paper.

13.5.5 Storage Device

It is a device used for storing input or output data.

1. Magnetic Disk It refers to the storage device on a magnetized medium. These devices are cheap-
⎛ 1 1⎞
er but are slow to access. Hard disk is currently in use. Floppies ⎜ 5 and 3 ⎟ have been almost
⎝ 4 2⎠
completely phased out due to their low capacity, low speed, and low durability.
2. Semi-conductor Storage It uses semi-conductor-based integrated circuits to store information.
A semiconductor memory chip may contain millions of tiny transistors or capacitors. A type of
non-volatile semi-conductor memory known as flash memory has steadily gained share as off-line
storage for home computers.
3. Optical Disk It uses tiny pits etched on the surface of a circular disc to store information, and
reads this information by illuminating the surface with a laser diode and observing the reflection.
Compact disk (CD), Digital video disk (DVD) and Blue-violet disk (Blu-ray) are currently in
common use.
4. Ultra Density Optical Disc (UDO) Storage It uses blue laser-based technology. This offers a
revolutionary 30GB of storage capacity on a single 130 mm cartridge.
13.6 Engineering Graphics

13.6 INTRODUCTION TO AUTOCAD

AutoCAD is one of the most versatile drafting software. It is widely applicable to all disciplines of en-
gineering, architecture and construction fields. Among its many versions, AutoCAD 2011 is the latest
and is highly user-friendly. The present chapter highlights some of its basic features applied to generate
2-D drawings in engineering practice. It is presumed that the readers have basic knowledge of operating
computers as well as they are conversant with the Windows environment.

13.7 STARTING WITH AUTOCAD 2007

When the AutoCAD icon is clicked on, a Workspaces dialog box appears as shown in Fig. 13.2(a).
This offers two options (a) 3D Modeling or (b) AutoCAD Classic. The 3D Modeling is used for three-
dimensional drawing while AutoCAD Classic is suitable for two-dimensional drawing. On clicking OK,
New Features Workshop dialog box appears as shown in Fig. 13.2(b). It offers option to learn some new
features. To view these features, invoke option ‘Yes’ or else option ‘Maybe later’ and click OK. Auto-
CAD opens the screen as shown in Fig. 13.3 or Fig 13.4 depending upon the workspace selected, 3D
Modeling or AutoCAD Classic, respectively. Several other items may also appear on the screen, such as
the Sheet Set Manager, the Info Palette, and so on, which may be closed by clicking Close (X) button.

Fig. 13.2(a) Fig. 13.2(b) Fig. 13.3 3D Modeling workspace

In case 3D Modeling Workspaces is selected, and one desires to switch over to AutoCAD Classic, it
can be done through the Workspaces toolbar at the upper left corner of the screen and then File � New,
followed by acad.dwt in the Select Template dialog box.

13.8 AUTOCAD CLASSIC WORKSPACE

The AutoCAD Classic Workspace screen as shown in Fig. 13.4 consists of the following features.
 Computer Aided Drafting 13.7

Fig. 13.4 AutoCAD classic workspace

1. Drawing Area The big rectangular space in the middle of the screen is called the drawing space
or drawing area where drawing work is done. There is an almost infinite area to draw and what
appears is just a portion of that.
2. WCS Icon The symbol consisting of two arrows in the bottom-left corner of the drawing area is
called the WCS (World Coordinate System) icon. This shows the direction of positive X-axis and
positive Y-axis. It can be changed to a User Co-ordinate System.
3. Pick-box and Crosshairs A small box in the drawing area is called pick-box and the super-im-
posed cross lines over the pick-box are called the crosshairs. The pick-box helps to pick or select
objects, whereas the crosshairs show the location of the cursor. The movement of the pick-box and
crosshairs are guided by the mouse. The X, Y coordinates of the current position of the crosshairs
is indicated on the status bar at the bottom left corner of the screen.
4. Menus and Toolbars The following main toolbars which appear on the screen are shown in
Fig. 13.4.
13.8 Engineering Graphics

Title Bar It shows the name of the running program and the current filename.
Menu Bar These are the standard pull-down menus through which almost all commands are accessible.
Standard Toolbar This contains commonly used AutoCAD commands as well as standard Win-
dows icons.
Properties Toolbar It gives a way to quickly modify an object’s properties, such as layer and linetype.
Floating Toolbar A few toolbars which can be docked at any convenient positions of the screen
are known as floating toolbars. Amongst these, the Draw toolbar and the Modify toolbar appear at
the left and right columns of the screen. More floating toolbars may be opened or customized by
choosing View � Toolbars from the menu bar.
5. Command Line and Dynamic Input Tooltip A pair of windows which appears near the bottom
of the screen is called the command line. They prompt for the desired information and accept the
actual command. All commands can be executed by typing them on the command line. The Dy-
namic Input tool-tip allows seeing the text that is typed at the cursor.
6. Status Bar The status bar appears at the bottom of the screen. At the left, it shows the X, Y coordi-
nates of the current position of the crosshair. At the middle, it allows seeing and changing different
modes of drawing such as Snap, Grid, Ortho, Polar, Osnaps, Otrack, etc. At the right side, the Tray
Icons give the updates on items like reference files program updates and print status.
7. Tool Palettes Tool palettes can be seen towards the right side of the drawing space. It can be
invoked through menu bar by Tools � Palettes � Tool Palettes. It provides an alternative way for
selecting a command.

13.9 SETTING UP DRAWING SPACE

To start a new drawing, it is necessary to setup its size and units. These settings can be saved in a tem-
plate for new drawings in future.

13.9.1 Units Command

This command is used to define the unit and angle formats. It can be invoked by any one of the follow-
ing methods.

Fig. 13.5(a) Drawing units dialog box Fig. 13.5(b) Direction control dialog box
 Computer Aided Drafting 13.9

(a) Menu bar : Format � Units

(b) Command line : Units

This will open Drawing Units dialog box as shown in Fig. 13.5(a). The parameters required to be set
are given below.

1. Length It specifies the current unit format and precision for linear measurement as shown in
Table 13.1. While the unit type sets the units in architectural, decimal, engineering, fractional or
scientific type, the precision sets the number of decimal places or the fractional size.

Table 13.1
Unit Type Sample Precision upto Description
Architectural 1′–4 1D2″ 0′-01/256 Feet and inches in fractions
Decimal 16.50 0.00000000 Partial units in decimals
Engineering 1′–4.50″ 0′-0.00000000 Feet and inches in decimals
Fractional 16 1⁄2 0 1/256 Partial units in fractions
Scientific 1.65E+01 0.00000000E+01 Base number + exponent

2. Angle It specifies the current angle format and precision for angular measurement as shown in
Table 13.2. While the angle type sets the units in Decimal Degrees, Deg/Min/Sec, Grads, Radi-
ans or Surveyor type, the precision sets the number of decimal places. The default direction for
positive angles is counter-clockwise. The clockwise option takes positive angles in the clockwise
direction.

Table 13.2
Angle Type Sample Precision upto Measurement Description
Decimal Degrees 16.5 0.00000000 Degrees in decimals
Deg/Min/Sec 16°30′0″ 0d00′00.0000″ Degrees, minutes, and seconds
Grads 18.33333g 0.00000000g Grads in decimals
Radians 0.287979r 0.00000000r Radians in decimals
Surveyor N 73d30′ E N0d00′00.0000″E Surveyor’s units

3. Insertion Scale It is defined as the ratio of the units used in the source drawing and the units
used in the target drawing. This is used when a drawing created with different units is to be
inserted into the current drawing. Unitless option is used to insert the drawing or block without
scaling.
4. Sample Output It displays an example of the current settings for units and angles.
5. Direction It displays the Direction Control dialog box as shown in Fig. 13.5(b). It defines the
angle for zero degrees and specifies the direction in which angles are measured. The other � angle
option is used to specify it by locating points or by entering a value.
13.10 Engineering Graphics

13.9.2 Limits Command

This command creates an artificial and invisible boundary for the drawing. It affects the size of the grid,
when displayed. However, drawing can be made outside the limits also. The default value of the lower-
left corner and the upper right corners are (0,0) and (12,9) respectively. It can be invoked by any one of
the following methods.

(a) Menu bar : Format � Drawing Limits

(b) Command line : Limits

Reset Model space limits:

Specify lower left corner or [ON/OFF] <0.0000,0.0000>: (Pick a point or press Enter for current)
Specify upper right corner <12.0000,9.0000>: (Pick a point or press Enter for current)

13.9.3 Scale
A scale is often indicated in the format (plotted size: actual size) known as representative fraction or
scale factor. A scale is chosen during the process of laying out a drawing to ensure text, annotations and
dimensions remains readable in its final plotted form. It can be setup through Plot Scale section in the
Page Setup dialog box or Plot dialog box.

13.10 SHEET LAYOUT

It is a rectangle that includes boundary, frames, various marks, title block, etc. It can be created and
saved in the form of a template for future drawings or selected from a large number of the standard
templates provided with AutoCAD.

For a new drawing, the Select template dialog box, shown in Fig 13.6(a), can be opened through File �
New in the menu bar. For example, select “ISO A3–Named plot styles.dwt” to open an A3-size sheet
with layout marked as shown in Fig 13.6(b).

Fig. 13.6(a) Select template dialog box Fig. 13.6(b) ISO A3–Named plot styles template
 Computer Aided Drafting 13.11

13.11 MVSETUP COMMAND

This command provides a series of command lines for setting up the drawing units, limits, scale factor, etc.
The prompts displayed for Model tab (model space) is given below.

Command: MVSETUP
Enable paper space? [No/Yes] <Y>: (Type N for model space)
Enter units type [Scientific/Decimal/Engineering/Architectural/Metric]: (Enter an option)
Enter the scale factor: (Type in a numeric value)
Enter the paper width: (Enter a number based on the width of the paper)
Enter the paper height: (Enter a number based on the height of the paper)
However, all these can also be done easily with the help of Page Setup dialog box.

13.12 COMMAND EXECUTION

Depending upon the user’s convenience, a command can be executed in any one of the following
ways.

1. Menu bar
2. Floating toolbars
3. Command line
4. Dynamic input tooltip
5. Tool palettes

It can be terminated by pressing either ESC, ENTER or the SPACEBAR.

13.13 METHODS OF LOCATING A POINT

A point in the drawing space can be located either by specifying its coordinates or by directly picking it
up at the point of crosshairs on the screen by a click of mouse. Coordinates may be entered either at the
command line or at the dynamic input tool-tip. The following coordinate systems may be used to locate
a point in X-Y plane.

13.13.1 Absolute Coordinate System

In this system, the point is located using the Cartesian coordinate system. It is specified by entering the
X and Y coordinates separated by comma with respect to the origin (0,0). The following example illus-
trates the use of absolute coordinate system for drawing the object shown in Fig. 13.7(a).

Command: L↵ (L refers to Line command and symbol ↵ to press enter)

Specify first point: 4,1↵ (Specify the coordinates of A)
Specify next point or [Undo]: 8,1↵ (Specify the coordinates of B)
13.12 Engineering Graphics

Specify next point or [Undo]: 10,7↵ (Specify the coordinates of C)

Specify next point or [Close/Undo]: 2,7↵ (Specify the coordinates of D)
Specify next point or [Close/Undo]: C↵ (Enter C to join DA and terminate the command)

Fig. 13.7(a) Absolute coordinates Fig. 13.7(b) Relative rectangular coordinates

13.13.2 Relative Rectangular Coordinate System

This system uses the Cartesian coordinates of the second and the subsequent points with respect to the
previous point rather than the origin. It is designated by the symbol @ and should precede any entry.
The following example illustrates the use of relative rectangular coordinate system for drawing the
object shown in Fig. 13.7(b).

Command: L↵ (Line command)

Specify first point: 4,1↵ (Specify the coordinates of A)
Specify next point or [Undo]: @4,0↵ (Specify the coordinates of B relative to A)
Specify next point or [Undo]: @2,6↵ (Specify the coordinates of C relative to B)
Specify next point or [Close/Undo]: @−8,0↵ (Specify the coordinates of D relative to C)
Specify next point or [Close/Undo]: C↵ (Enter C to join DA and terminate the command)

13.13.3 Relative Polar Coordinate System

In this system, the point is located by defining the distance of the point from the current point, and the
angle that the line between the two points makes with the positive X axis. The symbol < is used before
giving the numerical value of the angle. The following example illustrates the use of relative polar co-
ordinate system for drawing the object shown in Fig. 13.7(c).

Command: L↵ (Line command)

Specify first point: 4,1↵ (Specify the coordinates of A)
Specify next point or [Undo]: @4<0↵ (Specify the coordinates of B relative to A)
Specify next point or [Undo]: @6.32<72↵ (Specify the coordinates of C relative to B)
Specify next point or [Close/Undo]: @−8<0↵ (Specify the coordinates of D relative to C)
Specify next point or [Close/Undo]: C↵ (Enter C to join DA and terminate the command)
 Computer Aided Drafting 13.13

Fig. 13.7(c) Relative polar coordinate system Fig. 13.7(d) Direct distance entry system

13.13.4 Direct Distance Entry System

In this system, the point is located by specifying the length of the line and its direction. The length is
entered from the keyboard and direction is determined by position of the cursor. The following example
illustrates the use of direct distance entry system for drawing the object shown in Fig. 13.7(d). Switch-
ing on the Ortho in the status bar helps to draw horizontal and vertical lines quickly.

Command: L↵ (Line command)

Specify first point: 4,1↵ (Specify the coordinates of A)
Specify next point or [Undo]: 4↵ (Position the cursor and then enter the distance for B)
Specify next point or [Undo]: 6.32↵ (Position the cursor and then enter the distance for C)
Specify next point or [Close/Undo]: 8↵ (Position the cursor and then enter the distance for D)
Specify next point or [Close/Undo]: C↵ (Enter C to join DA and terminate the command)

13.13.5 Picking Points Directly on Screen

The easiest and the quickest way to specify the coordinates of a point is to pick it directly on the screen
at the point of crosshairs by a click of mouse. Users may take advantage of various settings like snap,
grid, ortho, polar tracking, etc., to accurately regulate the cursor movement and work fast.

13.14 REGULATING THE CURSOR MOVEMENT

The movement of the cursor can be regulated or restricted for locating the points quickly by snap and
grid settings with the help of drafting setting dialog box.

13.14.1 Snap and Grid

Snap with grid is one of the quickest and most accurate cursor regulating tools available. The Snap
restricts the cursor movement to the specified incremental distance. If all the measurements are in the
multiples of 5 units, the snap can be set to 5. The grid helps to visualize the snap points. However, the
grid dots need not be set to the same spacing as the snap points. Setting of the snap and grid can be
invoked by any one of the following methods.
13.14 Engineering Graphics

(a) Menu bar : Tools � Drafting Settings

(b) Status bar : Right-click the SNAP or GRID button and choose Settings

This opens the Drafting Settings dialog box as shown in Fig. 13.8. To turn snap on, click the ‘Snap On’
check box. However, the most common way to turn snap on or off is by clicking SNAP button on the
status bar or by pressing F9 key. Similarly, to turn grid on, click the ‘Grid On’ check box or click GRID
button on the status bar or press F7 key.

Snap and Grid Spacing In the Drafting Setting dialog box, ‘Snap X Spacing’ specifies the snap
spacing in the X direction and ‘Snap Y Spacing’ specifies the snap spacing in the Y direction. In case
only the value of X spacing is supplied, it automatically assumes the same value of Y spacing by default.
However, the ‘Equal X and Y Spacing’ check box may be turned off and a different value may be keyed
in the ‘Snap Y spacing’ box for keeping unequal X and Y spacing.

Similarly, ‘Grid X Spacing’ specifies the grid spacing in the X direction while ‘Grid Y Spacing’ specifies
that in the Y direction. However, it is not necessary that the grid be set to the same spacing as the snap
points. X and Y spacing will be different only if ‘Equal X and Y Spacing’ check box is turned off and a
different value is entered in the Y Spacing box.

Fig. 13.8 Snap and Grid settings through Fig. 13.9 Polar tracking settings through
drafting setting dialog box drafting setting dialog box

13.14.2 Polar Tracking

This regulates the cursor movement to specified increments along a polar angle. It also facilitates
creating or modifying objects conveniently and precisely for many angles using direct distance en-
try system rather than other system of specifying coordinates. It can be invoked by any one of the
following methods.
 Computer Aided Drafting 13.15

(a) Menu bar : Tools � Drafting Settings

(b) Status bar : Right-click the POLAR button and choose Settings

This opens Drafting Settings dialog box as shown in Fig. 13.9.

1. Polar Angle Settings This setting can be done in the ways given below.
(a) Increment Angle To set the increment angle, type a desired value in the text box or select it
from the drop-down arrow.
(b) Additional Angles It is used to set additional angles other than those defined by increment
angles. For this, tick the additional angles check box and click New. Then supply the value
of the desired angle. It can accept 10 additional angles. To delete an additional angle, select it
and click Delete.
2. Object Snap Tracking Settings This option is used to set object snap tracking to work with all
polar angles or can be limited to orthogonal angles only.
3. Polar Angle Measurement This option is used to set polar angles to be taken either with respect
to positive X-axis, i.e., absolute angles or relative to the recently drawn segment.
To turn Polar tracking on, click the ‘Polar Tracking On’ check box. However, the most common way
to turn Polar tracking on or off is by clicking POLAR button on the status bar or pressing F10 key.
The cursor should be moved slowly through
the angles to allow time for the calculation and
display of the vector and tooltip as shown in +
Fig. 13.10. In case Dynamic Input is on, the word Polar: 87.8368 < 15°

“Polar” is displayed to distinguish between the

Dynamic Input and the polar tooltips. Fig. 13.10 Polar tooltip

13.14.3 Ortho
This mode is used to regulate the cursor movement along the horizontal and vertical axes only. This helps
to create and modify objects consisting of mostly horizontal and vertical lines in a convenient way.

To turn Ortho on, type ortho in the command line. However, the most common way to turn ortho on or
off is by clicking ORTHO button on the status bar or pressing F8 key.

Orthogonal mode only helps to pick up points directly on the screen and also through direct distance
entry system. Any relative or absolute coordinates that is typed in the Dynamic Input tooltip, or on the
command line, overrides this mode. It may be noted that Ortho mode and polar tracking cannot be on at
the same time. Turning on Ortho automatically turns off the polar tracking.

13.15 DRAWING LINES AND CURVES

13.15.1 LINE Command

This command is used to create a series of contiguous line segments. It can be invoked by any of the
following methods depending upon the preference of the individual user.
13.16 Engineering Graphics

(a) Draw toolbar :

(b) Command line : LINE or L
(c) Menu bar : DRAW � LINE
(d) Tool palettes

Different options and sub-options available with this command are summarized in the ray diagram
shown in Fig. 13.11.

Fig. 13.11 Ray diagram for LINE command

Once this command is invoked, it prompts for specifying the position of a series of points one after the
other through the Command window which shows the following command prompts unless it is termi-
nated by pressing ESC, ENTER or SPACEBAR.

Specify first point: (Specify the starting point)

Specify next point or [Undo]: (Specify the next point)
Specify next point or [Undo]: (Specify the next point or enter an option)
Specify next point or [Close/Undo]: (Specify the next point or enter an option)

The following options may also be used with Line command.

1. Undo Undo option is used to delete the action of the latest command sequentially.
2. Close Close option is used to draw the line between the current point and the initial point of the
first line.

13.15.2 Rectangle Command

This command is used to create rectangles directly in place of LINE command. It can be invoked by any
one of the following methods.

(a) Draw Toolbar :

(b) Command line : RECTANGLE or RECTANG
(c) Menu bar : DRAW � RECTANGLE
(d) Tool palettes

Different options and sub-options available with this command are summarized in the ray diagram
shown in Fig. 13.12.
 Computer Aided Drafting 13.17

The following command prompt appears in the command window.

Specify first corner point or [Chamfer/Elevation/Fillet/Thickness/Width]: (Specify the position of the

first corner point or enter an option)

Fig. 13.13(a) shows construction of rectangle drawn by specifying diagonally opposite corners. The
advantages of the following options may be also taken for its construction.

Fig. 13.12 Ray diagram for RECTANGLE command

Fig. 13.13(a) Fig. 13.13(b) Fig. 13.13(c) Fig. 13.13(d)

1. Chamfer This option creates chamfer at all the four corners by specifying the chamfer distance.
Fig. 13.13(b) shows rectangle with equal chamfers. To create unequal chamfers, two different
values may be given.
Specify first chamfer distance for rectangles <current>: (Specify a value)
Specify second chamfer distance for rectangles <current>: (Press ENTER or same value for equal
chamfer or specify a new value for unequal chamfer)
2. Fillet This option makes all the four corners rounded by specifying the fillet radius. See
Fig. 13.13(c).
Specify fillet radius for rectangles <current>: (Specify a value)
3. Width This option is used to specify the thickness of the line of the rectangle. See Fig.
13.13(d).
Specify line width for rectangles <current>: (Specify a value)
4. Thickness This option is used to draw a rectangle that is extruded by the specified value of
thickness in the Z-direction. To view such rectangle, follow VIEW � 3D VIEWS � SW ISO-
METRIC from menu bar.
13.18 Engineering Graphics

Specify thickness for rectangles <current>: (Specify a value)

5. Elevation This option is used to draw a rectangle at a specified distance from the XY plane along
the Z-axis.
Specify the elevation for rectangles <current>: (Specify a value)
After specifying the first corner point, it shows the following command prompt.
Specify other corner point or [Area/Dimensions/Rotation]: (Specify the position of the diagonally
opposite corner or enter an option)
Here one of the following options may be selected.

1. Area This option is used to create a rectangle by specifying its area followed by either length or
width.
Enter area of rectangle in current units <current>:
Calculate rectangle dimensions based on [Length/Width] <Length>: (Choose length or width)
Enter rectangle length <current>: (This appears if length option is selected)
Enter rectangle width <current>: (This appears if width option is selected)
2. Dimensions This option is used to create a rectangle by specifying its length and width.
Specify length for rectangles <current>: (Specify a value or press ENTER for current value)
Specify width for rectangles <current>: (Specify a value or press ENTER for current value)
Specify other corner point or [Dimensions]: (Move the cursor to specify one of the four possible
locations)
3. Rotation This option is used to create a rectangle which is rotated at a desired angle.
Specify rotation angle or [Pick points] <current>: (Specify a rotation angle)
Specify other corner point or [Area/Dimensions/Rotation]: (Specify the position of the diagonally
opposite corner or enter an option)
The drawn rectangle is treated as a single object. The individual sides can be edited only after it is
exploded by EXPLODE command. It may be noted that the value entered for fillet, width, eleva-
tion, thickness and rotation are taken as the current value for subsequent rectangle command. In
case they are different from the current value, it is essential to reset them.

13.15.3 Polygon Command

This command is used to draw regular polygons. The number of sides may vary from 3 to 1,024. It can
be invoked by any one of the following methods.

(a) Draw toolbar :

(b) Command line : POLYGON or POL
(c) Menu bar : DRAW�POLYGON
(d) Tool palettes

Different options and sub-options available with this command are summarized in the ray diagram
shown in Fig. 13.14.

The following command prompt appears in the command window.

Enter number of sides <current>: (Specify a value between 3 and 1024)

 Computer Aided Drafting 13.19

Fig. 13.14 Ray diagram for POLYGON command

Specify center of polygon or [Edge]: (Specify the center point or enter E for edge option)

1. Inscribed in Circle This defines the polygon with reference to an imaginary circle whose cir-
cumference touches all the vertices of the polygon. See Fig. 13.15(a). After specifying the centre,
select inscribed option and enter the value for the radius of inscribed circle.
Enter an option [Inscribed in circle/Circumscribed about circle] <I>: (Type I for inscribed option)
Specify radius of circle: (Specify the radius from the centre to a vertex)
2. Circumscribed about Circle This defines the polygon with reference to an imaginary circle
whose circumference touches all the mid-points of the polygon’s sides. See Fig. 13.15(b). After
specifying the centre select circumscribed option and enter the value for the radius of circum-
scribed circle.
Enter an option [Inscribed in circle/Circumscribed about circle] <I>: (Type C for this option)
Specify radius of circle: (Specify the radius from the centre to the mid-point of a side)
3. Edge In this option, two end points of an edge of the polygon are to be specified. See
Fig. 13.15(c).

Fig. 13.15(a) Inscribed in Fig. 13.15(b) Circumscribed Fig. 13.15(c) Edge

circle

Specify first end point of edge: (Specify first point)

Specify second end point of edge: (Specify second point)
The drawn polygon is treated as a single object. The individual sides can be edited only after the
polygon is exploded by EXPLODE command.

13.15.4 PLINE command

This command is used to draw contiguous lines as a single entity called poly-lines. It can be invoked by
any one of the following methods.
13.20 Engineering Graphics

(a) Draw toolbar :

(b) Command line : PLINE or PL
(c) Menu bar : DRAW � POLYLINE
(d) Tool palettes

Command window now shows the following command prompt.

Specify start point: (Specify first point)

Specify next point or [Arc/Half-width/Length/Undo/Width]: (Specify second point to create a straight
line segment or enter an Option)
Specify next point or [Arc/Close/Half-width/Length/Undo/Width]: (Specify the next point or enter an
Option)

The following options may be used before specifying the next point.

1. Arc This option is used to draw arcs with the help of the following sub-options.
Specify end point of arc or [Angle/CEnter/CLose/Direction/Half-width/Line/Radius/ Second pt/
Undo/Width]: (Specify a value or enter an option)
Most of these are similar to the ARC command options.
(a) Specify end Point Arc If the end point of the arc is specified, this default option creates an
arc tangent to the previous arc or line.
(b) Angle Specify the included angle and its sub-options.
(c) Center Specify the arc’s centre and its sub-options.
(d) Close This closes the poly-line by drawing an arc from the end point of the last arc to the
start point of the poly-line.
(e) Direction Specify the direction of the arc from the start point and its sub-options.
(f) Half Width Specify the starting half-width and the ending half-width.
(g) Line This returns to the main poly-line prompt to draw further line segments.
(h) Radius Specify the arc’s radius and its sub-options.
(i) Second Point Specify the second point of the arc and its sub-options.
(j) Undo To erase the last drawn entity.
(k) Width Specify the starting width and the ending width.
PLINE continues to display the arc sub-menu until the Line sub-option is opted or the com-
mand is terminated by pressing Esc, Enter or Spacebar.
2. Close It closes a poly-line by drawing a line from the end point of the last line segment to the
start point of the poly-line. This appears only after specifying the second point.
3. Half Width Specify the starting half-width and the ending half-width, to create poly-lines that
are tapered.
Specify starting half-width <current>: (Specify a value or press ENTER)
Specify ending half-width <current>: (Specify a new value or press ENTER for above value)
4. Length Specify the length of the next line segment. The option draws the line segment in the
same direction as the last line segment or tangent to the last arc.
Specify length of line: (Specify a value)
5. Undo To erase the last drawn entity.
 Computer Aided Drafting 13.21

6. Width Specify the starting width and the ending width of the poly-line.
Specify starting width <current>: (Specify a value or press ENTER)
Specify ending width <current>: (Specify a new value or press ENTER for above value)
PLINE continues to prompt for more points, repeating the entire prompt each time in the same
way as the LINE command. It can be terminated by pressing Esc, Enter or Spacebar. It may be
noted that the value entered for ending half-width and ending width becomes the current value for
subsequent PLINE command. Therefore, it is essential to reset the value incase they are different
from the current value.

13.15.5 Circle Command

This command is used to draw a circle. It can be invoked by any one of the following methods.

(a) Draw toolbar :

(b) Command line : CIRCLE or C
(c) Menu bar : DRAW � CIRCLE
(d) Tool palettes

Different options and sub-options available with this command are summarized in the ray diagram
shown in Fig. 13.16.

Fig. 13.16 Ray diagram for CIRCLE command.

Command window now shows the following command prompt.

Specify center point for circle or [3P/2P/Ttr (tan-tan-radius)]: (Specify a point or enter the option)

1. Center-radius option Draws a circle based on centre point and radius. See Fig. 13.17(a). In this
method, after specifying centre point of the circle, specify its radius.
Specify radius of circle or [Diameter] <current>: (Specify the radius or press ENTER to accept
current radius)
2. Center-diameter option Draws a circle based on centre point and diameter. See Fig. 13.17(b). In this
method, after specifying centre point of the circle, select diameter option and specify the diameter.
13.22 Engineering Graphics

Specify radius of circle or [Diameter] <current>: (Enter d)

Specify diameter of circle <current>: (Specify diameter or press ENTER to accept current value)

Fig. 13.17(a) Radius Fig. 13.17(b) Diameter Fig. 13.17(c) Two points

Fig. 13.17(d) Three points Fig. 13.17(e) Tan-tan-radius Fig. 13.17(f) Tan-tan-tan

3. Two-point option Draws a circle based on two end points of the diameter. See Fig. 13.17(c). In this
method, value of endpoints of the circle’s diameter is to be specified.
Specify first endpoint of circle’s diameter: (Specify the first end point)
Specify second endpoint of circle’s diameter: (Specify the second end point)
4. Three-point option Draws a circle based on three points on the circumference. See Fig. 13.17(d).
In this method, three points are to be specified.
Specify first point on circle: (Specify first point)
Specify second point on circle: (Specify second point)
Specify third point on circle: (Specify third point)
5. Tangent-tangent-radius option Draws a circle with a specified radius and tangent to two selected
objects. See Fig. 13.17(e).
Specify point on object for first tangent of circle: (Select a circle, arc, or line)
Specify point on object for second tangent of circle: (Select another circle, arc, or line)
Specify radius of circle <current>: (Specify either by picking two points or enter a value)
6. Tangent-tangent-tangent option This option is available at draw menu bar. It draws a circle which
is tangent to three selected objects. See Fig. 13.17(f).
Specify point on object for first tangent of circle: (Select a circle, arc, or line)
Specify point on object for second tangent of circle: (Select another circle, arc, or line)
Specify point on object for second tangent of circle: (Select last circle, arc, or line)

13.15.6 ARC Command

This command is used to draw arc which is defined as a part of a circle. The arc terminology in this
context is shown in Fig. 13.18(a).

This command can be invoked by any one of the following methods.

 Computer Aided Drafting 13.23

(a) Draw Toolbar :

(b) Command line : ARC or A
(c) Menu bar : DRAW � ARC
(d) Tool palettes

XY

Fig. 13.18(a) Arc terminology

Different options and sub-options available with this command are summarized in the ray diagram
shown in Fig. 13.18(b).

Fig. 13.18(b) Ray diagram for ARC command

Command window now shows the command prompt with twelve distinct options as given below.

1. The three points option See Fig. 13.19(a)

Specify start point of arc or [Center]: (Specify first point)

Specify second point of arc or [Center/End]: (Specify second point)
Specify end point of arc: (specify end point) Fig. 13.19(a)
13.24 Engineering Graphics

2. The start, centre, end option See Fig. 13.19(b)

Specify start point of arc or [Center]: (Specify first point)

Specify second point of arc or [Center/End]: (Enter C)
Specify center point of arc: (Specify centre point)
Specify end point of arc or [Angle/Chord length]: (Specify end point) Fig. 13.19(b)

3. The start, centre, angle option See Fig. 13.19(c)

Specify start point of arc or [Center]: (Specify first point)

Specify second point of arc or [Center/End]: (Enter C)
Specify center point of arc: (Specify centre point)
Specify end point of arc or [Angle/Chord length]: (Enter A)
Specify included angle: (Specify angle from the horizontal) Fig. 13.19(c)

4. The start, centre, length option See Fig. 13.19(d)

Specify start point of arc or [Center]: (Specify first point)

Specify second point of arc or [Center/End]: (Enter C)
Specify center point of arc: (Specify centre point)
Specify end point of arc or [Angle/Chord length]: (Enter L)
Specify length of chord: (Specify Chord length) Fig. 13.19(d)

5. The start, end, centre option See Fig. 13.19(e)

Specify start point of arc or [Center]: (Specify first point)

Specify second point of arc or [Center/End]: (Enter E)
Specify end point of arc: (specify end point)
Specify center point of arc or [Angle/Direction/Radius]: (Specify centre point) Fig. 13.19(e)

6. The start, end, angle option See Fig. 13.19(f)

Specify start point of arc or [Center]: (Specify first point)

Specify second point of arc or [Center/End]: (Enter E)
Specify end point of arc: (Specify end point)
Specify center point of arc or [Angle/Direction/Radius]: (Enter A)
Specify included angle: (Specify angle from the horizontal) Fig. 13.19(f)

7. The start, end, direction option See Fig. 13.19(g)

Specify start point of arc or [Center]: (Specify first point)

Specify second point of arc or [Center/End]: (Enter E)
Specify end point of arc: (Specify end point)
Specify center point of arc or [Angle/Direction/Radius]: (Enter D)
Specify tangent direction for the start point of arc: (Specify direction) Fig. 13.19(g)
 Computer Aided Drafting 13.25

8. The start, end, radius option See Fig. 13.19(h)

Specify start point of arc or [Center]: (Specify first point)

Specify second point of arc or [Center/End]: (Enter E)
Specify end point of arc: (Specify end point)
Specify center point of arc or [Angle/Direction/Radius]: (Enter R)
Specify radius of arc: (Specify radius) Fig. 13.19(h)

9. The centre, start, end option See Fig. 13.19(i)

Specify start point of arc or [Center]: (Enter C)

Specify center point of arc: (Enter centre point)
Specify start point of arc: (Specify start point)
Specify end point of arc or [Angle/Chord length]: (Specify end point) Fig. 13.19(i)

10. The centre, start, angle option See Fig. 13.19(j)

Specify start point of arc or [Center]: (Enter C)

Specify center point of arc: (Enter centre point)
Specify start point of arc: (Specify start point)
Specify end point of arc or [Angle/Chord length]: (Enter A)
Specify included angle: (Specify angle from the horizontal) Fig. 13.19(j)

11. The centre, start, length option See Fig. 13.19(k)

Specify start point of arc or [Center]: (Enter C)

Specify center point of arc: (Enter centre point)
Specify start point of arc: (Specify start point)
Specify end point of arc or [Angle/Chord length]: (Enter L)
Specify length of chord: (Specify Chord length) Fig. 13.19(k)

12. Continue option The arc will be tangent to the previous point. See Fig. 13.19(l)

Specify start point of arc or [Center]: (Press ENTER)

Specify end point of arc: (Specify end point)

Fig. 13.19(l)
Note An arc may be closed to create a circle using JOIN command.

13.15.7 ELLIPSE Command

This command is used to draw an ellipse. It can be invoked by any one of the following methods.

(a) Draw toolbar :

(b) Command line : ELLIPSE or EL
13.26 Engineering Graphics

(c) Menu bar : DRAW � ELLIPSE

(d) Tool palettes

Different options and sub-options available with this command are summarized in the ray diagram
shown in Fig. 13.20.

Fig. 13.20 Ray diagram for ELLIPSE command

Command window now shows the following command prompt.

Specify axis endpoint of ellipse or [Arc/Center]: (Specify a point or enter an option)

It offers the following ways to draw an ellipse.

1. Axis End Points

(a) In first two statements, specify the end points of the first axis. In the third statement, specify
half of the length of the second axis, i.e., the distance of the end point of the second axis
from the mid-point of the first axis. See Fig. 13.20(a)
Specify axis end point of ellipse or [Arc/Center]: (Specify start point of first axis)
Specify other end point of axis: (Specify end point of first axis)
Specify distance to other axis or [Rotation]: (Specify end point of second axis)
(b) In first two statements, specify the end points of the first axis. Now select rotation option and
specify an angle between zero and 89.4 degrees. This draws the ellipse which is created by
rotating a circle about the first axis. See Fig. 13.20(b)
Specify axis end point of ellipse or [Arc/Center]: (Specify start point of first axis)
Specify other end point of axis: (Specify end point of first axis)
Specify distance to other axis or [Rotation]: (Enter R)
Specify rotation around major axis: (Specify a point or enter a value between 0 and 89.4)
2. Center Option
(a) In this case, after specifying the center, the end point of the first axis from the center is
specified. Now distance from the center to the end point of the second axis is specified next.
See Fig. 13.20(c)
Specify axis end point of ellipse or [Arc/Center]: (Enter C)
Specify center of ellipse: (Specify center point)
Specify other end point of axis: (Specify end point of first axis)
 Computer Aided Drafting 13.27

Specify distance to other axis or [Rotation]: (Specify end point of second axis)
(b) In this case, after specifying the center, the end point of the first axis from the center is
specified. Now select the rotation option and specify an angle between zero and 89.4 degrees
as earlier. See Fig. 13.20(d)
Specify axis end point of ellipse or [Arc/Center]: (Enter C)
Specify center of ellipse: (Specify center point)
Specify other end point of axis: (Specify end point of first axis)
Specify distance to other axis or [Rotation]: (Enter R)
Specify rotation around major axis: (Specify a point or enter a value between 0 and 89.4)

Fig. 13.20(a) Fig. 13.20(b) Fig. 13.20(c) Fig. 13.20(d)

Fig. 13.20(e) Fig. 13.20(f)

3. This Creates an Elliptical Arc The elliptical arc is beyond the scope of this text.
4. Isocircle This option is invoked by SNAP � Style � Isometric through command prompt. It is
used to draw an ellipse in an isometric plane representing a circle. The following two options are
available for drawing an isocircle.
(a) The option creates an isocircle by using centre and radius. Fig. 13.20(e) shows isocircles on
three different isometric planes.
Specify center of isocircle: (Specify a center point)
Specify radius of isocircle or [Diameter]: (Specify a distance corresponding to radius)
(b) The other option creates an isocircle by using centre and diameter. Fig. 13.20(f) shows iso-
circles on three different isometric planes.
Specify center of isocircle: (Specify a center point)
Specify radius of isocircle or [Diameter]: (Enter D)
Specify diameter of isocircle: (Specify a distance corresponding to diameter)
13.28 Engineering Graphics

13.15.8 SPLINE command

This command is used to draw a smooth curve called spline using NURBS (non-uniform rational
B-splines) mathematics. It can be invoked by any one of the following methods.

(a) Draw toolbar :

(b) Command line : SPLINE
(c) Menu bar : DRAW � Spline
(d) Tool palettes
Different options and sub-options available with this command are summarized in the ray dia-
gram shown in Fig. 13.21.

The following command prompt appears in the command window.

Fig. 13.21 Ray diagram for SPLINE command

Specify first point or [Object]: (Specify a point or select O for object option)

It can be created by specifying two or more contiguous points and tangents at both ends. Advantages of
close option can be taken to close the spline by connecting the last point with the first point. Fit tolerance
option specifies how closely the spline passes through the selected points. For its default value which is
zero, it creates a spline that passes through each point as shown in Fig. 13.22(a). A tolerance of 5 will
generate the curve passing though ±5 units from the selected points, as shown in Fig. 13.22(b).

Fig. 13.22(a) Spline with a tol- Fig. 13.22(b) Spline with a

erance of zero tolerance of five

Specify next point: (Specify a point)

Specify next point or [Close/Fit tolerance] <start tangent>: (Specify a point or enter an option)
Specify start tangent: (Specify tangent at start point)
Specify end tangent: (Specify tangent at end point)

Object Option This option changes internal definition a poly-line created with PEDIT’s Spline op-
tion into a true spline.
 Computer Aided Drafting 13.29

Select objects to convert to splines...

Select objects: (Select 2D or 3D spline-fit polylines and press ENTER to finish)

13.15.9 XLINE Command

This command is used to draw lines that extend to infinity in both directions, known as construction
lines, and can be used as references for creating other objects. It can be invoked by any one of the fol-
lowing methods.

(a) Draw Toolbar :

(b) Command line : XLINE or XL
(c) Menu bar : DRAW � Construction Lines
(d) Tool palettes

Different options and sub-options available with this command are summarized in the ray diagram
shown in Fig. 13.23.

Fig. 13.23 Ray diagram for XLINE command

The following command prompt appears in the command window.

Specify a point or [Hor/Ver/Ang/Bisect/Offset]: (Specify a point or enter an option)

It can be created in any one of the following ways.

1. Two-point method This is default option. It draws a construction line by specifying two points.
Specify through point: (Specify another point)
2. Horizontal It draws construction lines that pass through a given point parallel to the X-axis of
the current UCS.
Specify through point: (Specify a point)
3. Vertical It draws construction lines that pass through a given point parallel to the Y-axis of the
current UCS.
Specify through point: (Specify a point)
13.30 Engineering Graphics

4. Angle It draws construction line in one of two ways. Either select a reference line and then
specify the angle of the construction line from that line, or create a construction line at a specific
angle to the horizontal axis by specifying an angle and then a point through which the construction
line should pass.
Enter angle of xline (0) or [Reference]: (Specify an angle or press R for reference option)
Specify through point: (Specify a point)
5. Bisector It draws a construction line that bisects the given angle. Specify the vertex and the lines
that create the angle.
Specify angle vertex point: (Specify vertex of an angle)
Specify angle start point: (Specify one side of the angle)
Specify angle end point: (Specify another side of the angle)
6. Offset It draws a construction line parallel to the specified baseline. Specify the offset distance,
select the baseline, and then indicate on which side of the baseline to locate the construction line.
Specify offset distance or [Through] <current>: (Specify offset distance or enter an option)
Select a line object: (Select a line)
Specify side to offset: (Picking a point on one side the line to specify the side)

13.15.10 RAY command

This command is used to draw lines that extend to infinity
in one direction, known as rays, and can also be used as
referenc for creating other objects. It can be invoked by Fig. 13.24 Ray diagram for RAY command
any one of the following methods.

(a) Command line : Ray

(b) Menu bar : DRAW � Ray

Different options and sub-options available with this command are summarized in the ray diagram
shown in Fig. 13.24.
It draws a ray by specifying two points. The command prompt appears in the command window as.
Specify start point: (Specify originating point)
Specify through point: (Specify another point for angle and direction)

13.16 EDITING A DRAWING

A drawing can be edited or modified in a number of ways with the help of the following commands

13.16.1 ERASE Command

This command is used to remove complete or a part of the drawing. To erase an object, select the object
and choose Erase on the Modify toolbar or press CTRL+X or DELETE on the keyboard. Alternatively,
choose Erase by any one of the following methods.
 Computer Aided Drafting 13.31

(a) Modify toolbar :

(b) Command line : ERASE or E
(c) Menu bar : MODIFY � ERASE Fig. 13.25(a)
(d) Tool palettes

Different options and sub-options available with this

command are summarized in the ray diagram shown in
Fig. 13.25(a) and (b). Fig. 13.25(b)

The following command prompt appears in the command

window.

Select objects: (Pick an object using grip or creating window box)

It prompts continuously to pick or select objects until ENTER is pressed. This erases all the picked
objects.

13.16.2 MOVE Command

This command is used to move or displace a part of the drawing to a new location at a specified distance
and direction. It can be invoked by any one of the following methods.

(a) Modify Toolbar :

(b) Command line : MOVE or M
(c) Menu bar : MODIFY � MOVE
(d) Tool palettes

Different options and sub-options available with this command are summarized in the ray diagram
shown in Fig. 13.26.

Fig. 13.26 Ray diagram for MOVE command

The following command prompt appears in the command window.

Select objects: (Select objects and press ENTER)

The drawn figure can be moved in any one of the following ways.

1. Two Points Continue to pick as many objects as needed to move. They all show grips (cursor) until
ENTER is pressed. Now specify a base point anywhere on the drawing followed by a second point,
either by picking on the screen or by specifying relative coordinates without using the symbol @.
13.32 Engineering Graphics

Specify base point or [Displacement] <Current Displacement>: (Pick a base point)

Specify second point of displacement or <use first point as displacement>: (Specify second
point)
2. Displacement Continue to pick as many objects as are needed to be moved. They all show grips
(cursor) until ENTER is pressed. Now instead of specifying base point by picking, specify a co-
ordinate value without using the symbol @. This value is used as a relative displacement. Press
ENTER for the second point, as already all the necessary information is specified.
Specify base point or [Displacement] <Current Displacement>: (Specify a coordinate)
Specify second point of displacement or <use first point as displacement>: (Press ENTER)

13.16.3 COPY Command

This command is used to make multiple copies of a part or complete drawing. It can be invoked by any
one of the following methods.

(a) Modify toolbar :

(b) Command line : COPY or CO
(c) Menu bar : MODIFY � COPY
(d) Tool palettes

Different options and sub-options available with this command are summarized in the ray diagram
shown in Fig. 13.27.

Fig. 13.27 Ray diagram for COPY command

The following command prompt appears in the command window.

Select objects: (Select objects and press ENTER)

The drawn figure can be copied in any one of the following ways.

1. Two Points Continue to pick as many objects as are needed to be moved. They all show grips
(cursor) until ENTER is pressed. Now specify a base point anywhere on the drawing followed by
successive points for multi-copies, either by picking on the screen or by specifying relative coor-
dinates without using the symbol @.
Specify base point or [Displacement] <Current Displacement>: (Pick a base point)
Specify second point of displacement or <use first point as displacement>: (Specify second
point)
Specify second point of displacement or <use first point as displacement>: (Press ENTER)
 Computer Aided Drafting 13.33

2. Displacement Continue to pick as many objects as are needed to be moved. They all show grips
(cursor) until ENTER is pressed. Now instead of specifying base point by picking, specify a co-
ordinate value without using the symbol @. This value is used as a relative displacement. Press
ENTER for the second point as already all the necessary information is specified.
Specify base point or [Displacement] <Current Displacement>: (Specify a coordinate)
Specify second point of displacement or <use first point as displacement>: (Press ENTER)

13.16.4 ROTATE Command

This command is used to rotate the drawing or a part of it around a base point. It can be invoked by any
one of the following methods.

(a) Modify toolbar :

(b) Command line : ROTATE or RO
(c) Menu bar : MODIFY � ROTATE
(d) Tool palettes

Different options and sub-options available with this command are summarized in the ray diagram
shown in Fig. 13.28.

Fig. 13.28 Ray diagram for ROTATE command

The following command prompt appears in the command window.

Current positive angle in UCS: ANGDIR=counterclockwise ANGBASE=0

Select objects: (Select objects and press ENTER)

The first line shows the default settings. Here the settings show that the unit for angle measurement is
the degree, reference is taken from X-axis and positive angle will turn the object counter-clockwise.
These default settings can be changed with the help of ‘Units’ command.

At command prompts ‘select objects’, pick those objects that are needed to be rotated. Selecting the
objects, show grips until ENTER is pressed. Now specify a fixed point about which objects are to be
rotated and then specify the rotation angle, either directly specifying a value or using reference line. This
erases the picked object and redraws it in a specified rotated position. Advantage of copy option may be
taken in case it is desired to retain the picked objects, and proceed to specify rotation angle as earlier.

Specify base point: (Specify the base point about which the object is to be turned)
Specify rotation angle or [Copy/Reference] <current>: (Specify an angle or Enter an option)
13.34 Engineering Graphics

13.16.5 MIRROR Command

This command is used to make a mirror copy of the selected objects about a specified line. They are
mostly used for drawing symmetrical elements. One-half or one-quarter of the drawing is created and
it is completed simply by mirroring the drawn elements. It can be invoked by any one of the following
methods.

(a) Modify toolbar :

(b) Command line : MIRROR or MI
(c) Menu bar : MODIFY � MIRROR
(d) Tool palettes

Different options and sub-options available with this command are summarized in the ray diagram
shown in Fig. 13.29.

Fig. 13.29 Ray diagram for MIRROR command

The following command prompt appears in the command window.

Select objects: (Select objects and press ENTER)

Continue to pick as many objects as are required. They all show grips (cursor) until ENTER is pressed.
Now specify two points of the mirror line which is an imaginary line across which the objects get
mirrored. Finally enter Y or N, depending upon whether the picked object is to be removed or retained.

Specify first point of mirror line:

Specify second point of mirror line:
Erase source objects? [Yes/No] <current>: (Enter Y or N, or press ENTER)

13.16.6 OFFSET Command

This command creates concentric circles, parallel lines and parallel curves at specified distances. It can
be invoked by any one of the following methods.

(a) Modify Toolbar :

(b) Command line : OFFSET or O
(c) Menu bar : MODIFY � OFFSET
(d) Tool palettes

Different options and sub-options available with this command are summarized in the ray diagram
shown in Fig. 13.30.
 Computer Aided Drafting 13.35

Fig. 13.30 Ray diagram for OFFSET command

The following command prompt appears in the command window.

Current settings: Erase source=No Layer=Source OFFSETGAPTYPE=0

Specify offset distance or [Through/Erase/Layer] <current>: (Specify distance or enter an option)

The first line shows the default setting. Here it shows that source object will not be erased and the new
object will be on the source layer. The OFFSETGAPTYPE system variable controls how potential
gaps between segments of closed poly-lines are treated when offset. The value zero fills the gaps by
extending the poly-line segments, One fills the gaps with fillet arc segments and two fills the gaps with
chamfered line segments.

The second line offers following ways to draw offset and change default settings.

1. Offset Distance If a value for offset distance is supplied, this option is activated. In this method,
after specifying the offset distance, pick an object to offset and define the side on which offset part
is to be drawn. See Fig. 13.31(a).
Select object to offset or [Exit/Undo] <Exit>: (Select an object or an option)
Specify point on side to offset or [Exit/Multiple/Undo] <Exit>: (Pick a point or enter an option)
2. Through Point It draws an offset object passing through a specified point. In this method, select
through option and followed by selecting an object to offset. Then locate a point through which
offset object should pass. See Fig. 13.31(b).
Select object to offset or [Exit/Undo] <Exit>: (Select an object or an option)

Fig. 13.31(a) Offset distance Fig. 13.31(b) Through point

13.36 Engineering Graphics

Specify through point or [Exit/Multiple/Undo] <Exit>: (Specify point or enter an option)

In both the above cases, following options are available.

• Exit: To terminate the command.
• Multiple: To draw multiple copies of the selected object.
• Undo: To reverse the previous offset.
3. Erase This is a setting, if selected, it erases the source object after offset is complete.
Erase source object after offsetting? [Yes/No]<current>: (Enter Y or N)
4. Layer This is also a setting which determines whether offset objects are created on the current
layer or on the layer of the source object.
Enter layer option for offset objects [Current/Source]<current>: (Give an option)

13.16.7 ARRAY Command

This command is used to create multiple copies of objects in a regular pattern either rectangular or polar
(circular). It can be invoked by any one of the following methods.

(a) Modify toolbar :

(b) Command line : ARRAY or AR
(c) Menu bar : MODIFY � ARRAY
(d) Tool palettes

It displays the Array dialog box which provides two options in its top line as follows:

1. Rectangular Arrays This option is used to draw multiple copies of the selected object in a rect-
angular pattern. The dialog box for this is shown in Fig. 13.32(a). The following is the information
to be supplied in any random sequence.
(a) Select Objects Choose ‘Select objects’ button. The dialog box temporarily closes. Now start
selecting objects whose array is to be drawn. Press ENTER to finish the selection. The Array
dialog box is redisplayed, and the number of objects selected is shown below the Select ob-
jects button.
(b) Rows Specify the number of rows in the array.
(c) Columns Specify the number of columns in the array.
By default, the maximum number of array elements that you can generate in one command is
100,000. The limit is set by the MAXARRAY setting in the registry.
(d) Offset distance and direction This provides a space to specify the distance and direction of the
array’s offset.
• Row offset Specify a value for the distance between rows or use the ‘Pick both offsets’ but-
ton or the ‘Pick row offset’ button.
• Column offset Specify a value for the distance between columns or use the ‘Pick both off-
sets’ button or the ‘Pick column offset’ button.
• Angle of array Specify the angle of rotation. For a value of zero, rows and columns created
are orthogonal with respect to the X and Y drawing axes.
 Computer Aided Drafting 13.37

Fig. 13.32(a) Rectangular Array dialog box Fig. 13.32(b) Polar Array dialog box

2. Polar Arrays This option comes into action when polar option is selected from the first line of
the array dialog box. The dialog box is shown in Fig. 13.32(b). It is used to make multi copies in
the polar or circular pattern. The information to be supplied is given below.
(a) Select objects Choose ‘Select Objects’ button and pick the objects whose array is to be drawn.
Press ENTER to finish the selection process.
(b) Center point Specify the centre point of the polar array. Enter coordinate values for X and Y,
or use ‘Pick Center Point’ button for its location.
(c) Method This setting controls the Method and Value fields available for specifying values.
• Total number of items Specify the number of objects to be created.
• Angle to fill Specify the included angle between the base points of the first and last ele-
ments in the array or use its button.
• Angle between items Specify the included angle between the base points of the arrayed
objects and the centre of the array or use pick button.
(d) Rotate Items as copied: In case it is required to rotate the items when array is to be created,
check this box.

13.16.8 SCALE Command

This command is used to enlarge or reduce selected objects proportionally. It can be invoked by any one
of the following methods.

(a) Modify toolbar :

(b) Command line : SCALE
(c) Menu bar : MODIFY � SCALE
(d) Tool palettes

Different options and sub-options available with this command are summarized in the ray diagram
shown in Fig. 13.33.
13.38 Engineering Graphics

Fig. 13.33 Ray diagram for SCALE command

The following command prompt appears in the command window.

Select objects: (Select objects and press ENTER)

Specify base point: (Specify a point)
Specify scale factor or [Copy/Reference]: (Specify a scale or enter an option)

The first command prompts to select object(s). Continue to pick as many objects as desired and then
press ENTER. Now it prompts to specify the base point and repress ENTER. This prompts to resize
objects either using a scale factor or by reference option.

1. Scale Factor The common way to resize an object is to specify the scale factor. A scale factor
between 0 and 1 shrinks the objects while a scale factor greater than 1 enlarges the objects. The
most recent scale factor that is specified becomes the default for other scaling operations during
the same session. See Fig. 13.34(a).
2. Reference Reference option scales the selected objects based on a reference length and a speci-
fied new length. See Fig. 13.34(b).
Specify reference length <1.0000>: (Specify a distance or pick two points or press ENTER)
Specify new length or [Points] <current>: (Specify a new distance or enter option)
3. Copy Advantage of copy option may be taken in case it is desired to retain the picked objects.
Select this option and proceed further, to resize either by specifying the scale factor or choosing
reference option.

Fig. 13.34(a) Scale factor Fig. 13.34(b) Reference

13.16.9 TRIM Command

This command is used to trim objects at a cutting edge defined by other objects. Objects that can be trimmed
include arcs, circles, elliptical arcs, lines, open 2D and 3D poly-lines, rays, splines, hatches, and xlines. To
trim an object, the cutting edge is to be specified first, to define the point at which the object is to be trimmed.
Valid cutting edge objects include 2D and 3D polylines, arcs, circles, ellipses, lines, layout view ports, rays,
regions, splines, text, and xlines. When an object is selected, pick the object on the side that is to be trimmed
 Computer Aided Drafting 13.39

(not on the side that is to be retained). An object can be used as both a cutting edge and an object to be
trimmed in the same trimming process. Several cutting edges and objects may be selected at one time. The
objects within blocks can also be trimmed. It can be invoked by any one of the following methods.

(a) Modify toolbar :

(b) Command line : TRIM
(c) Menu bar : MODIFY � TRIM
(d) Tool palettes

Different options and sub-options available with this command are summarized in the ray diagram
shown in Fig. 13.35.

Fig. 13.35 Ray diagram for TRIM command

Command window prompts to select cutting edges along with default setting. The Projection setting is
used only for 3D models and can trim based on either the current UCS or the current view. The Edge
setting is used for implied intersections.

Current settings: Projection=UCS, Edge=None

Select cutting edges ...
Select objects: (Select objects and press ENTER)
Select object to trim or shift select to extend or [Fence/Crossing/Project/Edge/eRase/Undo]:

Continue to pick as many objects as desired as cutting edge and then press ENTER. Now it prompts to
trim to an actual or an implied intersection (an intersection that would exist if objects were extended).

1. Actual Intersection To trim to an actual intersection, select the objects to trim. Fence option
can be used to draw lines that criss-cross the objects to trim. Use the Crossing option to select the
objects with a crossing window. Be sure to pick each object between the cutting edge and the end
to trim off. Press Enter to end object selection. This action trims the object(s).
2. Implied Intersection An object can be trimmed to a cutting edge that would intersect the object
if extended. This is called trimming to an implied intersection. For implied intersection, select the
13.40 Engineering Graphics

Edge option by pressing E. Then select the object that is to be trimmed. Be sure to pick each object
at or near the end that is to be trimmed. Press Enter to end object selection and trim the object(s).
Enter an implied edge extension mode [Extend/No extend] <No extend>: (Type E)
Select object to trim or shift select to extend or [Fence/Crossing/Project/Edge/eRase/Undo]:
Use Project option to change projection setting for 3D trim. The eRase option allows erasing an
object instead of trimming it, without leaving the TRIM command.

13.16.10 EXTEND Command

This command is used to extend an object to meet another object. Objects that can be extended include
circular or elliptical arcs, lines, open 2D and 3D poly-lines, and rays. Poly-lines, arcs, circles, ellipses,
elliptical arcs, lines, rays, regions, splines, text, or xlines may be used as boundary edges. An object can
be used as both a boundary edge and an object to be extended in the same extending process. It can be
invoked by any one of the following methods.

(a) Modify toolbar :

(b) Command line : EXTEND or EX
(c) Menu bar : MODIFY � EXTEND
(d) Tool palettes

Different options and sub-options available with this command are the same as those in the Trim com-
mand shown in Fig. 13.35.

Command window prompts to select boundary edges along with default setting. The Projection setting
is used only for 3D models and can extend based on either the current UCS or the current view. The
Edge setting is used for implied intersections.

Current settings: Projection=UCS, Edge=None

Select boundary edges ...
Select objects: (Select objects and press ENTER)
Select object to extend or shift-select to trim or [Fence/Crossing/Project/Edge/Undo]:

Continue to pick as many objects as desired as boundary edge and then press ENTER. Now it prompts to
extend to an actual or an implied edge extension mode (extend an object to a boundary edge that would
intersect the extended object if it were longer).

1. Actual Intersection If you want to extend to an actual intersection, select the objects that you
want to extend. You can use the Fence option to draw lines that criss-cross the objects that you
want to extend. Use the Crossing option to select the objects with a crossing window. Be sure to
pick each object between the boundary edge and the end you want to extend. Press Enter to end
object selection. This action extends the object(s).
2. Implied Edge Extension Mode You can extend an object to a boundary edge that would meet
the object if extended. This is called extending to an implied edge extension mode. For Implied
edge extension mode, select the Edge option by pressing E. Then select the objects that you want
to extend. Be sure to pick each object at or near the end that you want to extend. Press Enter to end
object selection and extend the object(s).
 Computer Aided Drafting 13.41

Enter an implied edge extension mode [Extend/No extend] <No extend>: (Type E)
Select object to extend or shift-select to trim or [Fence/Crossing/Project/Edge/Undo]:
Use Project option to change projection setting for 3D extend. Use the Undo option if the results
of the trim are not what you want and then continue to select objects to trim.

13.16.11 BREAK (and Remove) Command

This command is used to break and remove the selected object between two points. A common use for
BREAK is to break a wall at a door or a window in an architectural floor plan. You specify two points
on the object, and the command erases whatever is between those two points. Typically, you use ob-
ject snaps to specify the points. Sometimes, you can use TRIM to break an object, but if you have no
convenient cutting edge, you may find BREAK more efficient. You can break lines, poly-lines, splines,
xlines, rays, circles, arcs, donuts, ellipses and elliptical arcs. It can be invoked by any one of the follow-
ing methods.

(a) Modify toolbar :

(b) Command line : BREAK
(c) Menu bar : MODIFY � BREAK
(d) Tool palettes

The command prompt responds as:

Select object: (Select the object at first break point or select the entire object)

When breaking an object, you can either select the object at the first break point and then specify a sec-
ond break point, or select the entire object and then specify two break points. Notice that you can only
select one object to break. The prompt responds as.

Specify second break point or [First point]: (Specify the second point or enter F)

1. Specify the Second Point If you specify the second point, AutoCAD considers the point used
towards the Select object as first break point. The command breaks the object between the two
points.
2. First Point If you enter F, then you have to again specify the first point. It overrides the original
first point with the new point that you specify. Now it prompts to specify the second break point.
The command breaks the object between the two points.
Specify first break point: (Pick the first break point)
Specify second break point: (Pick the second point)
To split an object in two without erasing a portion, enter the same point for both the first and
second points. You can do this by entering @ to specify the second point.

13.16.12 Break (Split) Command

Sometimes you may want to split an object into two pieces at a point, without erasing any part of the
object. It can be invoked by any one of the following methods.
13.42 Engineering Graphics

(a) Modify toolbar :

(b) Tool palettes

The command prompt responds as follows.

Select object: (Select an object or specify the split point on an object)

Specify second break point or [First point]: _f
Specify first break point: (Override the split point or press ENTER)
Specify second break point: @

After selecting the object, pick where you want to split the object at the Specify second break point or
[First point] prompt. The command splits the object. The two new objects look the same as before on
the screen until you select one of the objects.

To split an object, you can also use break command and enter @ when command prompts to specify the
second break point. Thus, the first and second break points are the same.

13.16.13 JOIN Command

This command is used to join objects to form a single, unbroken object. It is the opposite of break-
ing objects. You can join lines, poly-lines, arcs, elliptical arcs, splines and helixes. The objects
must be along the same linear, circular, or elliptical path. The objects can overlap, have a gap
between them, or touch end-to-end. The command can be invoked by any one of the following
methods.

(a) Modify toolbar :

(b) Command line : JOIN or J
(c) Menu bar : MODIFY � JOIN
(d) Tool palettes

The command prompt responds as folows.

Select source object: (Select the first object that you want to join)

AutoCAD knows which type of object you have selected for the first prompt and inserts it into the sec-
ond prompt.

1. If your first object is a line, the command prompts as

Select lines to join to source: (Select lines and press ENTER)
2. If your first object is a pline, the command prompts as
Select objects to join to source: (Select objects and press ENTER)
3. If your first object is an arc, the command prompts as
Select arcs to join to source or [cLose]: (Select arcs and press ENTER, or enter L)
4. If your first object is an elliptical arc, the command prompts as
 Computer Aided Drafting 13.43

Select elliptical arcs to join to source or [cLose]: (Select elliptical arcs and press ENTER, or
enter L)
5. If your first object is a spline or helixe, the command prompts as
Select splines or helixes to join to source: (Select splines or helixes and press ENTER)

You can continue to select other objects. The command joins the objects. A very nice touch is the ability
to close arcs (to circles) and elliptical arcs (to ellipses). If your first object is either type of an arc, use
close option to close them.

13.16.14 CHAMFER Command

This command bevels the edges of objects. It is a two-step process. First you define how you want to
chamfer the corner, specifying either two distances from the corner or a distance and an angle. Then
you select the two lines that you want to chamfer. The command can be invoked by any one of the
following methods.

(a) Modify toolbar :

(b) Command line : CHAMFER or CHA
(c) Menu bar : MODIFY � CHAMFER
(d) Tool palettes

Different options and sub-options available with this command are summarized in the ray diagram
shown in Fig. 13.36.

Fig. 13.36 Ray diagram for CHAMFER command

The following command prompt appears in the command window.

(TRIM mode) Current chamfer Dist1 = current, Dist2 = current
Select first line or [Undo/Polyline/Distance/Angle/Trim/mEthod/ Multiple]: (Select the first line or enter
an option)
13.44 Engineering Graphics

The first line gives information of the default setting. Here it shows that you are in trim mode and
method for chamfer is distance. The second prompts to select a line or enter an option. The pick
points on intersecting lines should be on the part of the lines that you want to keep, not on the part
of the lines that you want to trim off. You can define two distances from a corner or one distance
and an angle:

1. Distance Option It is used to define two distances from the corner.

Specify first chamfer distance <current>: (Type the first chamfer distance or press ENTER)
Specify second chamfer distance <current>: (Type the second distance or press ENTER)

The default for the first chamfer distance is the distance defined previously. The default for second
chamfer is always the first chamfer distance because equal chamfer distances are mostly used in
practice. If you set both distances to zero, AutoCAD extends or trims the two lines so they end at
the same point.

If you are not creating a chamfer with equal distances, the order in which you select the lines is
important. The command trims the first line selected by the first distance, and the second line se-
lected based on either the second distance or the angle. At the Select second line: prompt, select
the second line to chamfer the lines.

2. Angle Option It is used to define a distance from the corner and an angle.

Specify chamfer length on the first line <current>: (Enter a distance or press ENTER)
Specify chamfer angle from the first line <current>: (Type the angle between the first line and the
chamfer line or press ENTER for default)

By default, CHAMFER trims the original lines that it chamfers. If you want to keep the full origi-
nal lines when you add the chamfer line, choose the Trim option and choose No Trim. Use the
Multiple option to continue the prompts and chamfer several corners in one command. Use Poly-
line option to chamfers an entire 2D poly-line. The Undo option lets you undo your last chamfer
and try again.

13.16.15 FILLET Command

This command is used to connect two objects with an arc that is tangent to the objects and has a speci-
fied radius. An inside corner is called a fillet and an outside corner is called a round, and you can create
both by using the FILLET command. As with Chamfer, you can fillet lines, xlines, rays and poly-lines.
You can also fillet circles, arcs, ellipses, elliptical arcs and splines. It can be invoked by any one of the
following methods.

(a) Modify toolbar :

(b) Command line : FILLET or F
(c) Menu bar : MODIFY � FILLET
(d) Tool palettes
 Computer Aided Drafting 13.45

Fig. 13.37 Ray diagram for FILLET command

Different options and sub-options available with this command are summarized in the ray diagram
shown in Fig. 13.37.

The following command prompt appears in the command window.

Current settings: Mode = TRIM, Radius = current

Select first object or [Undo/Polyline/Radius/Trim/Multiple]: (Use an object selection method or enter

an option)

First line in the command prompts specifies the current settings. Here it shows that you are in trim mode.
In the second line, the command prompts to select object or enter an option. You select the two objects
or a poly-line that you want to fillet or round. Various options available with the command are given
below.

1. Poly-line It is used to fillet an entire poly-line or remove fillets from an entire poly-line.
If the Trim option is on, the filleted objects and the fillet arc join to form a single new
poly-line.
2. Radius It is used to change the fillet radius to a new value.
Specify fillet radius <current>: (Specify a value or press ENTER to accept current value)
3. Trim It is used to control whether the selected objects are trimmed or extended to the endpoints
of the resulting arc or left unchanged.
Enter Trim mode option [Trim/No trim] <current>: (Enter an option or press ENTER)
4. Multiple It is used to fillet more than one set of objects without leaving the command. FILLET
displays the main prompt and the Select Second Object prompt repeatedly until you press ENTER
to end the command.
5. Undo It reverses the previous action in the command.
The value you enter for fillet radius and trim mode becomes the current value for subsequent
FILLET commands. Changing this value does not affect existing fillet arcs.
13.46 Engineering Graphics

13.17 MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES

Example 13.1
State a series of command steps required to reproduce Fig. 13.38 with the help of Line com-
mand, using absolute coordinate system.

Command: LINE
Specify first point: 0,0↵ (Assumption: Lower left corner of
the object is at 0,0)
Specify next point or [Undo]: 90,0↵
Specify next point or [Undo]: 90,60↵
Specify next point or [Close/Undo]: 0,60↵
Specify next point or [Close/Undo]: c↵

Command: ↵ (Repeats the previous command, i.e., LINE)

Specify first point: 30,60↵
Specify next point or [Undo]: 30,40↵ Fig. 13.38
Specify next point or [Undo]: 60,40↵
Specify next point or [Close/Undo]: 60,20↵
Specify next point or [Close/Undo]: 90,20↵
Specify next point or [Close/Undo]: ↵ (Press Esc, Enter or Spacebar to Exit)

Example 13.2
State a series of command steps required to reproduce Fig. 13.39 with the help of Line com-
mand, using relative rectangular coordinate system.

Command: LINE
Specify first point: 0,0↵ (Assumption: Lower left corner of the object is at 0,0)
Specify next point or [Undo]: @0,10↵
Specify next point or [Undo]: @15,0↵
Specify next point or [Close/Undo]: @0,30↵
Specify next point or [Close/Undo]: @15,0↵
Specify next point or [Close/Undo]: @15,-15↵
Specify next point or [Close/Undo]: @0,-5↵
Specify next point or [Close/Undo]: @10,0↵
Specify next point or [Close/Undo]: @0,5↵
Specify next point or [Close/Undo]: @15,15↵ Fig. 13.39
Specify next point or [Close/Undo]: @15,0↵
Specify next point or [Close/Undo]: @0,-30↵
Specify next point or [Close/Undo]: @15,0↵
Specify next point or [Close/Undo]: @0,-10↵
Specify next point or [Close/Undo]: c↵
 Computer Aided Drafting 13.47

Example 13.3
State a series of command steps required to reproduce Fig. 13.40 with the help of Line com-
mand, using relative rectangular polar coordinate system.

Command: LINE
Specify first point: 0,0↵ (Assumption: Lower left corner
of the object is at 0,0)
Specify next point or [Undo]: @10<90↵
Specify next point or [Undo]: @15<0↵
Specify next point or [Close/Undo]: @20<60↵
Specify next point or [Close/Undo]: @10<0↵
Specify next point or [Close/Undo]: @10<270↵ (Type ei-
ther @10<-90, @10<270 or -10<90)
Specify next point or [Close/Undo]: @20<0↵
Specify next point or [Close/Undo]: @10<90↵ Fig. 13.40
Specify next point or [Close/Undo]: @10<0↵
Specify next point or [Close/Undo]: @20<300↵ (Type either @20<300 or @20<-60)
Specify next point or [Close/Undo]: @15<0↵
Specify next point or [Close/Undo]: @10<270↵
Specify next point or [Close/Undo]: @20<180↵ (Type either @20<180 or @-20<0)
Specify next point or [Close/Undo]: @5<270↵
Specify next point or [Close/Undo]: @50<180↵
Specify next point or [Close/Undo]: @5<90↵
Specify next point or [Close/Undo]: c↵

Example 13.4
State a series of command steps required to reproduce Fig. 13.41, one-half with the help of
Line command and another half using Mirror command.

Command: LINE
Specify first point: 0,0↵ (Assumption: Mid-point A of
the base is at 0,0)
Specify next point or [Undo]: @25<180↵
Specify next point or [Undo]: @10<45↵
Specify next point or [Close/Undo]: @20<180↵
Specify next point or [Close/Undo]: @30<60↵
Specify next point or [Close/Undo]: @20<0↵
Specify next point or [Close/Undo]: @10<270↵
Specify next point or [Close/Undo]: @10<180↵
Fig. 13.41
Specify next point or [Close/Undo]: @5<270↵
Specify next point or [Close/Undo]: @12.93<0↵
Specify next point or [Close/Undo]: ↵ (Press Esc, Enter or Space bar to Exit)
13.48 Engineering Graphics

Command: MIRROR
Select objects: Window↵ (Either select one-by-one all the nine lines or define by window)
Specify first corner: (Pick point 1 as windows first corner)
Specify opposite corner: (Pick point 2 as windows opposite corner)
13 found Select objects: ↵
Specify first point of mirror line: 0,0↵
Specify second point of mirror line: 0,15↵ (Specify any point on Y-axis)
Erase source objects? [Yes/No] <N>: ↵ (Considers No as default option)

Example 13.5
State a series of AutoCAD command steps required to draw Fig 13.42 with the help of Rect-
angle, Circle and polygon commands.

Command: RECTANGLE
Specify first corner point or [Chamfer/Elevation/Fillet/
Thickness/Width]: C↵
Specify first chamfer distance for rectangles <0.0000>:
10↵
Specify second chamfer distance for rectangles <10.0000>: ↵
Specify first corner point or [Chamfer/Elevation/Fillet/
Thickness/Width]: 0,0↵
Specify other corner point or [Area/Dimensions/Rota-
tion]: 90,50↵
Fig. 13.42
Command: CIRCLE↵
Specify center point for circle or [3P/2P/Ttr (tan-tan-
radius)]: 65,25↵
Specify radius of circle or [Diameter]: 15↵

Command: POLYGON↵
Enter number of sides <4>: 6↵
Specify center of polygon or [Edge]: 25,25↵
Enter an option [Inscribed in circle/Circumscribed about circle] <I>: ↵
Specify radius of circle: 25,10↵

Example 13.6
Two pentagons are drawn, one inscribed in a circle with a 30-mm radius and another 10 mm
inside it, using OFFSET command. Then corners were joined to obtain final figure, as shown
in Fig 13.43. State a series of AutoCAD command to reproduce it.
 Computer Aided Drafting 13.49

Command: POLYGON↵

Enter number of sides <4>: 5↵

Specify center of polygon or [Edge]: 0,0↵
Enter an option [Inscribed in circle/Circumscribed about circle] <I>: ↵
Specify radius of circle: 0,-30↵
Fig. 13.43
Command: OFFSET↵
Current settings: Erase source=No Layer=Source OFFSETGAPTYPE=0
Specify offset distance or [Through/Erase/Layer] <Through>: 10↵
Select object to offset or [Exit/Undo] <Exit>: 0,-30↵
Specify point on side to offset or [Exit/Multiple/Undo] <Exit>: 0,0↵
Select object to offset or [Exit/Undo] <Exit>: ↵

Command: LINE↵
Specify first point: (Pick a corner of the outer circle) ↵
Specify next point or [Undo]: (Pick the corresponding corner of the inner circle) ↵
Specify next point or [Undo]: (Press Esc, Enter or Spacebar to exit the command) ↵
Similarly, join other five corners using LINE command or use polar array as below.

Command: ARRAY↵
(Check polar array box and specify total number of items: 5 and Angle to fill: 360)
Specify center point of array: 0,0↵
Select objects: (Pick the line joining the corners of the pentagon)
Select objects: ↵ (Press ENTER and Select OK in the Array dialog box)

Example 13.7
State a series of AutoCAD command steps to draw an ellipse with 100-mm and 60-mm long axis
and also to draw a curve parallel to this ellipse 20 mm away from it.

Command: ELLIPSE↵
Specify axis end point of ellipse or [Arc/Center]: 0,0↵ (Specify
point 1)
Specify other end point of axis: @100<0↵ (Specify point 2)
Specify distance to other axis or [Rotation]: 30↵ (Enter 30 as its
value or specify point 3)
Fig. 13.44
13.50 Engineering Graphics

Command: OFFSET↵
Current settings: Erase source=No Layer=Source OFFSETGAPTYPE=0
Specify offset distance or [Through/Erase/Layer] <current>: 20↵ (Specify 20 as its value)
Select object to offset or [Exit/Undo] <Exit>: (Select the ellipse) ↵
Specify point on side to offset or [Exit/Multiple/Undo] <Exit>: (Select point outside ellipse)

Example 13.8
State a series of AutoCAD command steps, including Array command, to reproduce
Fig 13.45.

Command: CIRCLE↵
Specify center point for circle or [3P/2P/Ttr (tan-tan-
radius)]: 0,0↵ f
0
Specify radius of circle or [Diameter]: 60↵ R2 R6
0
Command: ↵ (Press Enter to repeat the previous com-
mand i.e. CIRCLE)
Specify center point for circle or [3P/2P/Ttr (tan-tan-
radius)]: 0,0↵
Specify radius of circle or [Diameter] <60.0000>: 20↵

Command: ↵ Fig. 13.45

Specify center point for circle or [3P/2P/Ttr (tan-tan-
radius)]: 40,0↵
Specify radius of circle or [Diameter] <20.0000>: 10↵

Command: ARRAY
(Check polar array box and specify Total number of items: 6 and Angle to fill: 360)
Specify center point of array: 0,0↵
Select objects: (Pick circle of 10 diameter) ↵
Select objects: ↵ (Press ENTER and Select OK in the Array dialog box)

Example 13.9
State a series of AutoCAD command steps, including Trim command, to reproduce
Fig 13.47(a).

Command: POLYGON ↵
Enter number of sides <4>: 6 ↵
Specify center of polygon or [Edge]: 0,0 ↵
Enter an option [Inscribed in circle/Circumscribed about circle] <I>: ↵
Specify radius of circle: 50 ↵
 Computer Aided Drafting 13.51

50 50
R R

50 50
R R

Fig. 13.46(a) Fig. 13.46(b) Showing construction lines

Command: CIRCLE↵
Specify center point for circle or [3P/2P/Ttr (tan-tan-radius)]: 0,25↵
Specify radius of circle or [Diameter]: 50↵

Command: TRIM↵
Current settings: Projection=UCS, Edge=None
Select cutting edges ...
Select objects or <select all>: ALL↵
2 found
Select objects: ↵
Select object to trim or shift-select to extend or [Fence/Crossing/Project/Edge/eRase/Undo]:
(Pick point 1 on the circle)
Select object to trim or shift-select to extend or [Fence/Crossing/Project/Edge/eRase/Undo]:
(Pick point 2 on the hexagon)
Select object to trim or shift-select to extend or [Fence/Crossing/Project/Edge/eRase/Undo]:
(Pick point 3 on the hexagon)
Select object to trim or shift-select to extend or [Fence/Crossing/Project/Edge/eRase/Undo]:
(Pick point 4 on the hexagon)
Select object to trim or shift-select to extend or [Fence/Crossing/Project/Edge/eRase/Undo]:

EXERCISE 13

1. State a series of AutoCAD command steps to reproduce Figs. E13.1 and E13.2 using LINE
command.
13.52 Engineering Graphics

Fig. E13.1 Fig. E13.2

2. State a series of AutoCAD command steps to reproduce Fig. E13.3 and E13.4

15
R

Fig. E13.3 Fig. E13.4

3. State a series of AutoCAD command steps to reproduce Figs. E13.5 and Fig. E13.6, showing use
of ARRAY command for making multiple copies.

R45 f
f

f
f

Fig. E13.5 Fig. E13.6

4. Reproduce Figs. E13.7 to E13.10 on AutoCAD spread-sheet.

 Computer Aided Drafting 13.53

25
R 25
R

R1
5

R8

Fig. E13.7 Fig. E13.8

f15
f3 R15
5 f 65
f 15

5
R2
R10
R 15

Fig. E13.9 Fig. E13.10

5. Draw three orthographic views of the objects shown in Figs. E13.11 and E13.12.

Fig. E13.11 Fig. E13.12

13.54 Engineering Graphics

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. What is CAD? Name two CAD softwares. Give two limitations of manual drawing and three
advantages of computer aided drawing and drafting.
[RGPV June 2008, April 2009, June 2009, Feb. 2010,
April 2010, Aug. 2010, Dec. 2010, Feb. 2011]
2. Name any five input devices used in computers and describe them in brief.
3. Give a brief description of output and storage devices of a computer.
4. Give a brief description of the facilities available in the AutoCAD status bar.
5. Explain the role of Units and Limits commands in setting up the AutoCAD drawing space.
6. Describe the types of length and angle units that can be set in AutoCAD. Give suitable examples
of each.
7. Explain the different settings available in the Units dialogue box of AutoCAD.
8. Name any four common methods by which a command can be executed.
9. Name various methods of locating a point in CAD and explain any two of them.
[RGPV Dec. 2008, April 2010]
10. Describe the following commands to regulate the cursor movement for locating a point quickly.
(a) Snap and Grid (b) Polar tracking (c) Ortho
11. Name any five commands with their corresponding icons available under (a) draw toolbar (b)
modify toolbar.
12. With the help of a ray diagram explain different options that are available in the following com-
mands. (a) Rectangle (b) Arc (c) Xline (d) Ellipse
13. With the help of a ray diagram and suitable examples explain different options that are available
in the following commands. (a) Line (b) Polygon (c) Circle (d) Spline
14. Name and explain five edit commands used in CAD.
[RGPV Feb. 2008, June 2008, April 2009,
June 2009, Feb. 2010, April 2010, Aug. 2010, Dec. 2010]
15. Explain the following commands in brief. (a) Move (b) Array (c) Chamfer (d) Hatch
[RGPV Feb. 2011]
16. Explain different options that are available in the following commands with the help of ray dia-
gram. (a) Move (b) Copy (c) Rotate (d) Mirror
17. Explain different options that are available in the following commands with the help of ray dia-
gram. (a) Offset (b) Trim (c) Chamfer (d) Fillet
18. Which command is commonly used to create multiple copies in a rectangular or a polar pattern?
Explain different settings available in the dialogue boxes for creating them.
19. Explain any two methods of drawing a circle in AutoCAD.
[RGPV Sep. 2009, April 2010]
20. Explain any four methods of drawing an arc in AutoCAD.
[RGPV Dec. 2008, June 2009]
21. State a series of AutoCAD command steps to draw a rectangle of 60 cm × 40 cm with the help
of Line commands.
[RGPV Dec. 2008, Aug. 2010]
 Computer Aided Drafting 13.55

22. Write the steps for drawing a pentagon of 50 mm side.

[RGPV Feb. 2008]
23. State a series of AutoCAD command steps to draw the top view of frustum of a hexagonal pyra-
mid assuming suitable dimensions. You may use Polygon, Offset, Line and Array commands.
24. State a series of AutoCAD command steps to draw an isometric view of frustum of a square
pyramid with the help of Line command or otherwise. Assume suitable dimensions.
25. State a series of AutoCAD command steps that will be required to draw an ellipse of given major
and minor axes. How would you draw another ellipse parallel to it at a specified distance?
26. State a series of AutoCAD command steps to draw a pentagon inscribed in a circle of 70 mm
diameter and also to draw five circles of equal diameter, each touching one side of the pentagon
and two adjacent circles.

MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS

Choose the most appropriate answer out of the alternatives given below:

(i) What should you pay attention to when learning AutoCAD?

(a) The Command Line (b) The Status Bar
(c) The Title Bar (d) Floating toolbars
(ii) What does WCS stand for?
(a) Western CAD System (b) Worldwide Coordinate Sectors
(c) World Coordinate System (d) Wrong CAD Setting
(iii) Status bar does not contain
(a) snap (b) grid (c) erase (d) polar
(iv) Coordinates for the current position of crosshair of the cursor is seen in
(a) menu bar (b) standard toolbar
(c) properties toolbar (d) status bar
(v) Units command of AutoCAD is not used to set
(a) units for linear measurement (b) units for angular measurement
(c) limits of drawing (d) direction in which angle is to be measured
(vi) Polar coordinates are used mostly for drawing
(a) circles (b) arcs (c) vertical lines (d) angled lines
(vii) The number of points needed to draw a line using Absolute Coordinates is
(a) none (b) one (c) two (d) four
(viii) If a line is drawn between points 1,5 and −3,5, its absolute length is
(a) three units (b) four units
(c) five units (d) insufficient data
13.56 Engineering Graphics

(ix) How long will a line from 1,5 to @5<10 be?

(a) One unit (b) Four units
(c) Five units (d) Ten units
(x) To move an object six units to the right, what would be the second point of displacement?
(a) @6,0 (b) @6<0 (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
(xi) Which one is not a valid option of Units command?
(a) Architectural (b) Decimal (c) Metre (d) Metric
(xii) Snap command is used to regulate the cursor movement to the specified increments along
(a) vertical axis (b) horizontal axis
(c) cartesian coordinates (d) polar angles
(xiii) What can be contained in a template drawing?
(a) Sheet layout (b) Dimension styles
(c) Text styles (d) All of these
(xiv) How many points do you need to define for the Rectangle command?
(a) One (b) Two (c) Three (d) Four
(xv) Which one of the following in not a valid option for drawing a circle?
(a) 3 Points (b) Tan-Tan Centre
(c) Tan-Tan-Radius (d) Tan-Tan-Tan
(xvi) 2-points option is used to draw circles by specifying the
(a) two end points of a diameter (b) two end points of a radius
(c) radius and tangent to two objects (d) center and two end points of a chord
(xvii) Xline command is used to draw line that
(a) extends up to a specified point (b) extends up to another line
(c) extends infinity in one direction only (d) extends infinity in both directions
(xviii) Offset command can be used for drawing
(a) infinite long lines (b) parallel lines
(c) intersecting lines (d) perpendicular bisectors
(xix) Objects are rotated around the
(a) base point (b) bottom right of the object
(c) centre of the object (d) origin
(xx) Join command is executed by clicking the icon
(a) (b) (c) (d)
(xxi) Scaling objects makes them
(a) bigger (b) smaller
(c) it only stretches them (d) both bigger and smaller
(xxii) When using the TRIM command, which do you select first?
(a) The cutting edges (b) The object to be trimmed
(c) Everything (d) Nothing
 Computer Aided Drafting 13.57

(xxiii) The term used by most CAD systems for “rounding corners” is
(a) chamfer (b) curve (c) fillet (d) smooth
(xxiv) The fillet command creates
(a) sharp corners (b) round corners
(c) angled corners (d) smooth corners
(xxv) Which of the following is incorrect statement?
(a) Chamfer command is used to bevel the edges.
(b) Fillet command is used to round the corners.
(c) Array command is used to draw multiple copies.
(d) Scale command is used to draw plain scales.

Answers
(i) (a) (ii) (c) (iii) (c) (iv) (d) (v) (c) (vi) (d)
(vii) (c) (viii) (b) (ix) (c) (x) (c) (xi) (c) (xii) (c)
(xiii) (b) (xiv) (b) (xv) (b) (xvi) (a) (xvii) (d) (xviii) (b)
(xix) (a) (xx) (b) (xxi) (d) (xxii) (a) (xxiii) (c) (xxiv) (b)
(xxv) (d)
 B. E. (First Semester) EXAMINATION, Feb., 2010
(Common for all Branches)
BE-105 ENGINEERING GRAPHICS

Time: 3 Hrs Max. marks: 80 Min. Marks: 28

Note: Attempt any five questions. All questions carry equal marks. Answer the questions in
drawing sheet only.
Unit-I
1. (a) Draw a scale of 1:50 showing metres and decimetres and to measure up to 6 metres. 8
Similar to Example 2.1, Page 2.4
(b) The major and the minor axes of an ellipse are 125 mm and 100 mm long respectively.
Draw the curve by any one of the standard method and locate its focii. 8
Similar to Example 3.27, Page 3.35
Or
2. (a) Construct a cycloid having a rolling circle diameter of 50 mm. Draw a normal and tangent to
the curve at a point 35 mm above the base line. 8
Refer Example 4.1, Page 4.2
(b) A line AB of 100 mm length is inclined at an angle 30º to the H.P. and parallel to V.P.
The point A is 15 mm above H.P. and 20 mm in front of V.P. Draw the front view and top
view of the line. 8
Refer Example 7.10, Page 7.12
Unit-II
3. A line AB of 80 mm long has its end A, 15 mm from both H.P. and V.P. The other end B is
40 mm above H.P. and 50 mm in front of V.P. Draw the projections of the line and determine
inclinations of the line with H.P. and V.P. 16
Refer Example 7.24, Page 7.31
Or
4. (a) Draw the projections of a circle of 60 mm diameter resting on V.P. on a point of the
circumference. The plane is inclined at 45º to V.P. and perpendicular to the H.P. the centre of
the plane is 40 mm above H.P. 8
Similar to Example 8.8, Page 8.9
(b) A cube of 40 mm side is resting with a face on H.P. such that the vertical faces are equally
inclined to V.P. Draw its projections. 8
Similar to Example 9.2(c), Page 9.8
Q.2 Engineering Graphics

Unit-III
5. A hexagonal prism of base 25 mm and axis 45 mm long is positioned with one of its base edges
on H.P. such that the axis is inclined at 30º to H.P. and 45º to the V.P. Draw the projections of
the prism by change of position method. 16
Refer Example 9.40, Page 9.47
Or
6. (a) A hexagonal pyramid of side of base 30 mm and axis 60 mm long is resting on its base on
H.P. with an edge of the base perpendicular to the V.P. It is cut by a section plane inclined at
30º to the H.P. and passing through the axis at 20 mm from the base. Draw the sectional view,
top view and true shape of the section. 8
Similar to Example 10.15, Page 10.19
(b) A square prism of side of base 40 mm and axis 80 mm long is resting on its base on H.P. such
that a rectangular face of it is parallel to V.P. Draw the development of the prism. 8
Refer Example 11.1, Page 11.3
Unit-IV
7. (a) A cone of diameter of base 60 mm and height 65 mm rests with its base on H.P. A cutting
plane perpendicular to V.P. and inclined at 30º to H.P. cuts the cone such that it passes through
a point on the axis at a distance 30 mm above the base. Draw the isometric projections of the
cone. 8
Refer Exercise 12, Problem 20, Page 12.43
Or
8. (a) Write two advantages of CAD. 2
Refer Page 13.2
(b) Name two editing commands used in CAD. 2
Refer Page 13.30
(c) Name two CAD softwares. 2
Refer Page 13.2
(d) State whether the following statements are true or false: 10
(i) The R.F. of an enlarging scale is more than 1. True
(ii) The scale of chord is used to measure distances in mm, cm, sm. False
(iii) Conic sections like ellipse are generated by cutting a right circular
cone in different positions relative to the axis of the cone by a cutting plane. True
(iv) The projecting lines meet the plane of projection at an angle of 80º to it. False
(v) When a point is above H.P., its front view lies below XY. False
(vi) When a straight line is parallel to H.P. its front view will be equal to
its true length. False
(vii) Using change of position method, projections of a solid inclined to
reference planes could be obtained. True
 Question Papers Q.3

(viii) The section lines in a sectional view are drawn at an angle of 85º
to the outlines. False
(x) Isometric projections is a pictorial projection of an object in which all
the three dimensions of an object is revealed. True
(x) Computer aided drafting help in making speedier and accurate
projection of an object. True
 B. E. (First Semester) EXAMINATION, Apr., 2010
(Common for all Branches)
BE-105 ENGINEERING GRAPHICS

Time: 3 Hrs Max. marks: 80 Min. Marks: 28

Note: Attempt any five questions selecting one question from each unit. Assume suitable misprint/missing data.
Draw in first angle projection unless stated otherwise. Answer the questions in drawing sheet only.
Unit-I
1. (a) In a map of Bhopal, a distance of 36 km between two localities is shown by a line of 45 cm
long. Calculate its R.F. and construct a plain scale to read kilometres and hectometres. Show
a distance of 9.3 km on it. 8
Refer Example 2.5, Page 2.7
(b) A circle of 50 mm diameter rolls along a straight line without slipping. Draw the curve traced out
by a point P on the circumference for one complete revolution of the circle. Name the curve also. 8
Refer Example 4.1, Page 4.2
Or
2. (a) Using the scale of chords, construct angles of 45º and 60º. 8
Similar to Example 2.28, Page 2.26
(b) The major axis of an ellipse is 150 mm long and the minor axis is 100 mm long. Draw the
ellipse and then a tangent to the ellipse at a point on it 25 mm above the major axis. 8
Similar to Example 3.26, Page 3.35
Unit-II
3. (a) Draw the projection of the following points on the same ground lines, keeping the projectors
15 mm apart: 8
(i) A in the H.P. and 20 mm behind V.P.
(ii) B 25 mm below the H.P. and 25 mm behind V.P.
(iii) C 15 mm above the H.P. and 20 mm in front of V.P.
(iv) D 40 mm below H.P. and 25 mm in front of V.P. 8
Refer Example 6.10, Page 6.12
(b) The front view of a line, inclined at 30º to the V.P. is 65 mm long. Draw the projections and
true length of the line when it is parallel to and 40 mm above the H.P. and its one end being
30 mm in front of the V.P. 8
Refer Example 7.13, Page 7.15
Or
4. The projectors of the ends of a line AB are 6 cm apart. The end A is 2 cm above H.P. and
3 cm in front of the V.P. The end B is 1 cm below H.P. and 4 cm behind the V.P. Determine
the true length and traces of AB and its inclinations with the two planes. 16
Refer Example 7.56, Page 7.67
 Question Papers Q.5

Unit-III
5. (a) A circle of 40 mm diameter is resting on H.P. on a point with its surface inclined at 30º to H.P.
Draw the projections of the circle when the top view of the diameter through the resting point
makes an angle of 45º with XY. 8
Similar to Example 8.24(a), Page 8.31
(b) A pentagonal pyramid of edge of base 25 mm and height 60 mm is resting on the corner of its
base on H.P. and the slant edge containing that corner is inclined at 45º with H.P. Draw the
projections of the solid, when its axis makes an angle of 30º with V.P. 8
Refer Example 9.41, Page 9.48
Or
6. (a) Draw the projections of a regular hexagon of 25 mm side having one of its sides in the H.P.
and inclined at 60º to the V.P. and its surface making an angle of 45º with the H.P. 8
Refer Example 8.14, Page 8.19
(b) Draw the projections of a cube 20 mm long edges resting on the H.P. on one of its corners
with a solid diagonal perpendicular to the V.P. 8
Refer Example 9.48, Page 9.55
Unit-IV
7. (a) A right circular cone of base diameter 45 mm and axis 55 mm long is lying on one of its
generators on H.P. It is cut by a horizontal section plane passing through the midpoint of
the axis. Draw the projections of the cone and its true section. 8
Refer Example 10.5, Page 10.9
(b) A cylinder has been truncated by a circular surface as shown in the following Fig. 1. Draw the
development of surface of the cylinder. 8

5
R2
75

50
Ø

Fig. 1
Similar to Example 11.9, Page 11.11
Q.6 Engineering Graphics

Or
8. (a) Draw the isometric view of the block shown in Fig. 2. 8
25

10
25

15 25 10

Fig. 2
Refer Example 12.31, Page 12.30
(b) A hexagonal pyramid base 30 mm side and axis 65 mm long is resting on its base on the H.P.
with two edges parallel to the V.P. It is cut by a section plane perpendicular to the V.P. and
inclined at 45º to the H.P. and intersecting the axis at a point 25 mm above the base. Draw
front view and sectional top view of the section. 8
Refer Example 10.13, Page 10.17
Unit-V
9. (a) What is CAD. State the advantages of CAD. 6
Refer Page 13.2
(b) Explain any two methods of drawing a circle in AutoCAD. 5
Refer Page 13.21
(c) Name five edit commands used in CAD. 5
Refer Page 13.30
Or
10. (a) Name various methods of locating a point in CAD and explain any to of them. 6
Refer Page 13.11
(b) Fill in the blanks: 5
(i) Computer is an _____ device with _____ brain.
[eletronic, no]
(ii) ROM stands for _____.
[Read Only Memory]
(iii) _____ are those commands which can tell the basic functions of AutoCAD.
[Utility commands]
(iv) _____ is a bright dot on the screen.
[Cursor]
 Question Papers Q.7

(v) Commercial Computer Aided Drafting was introduced in 1964 by _____.

[International Business Machines Corporation (IBM)]
(c) State whether the statement is true or false: 5
(i) Machine language has only two words “True or false”. True
(ii) Once the computer is switched off, ROM forgets everything. False
(iii) The utility commands control the basic functions of AutoCAD. True
(iv) ERASE and UNDO are Edit Commands. True
(v) Hatch command is used in drawing sectional view of an object. True
 B. E. (First Semester) EXAMINATION, Aug., 2010
(Common for all Branches)
BE-105 ENGINEERING GRAPHICS

Time: 3 Hrs Max. marks: 80 Min. Marks: 28

Note: (i) Attempt any five questions selecting one question from each unit.
(ii) Draw in first angle projection unless specified otherwise.
(iii) Assume suitable missing and misprint data if any.
Unit-I
1. (a) Construct a scale to be used with a map; the scale of which is 1 cm = 500 m. The maximum
length to be read is 5 km. Mark on the scale a distance of 3.85 km. 8
Refer Example 2.14, Page 2.13
(b) Construct a hyperbola with the distance between the focus and the directrix as 50 mm and
eccentricity as 3/2. Also draw normal and tangent to the curve at a point 30 mm from the axis. 8
Refer Example 3.18, Page 3.25
Or
2. (a) A rectangular plot of land of area 16 sq. m is represented on a map by a similar rectangle of 1
sq. cm. Calculate the R.F. of the scale of the map. Construct a plain scale to read metres and
long enough to measure upto 60 m. Indicate a distance of 45 m on the scale. 8
Similar to Example 2.6, Page 2.7
(b) A coir is unwound from a drum of 30 mm diameter. Draw the locus of the free end of the coir
for unwinding through an angle of 360º. Draw also a normal and tangent at any point on the
curve. 8
Similar to Example 4.4, Page 4.7
Unit-II
3. (a) State the quadrants in which the following points are located: 4
(i) A - front view and top view are above XY.
(ii) B-front view below XY and top view above XY.
(iii) C-front view and top view below XY.
(iv) front view above xy and top view below XY.
Similar to Example 6.12, Page 6.13
(b) A line PQ of 80 mm long has its end P, 15 mm from both H.P. and V.P. The other end Q is 40
mm above H.P. and 50 mm in front of V.P. Draw the projections of the line and determine the
inclinations of the line with H.P. and V.P. 12
Refer Example 7.24, Page 7.31
 Question Papers Q.9

Or
4. The front view of a line AB is 50 mm long and it makes an angle of 35º with XY. The point A
lies 10 mm above H.P. and 25 mm behind V.P. The difference between the distances of A and
B from V.P. is 25 mm. The line AB is in second quadrant. Draw the projections of the line and
determine its true length and inclinations with the H.P. and V.P. 16
Refer Example 7.59, Page 7.70
Unit-III
5. (a) A semicircular plate of 80 mm diameter has its straight edge on V.P. and inclined at 30º to
H.P., while the surface of the plate is inclined at 45º to V.P. Draw the projection of the plate. 8
Refer Example 8.16, Page 8.21
(b) A hexagonal prism, side of base 20 mm and axis 48 mm long, rests with its base on H.P. such
that an edge of the base is parallel to V.P. Draw the projections of the prism on an auxiliary
plane which makes an angle of 60º with the H.P. 8

Or
6. (a) A pentagon of 30 mm side has one corner on H.P. Its plane is inclined at 60º to V.P. and
perpendicular to H.P. Draw the projection of the pentagon. 8
Refer Example 8.11, Page 8.15
(b) A hexagonal pyramid of side of base 25 mm and axis 60 mm long, is resting on an edge of the
base on H.P. Draw the projections of the solid when the axis makes an angle of 45º with V.P.
and the base of the solid is nearer to V.P. 8
Refer Example 9.20, Page 9.25
Unit-IV
7. (a) A cylinder of diameter of base 40 mm and axis 55 mm long is resting on its base on H.P. It is
cut by a section plane perpendicular to V.P. and inclined at 45º to H.P. The section plane passes
through the top end of an extreme of the cylinder. Draw the development of the lateral surface
of the cut cylinder. 8
Refer Example 11.7, Page 11.9
(b) A vertical cylinder of 60 mm diameter is penetrated by a horizontal square prism of 35 mm
side. The axes of the two solids intersect each other. A rectangular face of the prism is inclined
at 60º to the V.P. Draw the lines of intersection. 8
Or
8. (a) A pentagonal pyramid side of base 35 mm and axis 60 mm long rests with its base on the H.P.
such that one of the edges of the base is perpendicular to the V.P. A section plane perpendicular
to H.P. and parallel to V.P. cuts the pyramid at a distance of 20 mm from the corner of the base
nearer to the observer. Draw its top and sectional front view. 8
Refer Example 10.9, Page 10.13
Q.10 Engineering Graphics

(b) A cone base 50 mm diameter and axis 60 mm long rests with its base on H.P. A section plane
perpendicular to V.P. and inclined at 45º to H.P. bisects the axis of the cone. Draw the
development of the lateral surface of the remaining portion of the cone. 8
Refer Example 11.12, Page 11.14
Unit-V
9. (a) State three advantages of computer aided drafting. 3
Refer Page 13.2
(b) State any four significant EDIT commands and its function. 8
Refer Page 13.30
(c) Write the prompt sequence for drawing a rectangle of 60 mm × 40 mm with the help of line
command. 5
Refer Page 13.16
Or
10. Draw the isometric view of a sphere of radius 20 mm which rests centrally on top of a square
prism of base 50 mm and height 60 mm. 16
Similar to Example 12.13, Page 12.16
 B. E. (First Semester) EXAMINATION, Dec., 2010
(Non-Grading System) (Common for all Branches)
BE-105 ENGINEERING GRAPHICS

Time: 3 Hrs Max. marks: 100 Min. Marks: 35

Note: Attempt any five questions selecting one question from each Unit. All questions carry equal
marks. Assume suitably a missing/misprint data, if any.
Unit-I
1. (a) Construct a scale to be used with a map, the scale of which is 1 cm = 4 m. The scale should
read in metres up to 60 m. Show on it a distance of 46 m. 10
Similar to Example 2.2, Page 2.5
(b) Draw an ellipse with major axis 120 mm and minor axis 80 mm. Draw a normal and tangent
on any point on ellipse. 10
Similar to Example 3.26, Page 3.35
Or
2. (a) Construct a diagonal scale of 1/48 showing metres, decimetres and centimetres and to
measure up to 6 m. Mark a length of 3·76 m on it. 10
Similar to Example 2.10, Page 2.10
(b) Draw the involute of an equilateral triangle of side 25 mm. 10
Similar to Example 4.5, Page 4.8
Unit-II
3. The top view of line AB, 70 mm long measures 55 mm and front view measures 45 mm. Its end
A is 10 mm from H.P. and 15 mm from V.P. Draw the projections of the line and determine its
inclination with the H.P. and V.P. Also draw its traces if the line is in first quadrant. 20
Similar to Example 7.26, Page 7.33
Or
4. Two bulbs on two poles are respectively 2 m and 3 m above the ground and 1 m and 2 m from
the wall, 0·3 mm thick but on opposite side of it The distance between the bulbs measured
along the ground and parallel to the wall is 3 m. Determine the real distance between the bulbs. 20
Similar to Example 7.61, Page 7.72
Unit-III
5. (a) A hexagonal plate of 30 mm side is resting on one of its comer on H.P. The plate is
perpendicular to V.P. and inclined to H.P. at 45°. Draw its projections. 10
Refer Example 8.5, Page 8.6
Q.12 Engineering Graphics

(b) A pentagonal pyramid of base edge 30 mm and height 50 mm is resting on one of its
corners in H.P. Draw the projection when the axis is inclined to 45° to H.P. 10
Refer Example 9.10, Page 9.16
Or
6. (a) A square plate of 40 mm side is perpendicular to H.P. and inclined to V.P. at 40º. One of its
edge is on V.P. Draw the projections when one of the corners is 12 mm from the H.P. 10
Similar to Example 8.7, Page 8.9
(b) A right circular cone of dia. 70 mm and axis height 80 mm is resting on one of its generators
in H.P. The top view of the axis is inclined at 45° to V.P. Draw the projections of the cone. 10
Similar to Example 9.34, Page 9.41
Unit-IV
7. (a) A cylinder of 45 mm dia. and 70 mm long is resting on one of its bases on H.P. It is cut by a
section plane inclined at 60° with H.P. and passing through a point on the axis at 15 mm
from one end. Draw the two views of the solid. Also obtain the true shape of the section. 10
Refer Example 10.12, Page 10.16
(b) A pentagonal pyramid of side of base 30 mm and axis 60 mm long is resting on its base on
H.P. with an edge of the base parallel to V.P. Draw the development of the lateral surface of
the pyramid. 10
Similar to Example 11.18, Page 11.17
Or
8. (a) A square prism with edge of base 45 mm and axis 90 mm long has its axis parallel to both
H.P. and V.P. The lateral surfaces are equally inclined to H.P. It is cut by a vertical section
plane inclined at 60° to the V.P. and passing through the axis at 65 mm from one end. Draw
the projection of the solid. 10
Similar to Example 10.28, Page 10.32
(b) Draw the development of the frustum of a hexagonal pyramid of side of base 35 mm at the
bottom and 15 mm at the top, the height of the frustum being 50 mm. 10
Similar to Example 11.23, Page 11.26
Unit-V
9. (a) Draw the isometric view of a hexagonal prism with side of base 25 mm and axis 60 mm
long. The prism is resting on its base on H.P. with an edge of the base parallel to V.P. 15
Refer Example 12.2, Page 12.8
(b) Name and explain five edit commands used in AutoCAD. 5
Refer Page 13.30
Or
 Question Papers Q.13

10. (a) Write three advantages and limitations of the CAD. 6

Refer Page 13.2
(b) Fill in the blanks with suitable words: 8
(i) RAM stands for _____. Random Access Memory
(ii) ALU stands for _____. Arithmetic Logic Unit
(iii) _____are those commands which can tell basic functions of
the AutoCAD. Utility commands
(iv) _____is a bright spot on the screen. Cursor
(c) State whether the following statements are true or false: 6
(i) Machine language has only two words ‘True’ or ‘False’. True
(ii) Command prompt means AutoCAD is’ ready for you to type a command name. True
(iii) Section command allows you to draw lines at right angles only. False
(iv) Save command is used to save the drawing changes in a drawing. True
(v) Hatch command can be used to draw sectional view. True
(vi) Zoom command is used to enlarge part of a drawing to view its detail. True
 B. E. (First Semester) EXAMINATION, Feb., 2011
(Grading System) (Common for all Branches)
BE-105 ENGINEERING GRAPHICS

Time: 3 Hrs Max. marks: 70 Min. Marks: 22 (D Grade)

Note: Attempt five questions in all selecting one question from each Unit. All questions carry equal
marks.
Unit-I
1. (a) Construct a scale to be used with a map,. the scale of which is 1 cm = 40 m. The scale should
read in metres and maximum up to 500 m. Mark a distance of 456 m on it. 7
Similar to Example 2.14, Page 2.13
(b) A wheel 50 mm dia. rolls on a straight road surface without slip. Trace the path of point of
contact for one complete revolution of the wheel. 7
Refer Example 4.1, Page 4.2
Or
2. (a) A rectangular plot of land of area 16 sq. m is represented on a map by a similar rectangle of
1 square centimetre. Calculate the R. F. of scale and construct plain scale to read metres and
long enough to measure up to 60 m. 7
Similar to Example 2.6 Page 2.7
(b) A ball thrown from the ground level reaches a maximum height of 5 m and travels a
horizontal distance of 11 m from the point of projection. Trace the path of the ball. 7
Similar to Example 3.12, Page 3.20
Unit-II
3. The distance between the projector of two ends of a straight line is 40 mm. One end is 15 mm
above H.P. and 10 mm in front of the V.P. The other end is 40 mm above H.P. and 40 mm in
front of V.P. Find the true length and true inclination of the line. 14
Similar to Example 7.17, Page 7.21
Or
4. A line AB is inclined at 40° to H.P. It’s one end A is 25 mm above H.P. and 30 mm in front of
V.P. The top view of the line is 70 mm and is inclined at 30° to XY. Draw the projections of
the line and determine its true length and inclination with V.P. 14
Similar to Example 7.33, Page 7.40
 Question Papers Q.15

Unit-III
5. (a) Draw the projections of a circle 60 mm diameter resting on V.P. on a point on the
circumference. The plane is inclined at 45° to V.P. and perpendicular to H.P. The centre
of the plane is 30 mm above H.P. 7
Similar to Example 8.8, Page 8.9
(b) A square pyramid of side of base 30 mm and axis 50 mm long is freely suspended from a
corner of its base. Draw its projections. 7
Refer Example 9.49 (up to second stage), Page 9.56
Or
6. (a) A regular hexagonal plane of 45 mm side has a corner on H.P. and it’s surface is inclined
at 45° to H.P. Draw the projections when the diagonal through the corner which is. on H.P.
makes 30º with the V.P. 7
Refer Example 8.21, Page 8.27
(b) Draw the projections of a cone of base 50 mm diameter and altitude 60 mm lying on one
of its generators on H.P. when the top view of the axis makes an angle of 30º with XY. 7
Similar to Example 9.34, Page 9.41
Unit-IV
7. (a) A hexagonal pyramid, side of base 30 mm and axis 60 mm long rests with its base on H.P.
and one of the edges of its base is parallel to V.P. It is cut by a horizontal section plane at
a distance of 30 mm above the base. Draw the front and sectional top views. 7
Refer Example 10.4, Page 10.8
(b) A cylinder of 45 mm base dia. and 55 mm long axis rests with its base on H.P. It is cut by
a plane perpendicular to V.P. inclined at 60º to H.P. and passing through a point on the axis
12 mm from its top. Draw the top view and development of lateral surface of the truncated
cylinder. 7
Similar to Example 11.7, Page 11.9
Or
8. (a) A cylinder 50 mm dia. and 70 mm long is resting on H.P. with its axis inclined at 30° to
H.P. and parallel to V.P. A section plane inclined at · 45° to V.P. passes through the axis at
25 mm from one end of it. Draw the project of the cut solid. 7
Refer Example 10.30, Page 10.34
(b) A pentagonal pyramid side of base 30 mm and height 52 mm stands with its base on H.P. and
an edge of the base in parallel to V.P. It is cut by a plane perpendicular to V.P and inclined at
40° to H.P. and passing through a point 30 mm above the base. Draw the development of the
lateral surface of the truncated pyramid. 7
Similar to Example 11.21, Page 11.24
Q.16 Engineering Graphics

Unit-V
9. A cone of base diameter 50 mm and axis 60 mm rests with its base on H.P. A section plane
perpendicular to V.P. and inclined at 30° to H.P. passes through the axis at a distance of 25
mm above base. Draw the isometric projections of the truncated cone. 14
Refer Exercise 12, Problem 20, Page 12.43
Or
10. (a) What are the advantages and disadvantages of CAD? 6
Refer Page 13.2
(b) Explain the following commands in brief :
(i) Move (ii) Array (iii) Chamfer (iv) Hatch 8
Refer Pages 13.31, 13.36, 13.43
Appendix: Solutions to
Unsolved Problems
EXERCISE 5

Sol E5.1 Sol E5.2 Sol E5.3

Sol E5.4 Sol E5.5 Sol E5.6

Sol E5.7 Sol E5.8 Sol E5.9

Sol E5.10 Sol E5.11 Sol E5.12

A.2 Engineering Graphics

Sol E5.13 Sol E5.14 Sol E5.15

Sol E5.16 Sol E5.17 Sol E5.18

Sol E5.19 Sol E5.20 Sol E5.21

Sol E5.22 Sol E5.23 Sol E5.24

 Appendix: Solutions to Unsolved Problems A.3

Sol E5.25 Sol E5.26 Sol E5.27

Sol E5.28 Sol E5.29 Sol E5.30

EXERCISE 7A
65

70

70
40

45°
20

20

15
10
15

25
50

50

Sol 1 Sol 2 Sol 3 Sol 4

A.4 Engineering Graphics

60
30

20

42°
10
10

30°

20
°
60

40
80
80

Sol 5 Sol 6 Sol 7

75
70
50°

43°

50
20

20

55
30

30

40°

45

65

Sol 8 Sol 9 Sol 10

 Appendix: Solutions to Unsolved Problems A.5

40
85

70

25

20
45°

20
25

30
60
60
80

Sol 11 Sol 12 Sol 13

70
30°

30
25

15
15

20

20

°
45°

60 60
75

Sol 14 Sol 15 Sol 16

A.6 Engineering Graphics

EXERCISE 7B

55

30°

30
50
15

10
30°

5
45°

12

25
45°
50

40
55

Sol 1 Sol 2 Sol 3

56
94

50
40
27°
15

32°
10

25
32°

40

16°

56
75

94
40

Sol 4 Sol 5
 Appendix: Solutions to Unsolved Problems A.7

71

50
75
45°

30°
12

48°
40

75
65
30°

71
50

Sol 6 Sol 7
75

65
18°

40
48°

20
15

15

25
50

50
38°

75
65
28°

65

Sol 8 Sol 9
A.8 Engineering Graphics

50
75

45
70
37°

45
70

30°
35

25
10
15

15

15
48°

50°
70

70
55
75
60

Sol 10 Sol 11 Sol 12

50

91

90
80
40°

37°

60
°
25

25

15
10

25
30

50

30°

80
23°
30°

91
30°

70 90

Sol 13 Sol 14 Sol 15

 Appendix: Solutions to Unsolved Problems A.9

gth
len
w

75
vie

=
TL
t
on

5
=7
Fr

TL
Front view length
45°

30°

°
30°

60
5
=7
TL

TL
=7
5
Sol 16 Sol 17
0
80

10

90
53°
15

48°
10
20

37°

70

90
10
60

0
42°

Sol 18 Sol 19
A.10 Engineering Graphics

80

70
=
TL

38°
45°
15
30°
15 8

30°
25°

25
45
TL
=7
2

55

Sol 20 Sol 21

65
TL =
85
70
50

21°

30
20

19°
10

10
40°

40

42°

40

70

Sol 22 Sol 23
 Appendix: Solutions to Unsolved Problems A.11

24°
52

30
15
20

52
30

30
30

100
37°

Sol 24 Sol 25

m
3
7.
7.2 m

78
2.4 m
30

78
40

7.2 m

60 7.3
m

4.2 m
8.4 m

Sol 26 Sol 27
A.12 Engineering Graphics

14 m
12 m

10 m
8m
°
67
70
°

7.5
m

Sol 28
 Appendix: Solutions to Unsolved Problems A.13

EXERCISE 7C

45°
40

90 80
30°

80
30°
15
90

10

45°
Sol 1 Sol 2

91
50

26°

40
40

3
35

25
10
103
91

20
30
25

43°

50 60

Sol 3 Sol 4
44°

31°
29
40

22
91
20

91
10 100
0
10

30
40
30

50 50

Sol 5 Sol 6
A.14 Engineering Graphics

15

30°
0

20
30
0
15
94

45°
50
94
25

75

Sol 7 Sol 8

0
12
54
°
80
10
14°

40
20

60
80

120
25°
20

49°

50

Sol 9 Sol 10
46°
50

0
15

0
10
19°
15

20
35

10
30°

100
30

42°

Sol 11 Sol 12
 Appendix: Solutions to Unsolved Problems A.15

37°
75
20

53°
20
75

45
45

15
50
60

60

37°

75
75
53°

Sol 13 Sol 14
3m

m
4.9

4m
0.3 m
2m
1.8 m

m
9
4.
1m

Sol 15
EXERCISE 8A
25
15

20

X Y X Y
45°

X Y
30
HEX 30

0
f6
HEX
30

Sol 1 Sol 2 Sol 3

A.16 Engineering Graphics

40

X Y

40
60

30°
R
X Y

30

45°
40 X Y
Sol 4 Sol 5 Sol 6
X1

X1 50

40
30
20

30°
35
X Y X Y
15

X Y
20

H.T. Y1 Y1

Sol 7 Sol 8 Sol 9

35

40

X Y
60
°

X Y
30
50

Sol 10
Sol 11
 Appendix: Solutions to Unsolved Problems A.17

45°
X Y

15
60
°
X Y

HEX 30
40

60

Sol 12 Sol 13
T.
V.
45°

X Y
35

40
24

12

X Y

40°
H.T.

30

Sol 14 Sol 15

HEX20
f 60
30

X Y
X Y
45°
30°
15

Sol 16 Sol 17
A.18 Engineering Graphics

HEX20
f 60
40

X Y
X Y

30°
45°
H
.T
.

Sol 18 Sol 19
60 40

40
20
42°

X Y
30

X Y

48°
40

60
Sol 20 Sol 21 55
°

X Y
53°

X Y
70
100

100 60 70 40

Sol 22 Sol 23
 Appendix: Solutions to Unsolved Problems A.19

30

51°
f 50

X Y

X Y

f 80
53°

50

Sol 24 Sol 25
65

30

X Y

X Y
50

30°

Sol 26 Sol 27
30°
50°

X Y
X Y
45°
f 60

HEX
30

Sol 28 Sol 29
 A.20 Engineering Graphics

EXERCISE 8B

45°

30°
X Y
X Y

60

45°
°
HEX 30

30
Sol 1 Sol 2

45°
X Y
60
°

60
X Y

°
30°

40
30

60

Sol 3 Sol 4
30°

X Y

45°
60
°

X Y
60
°

60
30

60 60

Sol 5 Sol 6
45°

X Y X Y
30°
30

f 40

25

Sol 7 Sol 8
 Appendix: Solutions to Unsolved Problems A.21

45°
30°
X Y
X Y

30°
45°
°
60
f 40

80
30°

Sol 9
Sol 10

45°
30°
X Y

30°
75

60
° f 80
45°

X Y
45°

Sol 11 Sol 12
30°

X Y
X Y

45°
50

125

HEX 30

Sol 13 Sol 14
X1
0
X3
HE
45°

30°
X Y
30°
°
60

X Y
50

Y1

Sol 15 Sol 16
 A.22 Engineering Graphics

f 60
45°
X Y

30°

30°
X Y

30°
HEX 30 Sol 18
Sol 17
60 30
30

X Y
30°

30°
X Y
40

60 40

Sol 19 Sol 20

X Y

X Y

30°
80

60

100 60
80 50
Sol 22
Sol 21 60 30
70

X Y
45°

45°

X Y
f 60

40

Sol 23 Sol 24
 60 40

40
X Y

45°

30°
45

X Y

75 60

Sol 25 Sol 26

EXERCISE 9A
X1
50

50

60
X Y
X Y
20

X Y

0
45 f4
30

Y1
Sol 1 Sol 2 Sol 3
40
62

50
41

X Y

X Y X Y

0
f5
50
40

Sol 4 Sol 5 Sol 6

A.24 Engineering Graphics

30

45
2
EX
H

HE
X2
5
X Y

35

45°
X Y
X Y
60

50

f 40
60
Sol 7 Sol 8 Sol 9
70

50
45°

°
X Y

X 60 Y
HEX30

30

Sol 10 Sol 11
70
75

60
°
60

X Y
°

X Y
30

30

Sol 12 Sol 13
 Appendix: Solutions to Unsolved Problems A.25

X1
45

70
X 45° Y
X Y
20

40
Sol 14 Y1

Sol 15
X1
70
70

45°

X Y
X Y
HEX30

0
f5

Y1

Sol 16 Sol 17
HEX30

40
30

X Y X Y
45°
75

70

Sol 18 Sol 19
 A.26 Engineering Graphics

HEX30

0
f5

X Y

°
60
X Y

70
65

Sol 20 Sol 21
50

5
f7
12.5

X Y
30°

X Y
100

30

Sol 23
Sol 22
70

45°

X Y
X Y
25

45°
30

Sol 24 Sol 25
EXERCISE 9B
75

60

60
30°

°
X Y
X Y

45°

45°
40
HEX30

Sol 1 Sol 2
70

65

X Y X Y

30°
45°
40

HEX30

Sol 3 Sol 4
70

60

40
90
°

X Y X Y
45°
HEX30

30

Sol 5 Sol 6
75
70

45°

X Y
X Y
15
30°

30°
30

HEX30

Sol 7 Sol 8
 A.28 Engineering Graphics
50

80
30°

X Y X Y

45°

45°
5
f4 0
f7

Sol 9 Sol 10

70
60

Y X Y
X

45°
30°

0 0
f5 f5

Sol 11 Sol 12
60
60

X Y

X Y
50

20
40

Sol 13 Sol 14
25

40

X Y X Y
30°
25

40

Sol 15
Sol 16
 Appendix: Solutions to Unsolved Problems A.29

65
70

X Y
X Y

45°
0
f5

HEX30
Sol 18
Sol 17

30
HEX30

30°

30°
X Y
X Y
45°

45°
75

70

Sol 19 Sol 20
HEX30
40

60
60

°
X Y
X Y
45°
90

70

Sol 21 Sol 22
40

65

45
°

X Y
45°

X Y
40

30°
60

Sol 23
Sol 24
 A.30 Engineering Graphics

50
100

45° X Y

35

45°
X Y

5
f7 Sol 26

Sol 25
60

X Y
45°

0
f5

Sol 27

EXERCISE 10
50

15
20

35

X Y
60

X Y

X Y
30°
80

35
30

Sol 1 Sol 2 Sol 3

 Appendix: Solutions to Unsolved Problems A.31

Y1
30

70

20
X Y
X1

60
45°

X Y

X Y
60

12
30 40
20

Sol 4 Sol 5 Sol 6

Y1
Y1

Y1

70
X1

35
60

X1
60

60
°
X1 X Y
20
32

30°
45°

X Y
X Y
HEX30
f 40

30

Sol 7 Sol 8 Sol 9

Y1 Y1
Y1
35

X1
50

80

X1
70

X1
25
35°

45°

20
45°

X Y
X Y X Y
f 75

f 60
35

Sol 10 Sol 11 Sol 12

A.32 Engineering Graphics

15

60
70

45°

X Y
X Y

45°

30°
HEX30

Y1

Y1

30
X1
X1

Sol 13 Sol 14
X1 90 X2
45

X1
HEX30
Y2

30°
X Y
60°

Y2
X Y

Y1
65

X2
72
Y1
Sol 15
Sol 16
X1
30 72
75

X Y
30°

45

X Y
Y2

Y1
f 50

X2

Sol 17 Sol 18
 Appendix: Solutions to Unsolved Problems A.33

60
20
X Y

30°
40

Sol 19
EXERCISE 11
25

10
65

50
30°

50°
150 150
HEX 25

30

Sol 2
Sol 1
12
f 50
65

55

60
°

200

141.37
f 45
50

Sol 3 Sol 4
°
30°

60
30

70
30°

188.5

157.08

0
f6 0
f5

Sol 5 Sol 6
A.34 Engineering Graphics
75

80
f4

157.08
188.5

0 0
f5 f6

Sol 7 Sol 8

129°
134°

65

60
50

32.5
25

f4
0
f5
0 50

Sol 9 Sol 10 Sol 11

60
75
75

0
f3
25

10

0 0
f6 f6
30

Sol 12 Sol 13 Sol 14

 Appendix: Solutions to Unsolved Problems A.35

52
50

30

40°
70
60
25

30
HEX15
HEX35

Sol 15 Sol 17 Sol 18

70

70

0
f3
30

45°

25
30°

40
HEX 30

Sol 19 Sol 20

mm
95
=1
ad
hre
of t
gth
80

Len
75

180 175

5.7
f5

HEX 30

Sol 21 Sol 22
A.36 Engineering Graphics

12

12
0

0
60

60

60
f 60

0
f6

40
20
Sol 23 Sol 24 Sol 25
EXERCISE 12

Sol 1 Sol 2 Sol 3

Sol 4 Sol 5 Sol 6

 Appendix: Solutions to Unsolved Problems A.37

f
Sol 7 Sol 8 Sol 9

f
f
φ

f
Sol 10 Sol 11 Sol 12

20
SR

25
SR

Sol 13 Sol 14 Sol 15

 A.38 Engineering Graphics

SR15

40
Sf

f
f

Sol 16 Sol 17 Sol 18

80
z3

z2
z2

45°
z1

60
z3

60 y2
y3

y1
x3
z1

x2 60
y3

x1
y2

y1 x1 f
x3
x2

Sol 19 Sol 20

Sol 21 Sol 22 E12.5 Sol 22 E12.6

 Appendix: Solutions to Unsolved Problems A.39

Sol 22 E12.7 Sol 22 E12.8 Sol 22 E12.9

60
20

40

15

f
30
60

Sol 22 E12.10 Sol 22 E12.11 Sol 22 E12.12

f
f
f
f

15
0°
20

Sol 22 E12.13 Sol 22 E12.14 Sol 22 E12.15

R30

f 20

15

f
f

Sol 22 E12.16 Sol 22 E12.17 Sol 22 E12.18

A.40 Engineering Graphics

20 15

15
Sol 22 E12.19 Sol 22 E12.20 Sol 22 E12.21
f

Sol 22 E12.22 Sol 22 E12.23 Sol 22 E12.24

Sol 22 E12.25 Sol 22 E12.26 Sol 22 E12.27

30

Sol 22 E12.28 Sol 22 E12.29 Sol 22 E12.30