LEADERSHIP THEORY AND PRACTICE EIGHTH EDITION

Transformational Leadership

LEADERSHIP THEORY AND PRACTICE EIGHTH EDITION 2

Transformational Leadership
 Process – Assumes that leader’s interactions can
transform followers.
 Influence - Assumes that a leader can transform
followers to accomplish what they would do
otherwise.
 Core elements – Assumes that followers’ emotions,
values, ethics, standards, and long-term goals can be
changed.
 Measure – Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire
(MLQ) which measures different leadership
behaviors (the 4 Is).

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 LEADERSHIP THEORY AND PRACTICE EIGHTH EDITION 3

Types of Leadership Defined Burns (1978)

Focuses on the
exchanges Process of
that occur engaging with others
to create a connection
between leaders
and their followersthat increases
motivation and
TRANSACTIONAL morality in both the Focuses on the
leader and the leader’s
follower own interests
TRANSFORMATIONAL rather than the
interests of his
or her followers
PSEUDOTRANSFORMATIONAL

LEADERSHIP THEORY AND PRACTICE EIGHTH EDITION 4

Types of Leadership: Transactional

Focuses on the
exchanges
that occur - No new taxes => votes.
between leaders
- Sell more cars => bonus.
and their followers
- Do assignments => grade.
- Surpass goals => promotion.

The exchanges that can be

observed in all organizations.

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Types of Leadership: Transformational

Process of
engaging with others Leader is attentive to the
to create a connection needs and motives of followers
that increases and tries to help followers reach
motivation their fullest potential.
and morality in both the
leader and the follower

Abraham Lincoln – raised

the hopes and demands of
millions of people, motivating
them to give themselves to
end slavery.

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Types of Leadership: Pseudo-Transformational

Focuses on the
leader’s
Leaders who are
own interests – transforming but in a
rather than the negative way
interests of his or – self-consumed,
her followers exploitive, power-
oriented, with
warped moral values
includes leaders like
 Adolph Hitler
 Saddam Hussein

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Model of Transformational Leadership Bass (1985)

 Expanded and refined version of work done by Burns
and House. It included:
• More attention to followers’ rather than leader’s needs
• Suggested TL could apply to outcomes that were not positive
• Described transactional and transformational leadership as a
continuum
 Extended House’s work by:
• Giving more attention to emotional elements & origins of
charisma
• Suggested charisma is a necessary but not sufficient
condition for TL

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TL motivates followers beyond the expected by:

 raising consciousness about the value and importance of specific and
idealized goals
 transcending self-interest for the good of the team or organization
 addressing higher-level needs

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Transformational Leadership Factors

LEADERSHIP THEORY AND PRACTICE EIGHTH EDITION 10

Full Range of
Leadership
Model

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Transformational Leadership Factors The 4 “I”s

 Idealized Influence
- Acting as strong role models
- High standards of moral and ethical conduct
- Making others want to follow the leader’s vision
 Inspirational Motivation
- Communicating high expectations
- Inspiring followers to commitment and engagement in
shared vision
- Using symbols & emotional appeals to focus group
members to achieve more than self-interest

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Transformational Leadership Factors The 4 “I”s

 Intellectual Stimulation
- Stimulating followers to be creative and innovative
- Challenging their own beliefs and valuing those of leader and
organization
- Supporting followers to
 try new approaches
 develop innovative ways of dealing with organization issues
 Individualized Consideration
- Listening carefully to the needs of followers
- Acting as coaches to assist followers in becoming fully
actualized
- Helping followers grow through personal challenges
- Ex. Showing optimism helps employees become more engaged in their
work (Tims et al., 2011)

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Transactional Leadership Factors

Contingent Reward
The exchange process between leaders and
followers in which effort by followers is exchanged
for specified rewards
Management by Exception
Leadership that involves corrective criticism, negative
feedback, and negative reinforcement
– Two forms
 Active - Watches follower closely to identify
mistakes/rule violations
 Passive - Intervenes only after standards have not
been met or problems have arisen

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Nonleadership Factor
Laissez-Faire

The absence of leadership

 A hands-off, let-things-ride approach

 Refers to a leader who

 abdicates responsibility
 delays decisions
 gives no feedback, and
 makes little effort to help followers satisfy their
needs

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Bennis & Nanus (1985)

Four Leader Strategies in Transforming

Organizations
 Clear vision of organization’s future state

 TL’s social architect of organization

 Create trust by making their position known

and standing by it
 Creatively deploy themselves through
positive self-regard

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Kouzes & Pozner (1987, 2002)

Model consists of 5 fundamental practices

 Model the Way

 Inspire a Shared Vision

 Challenge the Process

 Enable Others to Act

 Encourage the Heart

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LEADERSHIP THEORY AND PRACTICE EIGHTH EDITION

How Does the Transformational Leadership

Approach Work?

 Focus of Transformational Leadership

 Strengths

 Criticisms

 Application

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Transformational Leadership
Focus of Transformational
Leaders
Overall Scope  TLs empower and nurture
followers
 Describes how  TLs stimulate change by
leaders can initiate, becoming strong role
develop, and carry models for followers
out significant  TLs commonly create a
changes in vision
organizations  TLs require leaders to
become social architects
 TLs build trust & foster
collaboration

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Strengths
 Intuitive appeal. People are attracted to TL because it makes
sense to them.
 Emphasizes followers. TL emphasizes followers’ emotions, needs,
values, and morals.
 Effectiveness. Evidence supports that TL is an effective form of
leadership. The dimensions measured (especially the 4 I’s and
contingent rewards) impact followers’
 Motivation
 Performance
 Satisfaction

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Criticisms
 Lacks conceptual and measurement clarity.
 The 4 I’s overlap.
 Transactional and transformational leadership overlap.
 Essentially ignores task oriented behavior (planning, defining
roles, defining objectives, problem solving).
 Validity of MLQ is weak.
• Does the MLQ simply measure how much a follower likes a leader?
• Do leaders with high MLQ scores actually transform their followers?

 TL treats leadership more as a set of personality traits and

abilities than a behavior that can be taught.

 Has the potential to be abused.

 Without absolute moral standards, the difference between
transformational and pseudo-transformational leadership is blurred.

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Application
 Provides a general way of thinking about leadership
that stresses ideals, inspiration, innovations, and
individual concerns
 Can be taught to individuals at all levels of the
organization
 Able to positively impact a firm’s performance
 May be used as a tool in recruitment, selection,
promotion, and training development
 Can be used to improve team development, decision-
making groups, quality initiatives, and reorganizations
 The MLQ and Sosik and Jung (2010) guide help leaders
to target areas of leadership improvement

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Case Study: Her Vision of a Model Research Center

Case Study: Steve Jobs as a Transformational Leader

Article: What the Best Transformational Leaders Do

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Servant Leadership

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Leadership

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Servant Leadership Description

 Servant Leadership: A paradox: both service and
influence
 Interest in Servant Leadership
 Most scholarship has been prescriptive: What
are the characteristics of good leaders that really
care about the people they lead?
 But during 21st century, a good amount of
research has been done on what happens when
leaders put followers first.

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What is Servant Leadership

• As a servant leader, you're a "servant first" , who
– focuses on the needs of others, especially team members,
before you consider your own.
– acknowledges other people's perspectives
– gives them the support they need to meet their work and
personal goals,
– involves them in decisions where appropriate
– builds a sense of community within your team.
• SL leads to higher engagement, more trust, and
stronger relationships with team members and
other stakeholders and increased innovation.

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Servant Leadership Defined

 Greenleaf Definition:
“Servant leadership begins with the natural feeling that
one wants to serve, to serve first. Then conscious
choice brings one to aspire to leadership.

The best test…is: Do those served grow as persons? Do

they, while being served, become healthier, wiser, freer,
more autonomous, more likely themselves to become
servant?

And, what is the effect on the least privileged in society?

Will they benefit, or, at least, will they not be further
deprived?”

Sometimes treated as a trait, but viewed as a behavior

in this chapter

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What do Servant leaders do?

• Devote themselves to serving the needs of
organization members.
• Focus on meeting the needs of those they lead.
• Develop employees to bring out the best in them.
• Coach others and encourage their self expression.
• Facilitate personal growth in all who work with them.
• Listen and build a sense of community.

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LEADERSHIP THEORY AND PRACTICE EIGHTH EDITION 30

Spears (2002) version of Greenleaf’s Servant Leadership

-10 Characteristics of a Servant Leader

1. Listening 7. Foresight
2. Empathy 8. Stewardship

3. Healing 9. Commitment to the

Growth of People
4. Awareness
10. Building Community
5. Gentle Persuasion
6. Conceptualization

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Characteristics of Servant Leaders

• make a deep commitment to listening intently
to them and understanding what they're
saying.
• give people your full attention, take notice of
their body language, avoid interrupting them
before they've finished speaking, and give
feedback on what they say.

• Servant leaders strive to understand other

people's intentions and perspectives.
• Value others' perspectives, and approach
situations with an open mind.

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LEADERSHIP THEORY AND PRACTICE EIGHTH EDITION

Characteristics of Servant Leaders
• Healing relates to the emotional health and
"wholeness" of people, and involves supporting
them both physically and mentally.
• People should have the knowledge, support
and resources they need to do their jobs
effectively
• Ability to look at yourself, think deeply about
your emotions and behaviour, and consider
how they affect the people around you and
align with your values
• Know your strengths and weaknesses and
asking for other people's feedback on them.

• Servant leaders use persuasion – rather than

their authority – to encourage people to take
action.
• They aim to build consensus in groups, so that
everyone supports decisions.

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 LEADERSHIP THEORY AND PRACTICE EIGHTH EDITION
Characteristics of Servant Leaders
• Ability to "dream great dreams," so that you
look beyond day-to-day realities to the bigger
picture.
• Develop long term focus so that you stay
motivated to achieve the more distance goals
without getting distracted

• Ability to predict what's likely to happen in the

future by learning from past experiences,
identifying what is happening now
• Learn to trust your intuition – if your instinct is
telling you that something is wrong, listen to it!

• Taking responsibility for the actions and

performance of your team, and being
accountable for the role team members play in
your organization.
• Lead by example by demonstrating the values
and behaviours that you want to see in others

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LEADERSHIP THEORY AND PRACTICE EIGHTH EDITION

Characteristics of Servant Leaders

• Servant leaders are committed to the

personal and professional development of
everyone on their teams.

• Providing opportunities for people to interact

with one another across the company -
organizing social events such as team lunches,
designing your workspace to encourage people
to chat informally away from their desks, and
dedicating the first few minutes of meetings to
non-work-related conversations.

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Qualities of a Servant Leader

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LEADERSHIP THEORY AND PRACTICE EIGHTH EDITION

Value Diverse Opinion

• A servant leader values everyone’s contributions and regularly seeks out

opinions from a wide group of diverse people.
• The servant leader recognizes the value that others bring to solving a problem

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Cultivate a Culture of Trust

• A healthy culture encourages open, robust debate.

• It allows for alternative opinions – allows everyone to have a say.

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Develops Other Leaders

• A servant leader empowers others

• Encourages others in their learning, developing and becoming leaders

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Helps People with Life Issues

• A servant leader cares about the people who work in the organization.
• Helping people with life issues implies trust, respect and a professional
association.

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LEADERSHIP THEORY AND PRACTICE EIGHTH EDITION

Encourages

• The hallmark of a Servant leader is encouragement.

• A true Servant leader says “Let’s go do it” and not “You go do it”

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Sells Instead of Tells

• The leadership style is shifting to a participatory style of management from

an authoritarian style earlier.
• Persuasive leaders understand that the “Why” is more important than the
“What” and the “How”

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LEADERSHIP THEORY AND PRACTICE EIGHTH EDITION

Thinks YOU, not ME

• Servant leaders who focus on others are all about empowerment.

• Empowerment improves customer experience and makes employees feel like
a part of the business.

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Think Long Term

• A servant leader is thinking about the next generation, the next leader, the
next opportunity.
• The servant leader considers strategies and actions that will help future
leaders build on a solid foundation

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LEADERSHIP THEORY AND PRACTICE EIGHTH EDITION

Act With Humility

• Humility is a recognition of your own capabilities and need for others.

• With humility, you understand that you are a small part of something much
bigger.

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LEADERSHIP THEORY AND PRACTICE EIGHTH EDITION

Model of Servant Leadership

(Liden et al., 2008)

Antecedent Conditions (3)

 Context and culture
• Organizational context
• Dimensions of culture (e.g., power distance)
 Leader attributes
• Traits interact with ability to engage in servant leadership (e.g.,
moral development, emotional intelligence)
 Follower receptivity
• Some subordinates do not want to work with servant leaders
• When matched with followers who desire it, servant leadership
has a positive impact on performance and organizational
citizenship behavior

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Model of Servant Leadership

(Liden et al., 2008)
Servant Leader Behaviors (7)
 Conceptualizing
• Thorough understanding of the organization
• Ex. Senior nursing supervisor in emergency room
 Emotional healing
• Recognizing others’ problems and taking the time to address
them
• Ex. Hospice priest on Chicago’s south side
 Putting followers first
• Ex. Widely published health education professor

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LEADERSHIP THEORY AND PRACTICE EIGHTH EDITION

Model of Servant Leadership

(Liden et al., 2008)

 Helping followers grow and succeed

• Knowing followers’ professional or personal goals
• Ex. High school music teacher
 Behaving ethically
• Doing the right thing in the right way
• Ex. CEO and leaked document from rival company
 Empowering
• Allowing followers the freedom to be independent,
make decisions on their own, and be self-sufficient
• Ex. College professor with TAs

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Model of Servant Leadership

(Liden et al., 2008)

 Creating value for the community

• Intentionally giving back to the community

• Encouraging followers to volunteer for community service

• Ex. Principal of alternative high school

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LEADERSHIP THEORY AND PRACTICE EIGHTH EDITION

Model of Servant Leadership

(Liden et al., 2008)
 Outcomes (3)
- Follower performance and growth
• Recognizing followers’ contributions and helping them realize their
human potential
• Favorable impact on subordinate in-role performance
• Followers themselves may become servant leaders
- Organizational performance
• Positive relationship between servant leadership and OCB
• Team effectiveness enhanced by increasing members’ shared
confidence that they could be effective
- Societal impact
• Ex. Mother Teresa and Sisters of Charity
• Ex. Southwest Airlines

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How does Servant Leadership Work?

 It is concerned with putting followers first and the
outcomes that are likely to emerge.
 Servant leadership works best when leaders are
altruistic and have a strong motivation to help
others.
 It is important for followers to be receptive to this
style of leadership
 Servant leadership should result in community and
societal change.

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LEADERSHIP THEORY AND PRACTICE EIGHTH EDITION 52

Strengths

 Makes altruism the central component of the

leadership process.
 Focuses on the well-being of others.

 Provides a counterintuitive approach to the use of

influence. Leaders should share control.
 Research has resulted in a sound measure of SL –
the SLQ.

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Criticisms
 Because servant leadership appears contradictory, it
may be seen as whimsical or moralizing, or not really
“leadership.”
 Researchers are unable to reach consensus on a
common definition or theoretical framework for SL.
 It’s an incomplete theory because it doesn’t include
other principles of leadership such as directing,
concern for production, etc.
 Not enough research has been done to confirm the
outcomes predicted by the theory.

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LEADERSHIP THEORY AND PRACTICE EIGHTH EDITION

Application

 SL can be applied at all levels of management and in all

types of organizations.
 SL has been used extensively in a variety of
organizations for more than 30 years.
 Organizations should be careful to select employees
who (a) are interested in building long-term relationships
with followers and (b) have strong ethics.
 SL is taught at many colleges and universities and is
used by numerous independent coaches, trainers, and
consultants.

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Case Study: Servant Leadership Takes Flight

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 LEADERSHIP THEORY AND PRACTICE EIGHTH EDITION

Adaptive Leadership

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LEADERSHIP THEORY AND PRACTICE EIGHTH EDITION

Description
Adaptive Leadership:
 Focuses on the adaptations workers need to make in
response to changing environments.
 Stresses the activities of the leader that optimize the
work of followers in the contexts in which they find
themselves.
 Encourages effective change across multiple levels:
self, organizational, community, and societal
 Framework developed largely by Heifetz and
associates

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 LEADERSHIP THEORY AND PRACTICE EIGHTH EDITION

Adaptive leadership is a
model that leaders use to
What is encourage people to adapt
Adaptive in order to face and
with problems, challenges
Leadership? and changes.
(Northouse 2016)

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LEADERSHIP THEORY AND PRACTICE EIGHTH EDITION

Definition
 “The practice of mobilizing people to tackle
tough challenges and thrive.”
 Adaptive leaders help others do the work by:
 Mobilizing them
 Motivating them
 Organizing them
 Orienting them
 Focusing their attention of what’s important

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 LEADERSHIP THEORY AND PRACTICE EIGHTH EDITION
Incorporates Four Different Viewpoints
 Systems Perspective – Problems are complex with
interconnected parts
 Biological Perspective – People develop and evolve by
having to adapt to internal cues and the external environment
 Service Orientation – Leadership serves people by diagnosing
their problems and prescribing possible solutions
 Psychotherapy Perspective – People adapt successfully
when they face problems directly, distinguish between fantasy and
reality, resolve internal conflicts, and learn new attitudes and
behaviors

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LEADERSHIP THEORY AND PRACTICE EIGHTH EDITION

When is Adaptive Leadership Relevant?
What type of situational challenges are workers
facing?
1. Technical problems: Problems that are clearly defined with
known solutions that can be implemented through existing
organizational procedures

Example: Some new software at an accounting firm isn’t working. If the

accountant has authority to address the problem (e.g., contact the software
company and have program modified to meet the company’s needs), this is a
technical problem.
=> No need for adaptive leadership

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When is Adaptive Leadership Relevant?
What type of situational challenges are workers
facing?
2. Adaptive Challenges: Problems that are not clearly defined or
easy to identify, and which do not have a clear solution.
They require innovation and learning.

Example: A hospital wants to begin hospice care for terminally ill patients.
The patients and their families will face immense uncertainty about how and
when the patients will die. The staff, patients, and families will face many
questions about the dying process, what the loss means, how to prepare for it
and cope with it.
=> The challenges facing the organization are not clearly defined, nor are the
solutions. These challenges require adaptive leadership.
=> Adaptive challenges are value-laden and stir up people’s emotions.
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LEADERSHIP THEORY AND PRACTICE EIGHTH EDITION

Model of Adaptive Leadership
Situational Challenges
3. Technical and Adaptive: Challenges are clearly defined but do
not have straightforward solutions. Leader and followers both tackle
problem.

Example: Hospital wants to change from traditional approach to care to a

patient-centered culture. Administration can offer training on how to involve
patients in their own care. Medical staff , patients, and families need to accept
the change and learn how to implement it.

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 LEADERSHIP THEORY AND PRACTICE EIGHTH EDITION
Model of Adaptive Leadership
Four Archetypes of Adaptive Change
1. Gap between espoused values and behavior
When an organization espouses values that it doesn’t in reality support
by its actions. Ex. Claiming to be family-friendly but not providing
flextime.
2. Competing commitments
When an organization has numerous commitments and some conflict
with each other. Ex. Wanting to expand services but cutting staff
positions at the same time.

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LEADERSHIP THEORY AND PRACTICE EIGHTH EDITION

Model of Adaptive Leadership
3. Speaking the unspeakable
When there are ideas or unpopular ideas or conflicting perspectives
that people don’t dare to address. Ex. People afraid to discuss the
failing skills of an aged, but likable company owner.
4. Work avoidance
Where people avoid addressing difficult issues by staying in their
comfort zones or by using diversion. Ex. Refusing to confront a skilled
employee whose performance is slacking because he feels the
company suffers from institutional racism.

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LEADERSHIP THEORY AND PRACTICE EIGHTH EDITION

Six Adaptive Leader Behaviors
1. Get on the Balcony c
Step away from the conflict without
disassociating from it entirely. Understand
the big picture and all that involved in the
situation, not taking the problems personally.

2. Identify Adaptive Challenges

Distinguish between technical and adaptive
challenges. Ensure diagnosis of the
problem is spot on
4 Types of Adaptive Challenges
 A gap between espoused values and behavior
 Competing commitments/goals (quality vs. cost)
 Elephants in the room (Problems people don’t
want to address)
 People avoiding work
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 LEADERSHIP THEORY AND PRACTICE EIGHTH EDITION
Six Adaptive Leader Behaviors
(No specific order to them)

3. Regulate Distress
Help others recognize the need for change but not be overwhelmed by it.
The leader must. . .
a. Create a holding environment (safe atmosphere to discuss everything)
b. Provide direction, protection, orientation, conflict management,
productive norms
c. Regulate his or her own personal distress and the distress of workers,
keeping it in the productive range.

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LEADERSHIP THEORY AND PRACTICE EIGHTH EDITION

Six Adaptive Leader Behaviors
(No specific order to them)
4. Maintain Disciplined
Attention
 Help to provide focus attention on the key
issues at hand. The leader has to ‘mobilize and
encourage people to drop their defenses and
openly confront their problems.’ (Northouse
2016)
 How can the leader handle followers who
insist in blaming others or pretend the problem
isn’t there?

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Six Adaptive Leader Behaviors
(No specific order to them)

5. Give the Work Back to the People

 Leaders are encouraged to put limits on their

influence and redirect problem solving back to the people
involved.
 Can leaders easily empower followers?

 Avoid micro-managing.

6. Protect Leadership Voices from

Below
 Listen to the people who may feel marginalized or
judged because of their opinions. Give voice to others so
they will be part of the solution.

 Does everyone’s
Northouseopinion matter?
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LEADERSHIP THEORY AND PRACTICE EIGHTH EDITION

The adaptive leadership provides some

prescriptive and practical solutions to
conflicts that leaders must help to resolve.
It helps leaders to guide followers as they
face problems and inevitable changes.
Although criticized for being somewhat
abstract and open to various
interpretations, the overall value of
this approach is useful. It provides
a view to determine if problems are
technical or adaptive and suggests
strategies for managing the challenges.
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Adaptive Work
 The process toward which adaptive leaders direct their
work.
 What adaptive leaders want to see happen.
 A holding environment is essential.
 Adaptive work grows out of the communication between
leaders and followers but is primarily the work done by
followers
 Followers are not submissive to leaders; they are the
ones doing adaptive work.

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How Does Adaptive Leadership Work?
 Focus is on engaging individuals to do adaptive work
 Leaders support followers during changes in the
environment
 Leader steps back from situation to gain fresh
perspective.
 Leader decides whether challenges are technical or
adaptive.
 If technical, leader uses authority and expertise to solve.
 If adaptive, leader uses several prescribed behaviors to
move the adaptive process forward.

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Strengths
 In contrast to some leadership theories, Adaptive Leadership
takes a process approach; leadership is a complex transaction
between leaders and followers.
 Adaptive Leadership is follower centered. Adaptive leaders
mobilize people to engage in adaptive work.
 Helps followers deal with conflicting values that emerge in
changing work environments.
 Prescribes useful leadership behaviors.
 Introduces the concept of a “holding environment” as an
important part of the leadership process.

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Criticisms
 Very little empirical research has been conducted to test
the claims of the theory.
 Complex processes are difficult to define, test and
measure.
 Somewhat abstract and general, makes simple practical
recommendations difficult to implement.

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Application
 On individual level, the model provides a
conceptual framework to help us determine
types of challenges and strategies for managing
them.
 On organizational level, explains a variety of
challenges. Widely used in nonprofits, faith-
based organizations, and health care.

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Case Study: Silence, Stigma, and

Mental Illness

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Leadership Ethics

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ETHICS
 Doing right things for greater goods
 Unethical does not mean illegal

Why Now?
 Environmental crisis

 Social crisis

 Economic crisis

 Interest in ethical aspects of leadership has been growing

as public confidence in political and corporate leaders
continue to decline

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Ethical Leadership
 Leading in the manner that consistently respects the rights
and dignity of all stakeholders.

Attributes and behavior of ethical leadership

 Consideration and respect for others

 Fairness and non-discriminatory treatment
 Dissemination of ethical guidelines for
 Modeling ethical behavior to set a visible example for others
 Criticizing or punishing unethical behavior

It is important for leaders to tell a compelling and morally rich

story, but ethical leaders must also embody and live the story.

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Ethical Leadership…
 Moral standards used to evaluate ethical behavior are:

 Violating basic laws of society

 Denying others their rights
 Endangers the health and lives of other people
 Attempts to deceive and exploit others for personal benefit.

 Judgments about ethical leadership vary somewhat

across cultures.
 It is necessary to consider a leader’s intentions and values
as well as behaviors when evaluating ethical leadership

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Dilemmas in Assessing Ethical Leadership
 Influencing Expectations
 Unethical to make false promises and deceiving about likely
outcomes
 Crisis time
 Influencing values and beliefs
 Unethical to attempt to change the underlying individual values and
beliefs
 Major changes for firms survival and effectiveness
 Multiple stakeholders and competing values
 Unethical to do best in the interest of particular stake holders
 Serving conflicting interest of different stakeholders

So ethical leadership can be assessed on the basis of subjective

judgements about rights, accountability, due process, social
responsibility
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Determinants of Ethical Leadership
Individual determinants Situational determinants
Personality traits and needs: Organizational culture and reward system
High conscientiousness, low neuroticism
and
personalized power orientation
Values Community or national cultural
Personal values, organizational values, values and beliefs
social and moral values
Integrity Uncertain environment and lack of strong
Honesty and having strong moral government regulation
principles
Kohlberg(1984) stages of moral Followers
development Lowest, middle and characteristics Self-
highest level esteem and self
efficacy

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Consequences of Ethical and Unethical Leadership
Ethical Leadership Unethical Leadership
Increase organizational citizenship Decrease organizational citizenship
behavior behavior
Build trust, creditability and respect Aggression towards
both for individual and for the organization and
organization coworkers
Increase the self-respect and moral of Pessimistic employee attitudes
peoples
in the organization
Lead to collaboration which Difficulty of recruitment and
creates good atmosphere and bad work environment
good-team working

Sometime unethical leadership can help some organization to achieve the

objectives and goals with the profitability into the company in short run, but this
leadership style can create the negative effects in long run.
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Practical Ethical Theory

Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development

Level 1. Pre-conventional morality
Stage 1 – Obedience and Punishment: Rules are fixed and handed
down by authority
Stage 2 – Individualism and Exchange: An action is right if it serves the
individual
Level 2. Conventional Morality
Stage 3 – Interpersonal Accord and Conformity: Conforming to the
expectations of others

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Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development

Stage 4 – Maintaining the Social Order: Moral decisions show concern

for society as a whole
Level 3. Post-conventional Morality
Stage 5 – Social Contract and Individual Rights: Moral decisions based
on what a good society should be like
Stage 6 – Universal Principles: Moral decisions based on internalized
universal principles of justice that apply to everyone

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Practice, 2016 SAGE
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Leadership Ethics Description

Definition & Theory

 Ethical Theory

 Provides a system of rules or principles as a guide

in making decisions about what is right/wrong and
good/bad in a specific situation

 Provides a basis for understanding what it means to

be a morally decent human being

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Ethical Theories
 Two Broad Domains: Theories about leaders’ conduct and about
leaders’ character

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Northouse Practice,
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Theory andEdition. © Eighth
Practice, 2016 SAGE
EditionPublications,
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Ethical Theories
Teleological Theories: focus on consequences of actions, results

CONDUCT
Ethical egoism (create greatest good for the leader)
 Closely related to transactional leadership theories
Example: leader takes a political stand on an issue for no other reason than to get
re-elected
Utilitarianism (create greatest good for greatest number)
Example: leader distributes scarce resources so as to maximize benefit to
everyone, while hurting the fewest; preventive health care vs. catastrophic
illnesses
Altruism (show concern for best interests of others)
 Authentic transformational leadership is based on altruistic principles
Example: theNorthouse
work -of Mother
Leadership TheoryTeresa, whoEdition
and Practice, Eighth gave her
© 2019 entire
SAGE lifeInc.to help the poor
Publications,

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Ethical Theories

CONDUCT
 Deontological Theories
 duty driven, for example, relates not only to
consequences but also to whether action itself is good
 Focus on the actions of the leader and his/her moral
obligation and responsibilities to do the right thing
 Example: telling the truth, keeping promises, being fair

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Theory andEdition. © Eighth
Practice, 2016 SAGE
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Ethical Theories

CHARACTER
 Virtue-based Theories: about leader’s character
 Focus on who people are as people
• Rather than tell people what to do, tell people what to be
• Help people become more virtuous through training and
development
• Virtues are present within person’s disposition; practice makes
good values habitual
 Examples: courage, honesty, fairness, justice, integrity, humility

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Centrality of Ethics to Leadership

 Influence dimension of leadership requires the leader to
have an impact on the lives of followers

 Power and control differences create enormous ethical

responsibility for leaders

 Respect for persons – sensitive to followers’ own interests

and needs

 Leaders help to establish and reinforce organizational

values – an ethical climate

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Diverse Perspectives of Leadership

Heifetz’s Perspective
 Emphasizes how leaders help followers to confront
conflicting values & to effect change from conflict

 Ethical perspective that speaks directly to

• Values of workers

• Values of organizations and the communities in which they work

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Diverse Perspectives of Leadership

Heifetz’s Perspective

 Leaders use authority to mobilize followers to

 Get people focused on issues
 Act as a reality test regarding information
 Manage and frame issues
 Orchestrate conflicting perspectives
 Facilitate the decision-making process

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Diverse Perspectives of Leadership

Heifetz’s Perspective
Leaders use authority to mobilize followers to
 Get people focused on issues
 Act as a reality test regarding information
 Manage and frame issues
 Orchestrate conflicting perspectives
 Facilitate the decision-making process
Leader provides a holding environment, a supportive
context in which there is
 Trust, nurturance, & empathy
Leader’s duties
 Assist the follower in struggling with change and personal growth

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Diverse Perspectives of Leadership

Burns’s Perspective
 Theory of Transformational Leadership
 Strong emphasis on followers’ needs, values, & morals
 Leaders help followers in their personal struggles concerning
conflicting values
 Stressing values such as liberty, justice, equality
 Connection between leader & follower
• Raises level of morality of both

 Leader’s Role
 Assist followers in assessing their values & needs

 Help followers to rise to a higher level of functioning

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The Dark Side of Leadership

 Pseudotransformational leadership
 Characterized by destructive behaviors, such as violating
basic human rights (Lipman-Blumen, 2005)
 Characterized by personal characteristics, such as lack
of integrity, insatiable ambition, arrogance (Lipman-
Blumen)
 Associated with workplace outcomes such as negative
attitudes in followers toward jobs and organization as a
whole (Schyns and Schilling, 2013)

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The Toxic Triangle

Destructive Leaders
Charismatic, narcissistic, self-absorbed
Susceptible Followers
Conformers and colluders
Conducive Environments
Unstable environments may grant leader more
authority

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Ethics - is central to leadership because of

The process of
influence

The need to
engage followers
to accomplish
mutual goals

The impact
leaders have on
establishing the
organization’s
values

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Principles of Ethical Leadership

Treating others as ends (their own goals) rather than as means (to
leaders’ personal goals)

Respects Leader shall:

Others
 Treat other people’s values and decisions
with respect
Leader behaviors:
 Allow others to be themselves with
Listens closely to creative wants and desires
subordinates
 Approach others with a sense of
Is empathic unconditional worth and value individual
Is tolerant of opposing differences
viewpoints

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Principles of Ethical Leadership

Follower centered - Based on the altruistic principle of placing
followers foremost in the leader’s plans
Leaders have
Serves  A duty to help others pursue their
Others own legitimate interests and goals
 To be stewards of the organization’s
Leader behaviors vision; in serving others they:
 Mentoring behaviors clarify, nurture, and integrate the
 Empowerment vision with, not for, organization
behaviors members
 Team-building
 An ethical responsibility to make
behaviors
 Citizenship behaviors
decisions that are beneficial to their
followers’ welfare
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Principles of Ethical Leadership

Ethical leaders are concerned with issues of fairness and justice; they place
issues of fairness at the center of their decision making

Shows
Justice
Leaders shall:
Adhere to principles of distributive justice

Leader behaviors
All subordinates are treated in an equal manner
In special treatment/special consideration situations,
grounds for differential treatment are clear,
reasonable, and based on sound moral values
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Principles of Ethical Leadership

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Principles of Ethical Leadership

Honest leaders are authentic but also
Manifests sensitive to the feelings and attitudes of
Honesty others

Leaders: Leader behaviors

 Are not deceptive  Don’t promise what you can’t
 Tell the truth with a deliver
balance of openness  Don’t suppress obligations
and candor while  Don’t evade accountability
monitoring what is  Don’t accept “survival of the
appropriate to disclose fittest” pressures
in a particular situation  Acknowledge and reward
honest behavior in the
organization

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Principles of Ethical Leadership

Builds Concern for common good means leaders cannot

impose their will on others; they search for goals
Community that are compatible with everyone.

Leader behaviors Ethical leaders & followers

Takes into account purposes  take into account purposes of
of everyone in the group everyone in the group, and
Is attentive to interests of the  reach out beyond their own
community and culture mutually defined goals to wider
community
Does not force others or
ignore intentions of others

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Strengths
 Provides a body of timely research on ethical issues

 Provides direction on how to think about ethical

leadership and how to practice it

 Suggests that leadership is not an amoral phenomenon

and that ethics should be considered as integral to the
broader domain of leadership

 Highlights principles and virtues that are important in

ethical leadership development

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Criticisms

 Lacks a strong body of traditional research findings to

substantiate the theoretical foundations

 Relies heavily on writings of just a few individuals that

are primarily descriptive and anecdotal in nature, and
are strongly influenced by personal opinion and a
particular worldview

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Application
 Can be applied to individuals at all levels of organization
and in all walks of life
 Because leadership has a moral dimension, being a leader
demands awareness on our part of the way our ethics
define our leadership
 Managers and leaders can use information on ethics to
understand themselves and strengthen their own leadership
 Leaders can use ethical principles as benchmarks for their
own behavior
 Leaders can learn that leader-follower relationship is central
to ethical leadership

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Guidelines for Ethical Leader
 Set clear standards of ethical conduct.
 Model ethical behavior in your own actions.
 Help people find fair and ethical ways to resolve problems and
conflicts.
 Oppose unethical practices in the organization.
 Implement and support programs to promote ethical behavior
 Cultural values, laws and ethical standards

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Team Leadership

LEADERSHIP THEORY AND PRACTICE EIGHTH EDITION 2

Descriptions and Perspectives

 Team
 Group of organizational members who are interdependent, share
common goals, and coordinate activities to accomplish those goals
 Can meet face-to-face or be virtual
 “Team-based and technology enabled” = newer organizational
structures
 Outcomes of Effective Teams
 Greater productivity
 More effective use of resources
 Better decisions and problem solving
 Better-quality products and services
 Greater innovation and creativity (Parker, 1990)

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Team Leadership Perspective

Research on Teams:

 Team success is highly dependent on leadership.

 The leadership functions can be performed by a

formal leader or shared by team members.
 Distributed (shared) leadership
 Team leadership capacity

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 LEADERSHIP THEORY AND PRACTICE EIGHTH EDITION 11

Team Leadership Model

 Model provides leader or designated team member with
a mental model to help
 Diagnose team problems, and
 Take appropriate action to correct team problems
 Effective team performance begins with leader’s mental
model of the situation
 Mental model reflects
 Components of the problem
 Environmental & organizational contingencies

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Leadership Decision 1
Should I Monitor the Team or Take Action?

 Leaders can
 Diagnose, analyze, or forecast problems (monitoring) or take
immediate action to solve a problem
 Focus on problems within the group (internal) or which problems
need intervention
 Make choices about which solutions are the most appropriate
 Effective leaders have the ability to determine what
interventions are needed, if any, to solve team problems
 All members of the team can engage in monitoring
 Leaders differ in timing of taking action

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LEADERSHIP THEORY AND PRACTICE EIGHTH EDITION 14

SOURCE: McGrath’s critical leadership

Northousefunctions as cited
- Leadership in “Leading
Theory Groups
and Practice, in Organizations,”
Eighth Edition © 2019bySAGE
J. R. Hackman and R.
Publications, Inc.E. Walton, 1986, in P. S. Goodman
& Associates (Eds.), Designing Effective Work Groups (p. 76). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

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 LEADERSHIP THEORY AND PRACTICE EIGHTH EDITION 15

Leadership Decision 2
Should I Intervene to Meet Task or Relational Needs?

Task Maintenance Functions

 Getting job done  Developing positive climate

 Making decisions  Solving interpersonal problems

 Solving problems  Satisfying members’ needs

 Adapting to change  Developing cohesion

 Making plans

 Achieving goals Even more challenging in

virtual teams

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LEADERSHIP THEORY AND PRACTICE EIGHTH EDITION 16

Leadership Decision 3
Should I Intervene Internally or Externally?

Leader must
 Determine what level of team process needs
leadership attention:
 Use internal task or relational team dynamics, if
• Conflict between group members
• Team goals unclear
 Use external environmental dynamics, if
• Organization not providing proper support to team

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Leadership Actions
 Leadership Functions – performed internally or externally

Internal Leadership Actions External Leadership Actions

Task Relational Environmental

Goal focusing Coaching Networking
Structuring for Collaborating Advocating
results Managing conflict Negotiating support
Facilitating Building commitment Buffering
decision making Satisfying needs Assessing
Training Modeling principles Sharing information
Maintaining
standards

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LEADERSHIP THEORY AND PRACTICE EIGHTH EDITION 18

Internal Task Leadership Actions

 Set of skills or actions leader might perform to
improve task performance:
 Goal focusing (clarifying, gaining agreement)
 Structuring for results (planning, visioning, organizing,
clarifying roles, delegating)
 Facilitating decision making (informing, controlling,
coordinating, mediating, synthesizing, issue focusing)
 Training team members in task skills (educating, developing)
 Maintaining standards of excellence (assessing team and
individual performance, confronting inadequate performance)

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Internal Relational Leadership Actions

 Set of actions leader needs to implement to improve
team relationships:
 Coaching team members in interpersonal skills

 Collaborating (including, involving)

 Managing conflict and power issues (avoiding confrontation,
questioning ideas)
 Building commitment and esprit de corps (being optimistic,
innovating, envisioning, socializing, rewarding, recognizing)
 Satisfying individual member needs (trusting, supporting,
advocating)
 Modeling ethical and principled practices (fair, consistent,
normative)

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External Environmental Leadership

Actions
 Set of skills or behaviors leader needs to implement
to improve environmental interface with team:
 Networking and forming alliances in environment (gather
information, increase influence)
 Advocating and representing team to environment

 Negotiating upward to secure necessary resources, support, and

recognition for team
 Buffering team members from environmental distractions
 Assessing environmental indicators of team’s effectiveness
(surveys, evaluations, performance indicators)
 Sharing relevant environmental information with team

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Characteristics of Team Effectiveness

Clear, Elevating Goal
• Clear so that one can tell whether performance objective has been
met
• Motivating or involving so that members believe it is worthwhile and
important
Unified Commitment
• Teams need a carefully designed and developed sense of unity or
identification (team spirit)

Results-Driven Structure
• Need to find the best structure to achieve goals
• Clear team member roles
• Good communication system
• Methods to assess individual performance
• An emphasis on fact-based judgments

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LEADERSHIP THEORY AND PRACTICE EIGHTH EDITION 22

Characteristics of Team Effectiveness

 Core Competencies
 Ability to do the job well
 Problem-solving ability

 Competent Team Members

 Components
• Right number and mix of members
• Members must be provided
 Sufficient information
 Education and training
• Requisite technical skills
• Interpersonal & teamwork skills
 Team Factors
• Openness
• Supportiveness
• Action orientation
• Positive personal style

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Characteristics of Team Effectiveness

 Collaborative Climate
 Trust based on openness, honesty, consistency, and respect
 Integration of individual actions
 Teams contribute to collective success by
 Coordinating individual contributions
 Team leaders making communication safe
 Team leaders demanding and rewarding collaborative behavior
 Team leaders guiding the team’s problem-solving efforts
 Team leaders managing their own control needs
 Standards of Excellence
 Regulated Performance
 Facilitates task completion and coordinated action
 Stimulates a positive pressure for members to perform at highest levels
 How Accomplished
 Requiring results (clear expectations)
 Reviewing results (feedback/resolve issues)
 Rewarding results (acknowledge superior performance)
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Gender and Leadership

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Gender and Leadership Approach

Description
Historical View
 Gender and Leadership
 Researchers ignored issues related to gender & leadership until the
1970s
 Scholars started by asking “Can women lead?”
 Changed by women in leadership
• Presence of women in corporate & political leadership
• Highly effective female leaders – PepsiCo’s CEO, Avon’s CEO, General
Ann Dunwoody, etc.

Current research primary questions

 Do men and women lead differently?
 Are men leaders more effective than women leaders?
 Why are women underrepresented in elite leadership roles?

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What is Glass Ceiling

 Glass ceiling is an unacknowledged
discriminatory barrier that prevents
minority (women in this case) from rising to
position of power or responsibility within
an organization.
 Where as Glass emphasizes on that while
every thing is very clear, very real one can
see each and every thing very clearly, that is
it is transparent and not obvious to the
observer.
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Glass Walls…

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Reasons Why Feminists Feel that Glass Ceiling

Exists

 Male dominated management, which made allthe

decisions for thecompany.
 Lack of proper anti discrimination law and
government action ondiscrimination
 Men's attitude towards problems faced by women
 Preference of men over women of same educational
qualification and caliber.
 Sexual harassment was seen as another major
hindrance in the women'scareer.
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The Glass Ceiling Turned Labyrinth

 Women
 Currently outnumber men in higher education--57% of bachelor’s
degrees, 60% of master’s degrees, more than 50% of doctorates,
nearly half of professional degrees.
 Make up less than half of the U.S. labor force (47%) but represent
51% of the population.
 Still are underrepresented in upper leadership of corporations and
political systems (the gender gap).
 Global phenomenon whereby women are disproportionately
concentrated in lower-level and lower-authority leadership positions
than men. (Powell & Graves, 2003)
 Hold only 14.4% of highest titles in the Fortune 500
 Represent only 4% of Fortune 500 CEOs (Catalyst, 2014c)
 Hold only 16.9% of Fortune 500 board seats

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Understanding the Labyrinth

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Understanding the Labyrinth

1. Human Capital Differences
 Pipeline Problem – Women have less education, training, and
work experience than men resulting in a dearth of qualified women.
 Pipeline is not empty but leaking – Explanation that women
haven’t been in managerial positions long enough for natural
career progression to occur (Heilman, 1997) ; not supported by
research.
 Division of labor – Explanation that women self-select out of
leadership tracks by choosing “mommy track” positions that do not
funnel into leadership positions (Belkin, 2003; Ehrlich, 1989;
Wadman, 1992); not supported by research (Eagly & Carli,
2004).

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Understanding the Labyrinth

Women
 do have somewhat less work experience and continuity
than men, largely due to disproportionate responsibility
women assume for child rearing and domestic duties

 respond to work-home conflicts by not marrying, not having

children, becoming “superwomen,” taking leaves of
absence or working part time

 who use flextime and workplace leave are often

marginalized; taking time off from a career makes reentry
difficult (Williams, 2010)

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Understanding the Labyrinth

2. Gender Differences in Leadership Styles and
Effectiveness

 Contrary to stereotypical expectations, women

leaders aren’t less task oriented or more interpersonal
than men leaders.
 Women do lead in a more participative manner than
men.
 Adaptive style because women are devalued when
they lead in a masculine manner, occupy a typically
masculine role, or when evaluators are male

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Understanding the Labyrinth

Transformational leadership

 Women’s styles tend to be more transforma-

tional than men’s
 Even as transformational leaders, they are
valued less than men
 Women engage in more contingent behavior
than men

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Effectiveness of Male and Female

Leaders
 Men and women equally effective overall
 Men and women more effective in roles
congruent with their gender
 Women less effective than men when role is
masculinized (military), when supervising large
numbers of men, or when rated by men
 Somewhat more effective in education,
government, social service; substantially more
effective in middle management

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Commitment to Employment and

Motivation to Lead

 Men and women show same level of identification and

commitment to paid employment roles
 Men and women both view roles as workers as
secondary to partner and parent roles
 Women less likely to promote themselves for leadership
positions
 Women less likely to emerge as group leaders; more
likely to serve as social facilitators
 Men more likely to ask for what they want; Women less
likely to negotiate or self-promote and receive more
backlash when they do
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Understanding the Labyrinth

3. Prejudice
 gender bias stemming from stereotyped expectations – “women
take care and men take charge”

 Stereotypes = cognitive shortcuts that influence the way

people process information regarding groups and group
members.
 Gender stereotypes include beliefs about the attributes
of men and women and prescribe how men and women
ought to be.

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Understanding the Labyrinth

 Gender Stereotypes
 Pervasive, well documented, and highly resistant to
change (Dodge, Gilroy, & Fenzel, 1995; Heilman,
2001)
 Men are stereotyped with agentic characteristics
• confidence, assertiveness, independence,
rationality, & decisiveness
 Women are stereotyped with communal
characteristics
• concern for others, sensitivity, warmth, helpfulness,
& nurturance (Deaux & Kite, 1993; Heilman, 2001)

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Understanding the Labyrinth

 Gender stereotypes explain numerous findings –
 Women facing cross-pressures to be tough but not too “manly”
 Greater difficulty for women to be viewed as effective in top
leadership roles (Eagly & Karau, 2002)
 Penalties for women who violate gender stereotypes (Ex. Price
Waterhouse vs. Ann Hopkins; media coverage of 2008 Hillary
Clinton presidential run)
 Decision-makers influenced by homosocial reproduction, a
tendency for a group to reproduce itself in its own image (Ex.
Male leaders choosing male successors)

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Understanding the Labyrinth

How stereotypes affect women themselves
 Pressure of tokenism (Kanter, 1977) and being
scrutinized.
 Women may assimilate to stereotype OR may counter
the stereotype. Depends on
• Leader’s self-efficacy
• Explicitness of the stereotype
• Type of task
• Gender composition of the group
• Power of the leader
• Whether stereotype threats are combined

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Culture and Leadership

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Culture Defined
 Culture:
 learned beliefs, values, rules, norms, symbols, & traditions
that are common to a group of people
 shared qualities of a group that make them unique
 is the way of life, customs, & scripts of a group of people

 Terms related to culture –

 Multicultural – approach or system that takes more than
one culture into account
 Diversity – existence of different cultures or ethnicities
within a group or organization
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Culture & Leadership Description

 Culture & Leadership – focuses on a collection of
related ideas rather than a single unified theory
 Globalization –
 Increased after World War II
 Increased interdependence between nations
• Economic, social, technical, political
 Has created many challenges
• Need to design multi-national organizations
• Identify and select leaders for these organizations
• Manage organizations with culturally diverse
employees
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Culture & Leadership Description

Five cross-cultural competencies for Leaders (Adler
Bartholomew, 1992)
1. Understand business, political, & cultural environments
worldwide
2. Learn the perspectives, tastes, trends, & technologies of
many cultures
3. Be able to work simultaneously with people from many
cultures
4. Be able to adapt to living & communicating in other cultures
5. Need to learn to relate to people from other cultures from a
position of equality rather than superiority

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Dimensions of Culture
 Hall (1976) reported that a primary characteristic of
cultures is degree of focus—on the individual
(individualistic) or on the group (collectivistic)
 Trompenaars (1994) classified an organization’s culture
into two dimensions:
• Egalitarian-hierarchical - degree to which cultures
exhibit shared power vs. hierarchical power
• Person-task orientation - extent to which cultures
emphasize human interaction vs. focusing on tasks
 Hofstede (1980, 2001) benchmark research identified five
major dimensions on which cultures differ

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Dimensions of Culture
 House et al.’s (2004) research on the relationship
between culture and leadership resulted in the
GLOBE research program
 Initiated in 1991 – this program involved more than
160 investigators
 Used quantitative methods to study the responses of
17,000 managers in more than 950 organizations, 62
different cultures
 Developed a classification of cultural dimensions –
identified nine cultural dimensions

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Nine Cultural Dimensions

Uncertainty Avoidance
 extent to which a society, organization, or group relies on
established social norms, rituals, and procedures to avoid
uncertainty
 Ex. United States promotes entrepreneurship; Middle Eastern
countries value careful business negotiations built on long-term
trusted relationships
Power Distance
 degree to which members of a group expect and agree that power
should be shared unequally
 Ex. India caste system where everyone has his/her “rightful place”
Institutional Collectivism
 degree to which an organization or society encourages institutional
or societal collective action
 Ex. North Korean Supreme Leader Kim Jong-II, who uses military to
oversee development of cultural values of collective effort and non-
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material incentives
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Nine Cultural Dimensions

In-Group Collectivism
 degree to which people express pride, loyalty, and cohesiveness in their
organizations or families
 Ex. Some Middle Eastern cultures regard family and religious affiliation
above all else; honor killings of family members who have disgraced or
defied the paternal leader of the family
Gender Egalitarianism
 degree to which an organization or society minimizes gender role
differences and promotes gender equality
 Ex. In Sweden, men and women share power equally. Extensive
welfare system allows both sexes to balance work and family life
Assertiveness
• degree to which people in a culture are determined, assertive,
confrontational, and aggressive in their social relationships
• Ex. German managers use straightforward and direct language;
conflict and confrontational discussion are acceptable workplace
behaviors
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Nine Cultural Dimensions

Future Orientation
• extent to which people engage in future-oriented behaviors such as
planning, investing in the future, and delaying gratification
• Ex. Many Middle Eastern countries are concerned with traditional
values and ways of doing things; North Americans believe they can
plan and control the future and idealize change for the sake of changing
Performance Orientation
• extent to which an organization or society encourages and rewards
group members for improved performance and excellence
• Ex. Standardized testing in US schools
Humane Orientation
• degree to which a culture encourages and rewards people for being
fair, altruistic, generous, caring, and kind to others
• Ex. Switzerland’s helpfulness to others during and after WW I and WW
II. The country espouses tolerance and responsibility as central
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educational goals

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SOURCE: Adapted from House, R. J., Hanges, P. J., Javidan, M., Dorfman, P. W., & Gupta, V. (Eds.), Culture, Leadership, and Organizations: The
Northouse
GLOBE Study of 62 Societies, © 2004, -SAGE
Leadership Theory and
Publications, Inc. Practice,
ReprintedEighth Edition © 2019 SAGE Publications, Inc.
with permission.

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LEADERSHIP THEORY AND PRACTICE EIGHTH EDITION 52

Leadership Behavior & Culture Clusters

 GLOBE research identified six global leadership
behaviors that are considered important to various
degrees in various cultures.
 Charismatic/value-based
 Team-oriented
 Participative
 Humane-oriented
 Autonomous
 Self- and group- protective

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 LEADERSHIP THEORY AND PRACTICE EIGHTH EDITION 53

Leadership Behavior & Culture Clusters

 GLOBE research identified six global leadership
behaviors
 Charismatic/value-based leadership reflects the ability to
inspire, to motivate, and to expect high performance from
others based on strongly held core values.
 Team-oriented leadership emphasizes team building and a
common purpose among team members.
 Participative leadership reflects the degree to which
leaders involve others in making and implementing
decisions.

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Leadership Behavior & Culture Clusters

 Humane-oriented leadership emphasizes being
supportive, considerate, compassionate, and
generous.
 Autonomous leadership refers to independent
and individualistic leadership, which includes
being autonomous and unique.
 Self-protective leadership reflects behaviors that
ensure the safety and security of the leader and
the group.

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SOURCE: Adapted from House, R.J., Hanges, P.J., Javidan, M., Dorfman, P. W., & Gupta, V., Culture, Leadership, and Organizations: The GLOBE Study
of 62 Societies, copyright © 2004, Sage Publications, Inc. Reprinted with permission.

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LEADERSHIP THEORY AND PRACTICE EIGHTH EDITION 56

SOURCE: Adapted from House, R.J., Hanges, P.J., Javidan, M., Dorfman, P. W., & Gupta, V., Culture, Leadership, and Organizations: The GLOBE Study
of 62 Societies, copyright © 2004, Sage Publications, Inc. Reprinted with permission.

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