CHAP 1.

FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES
1.1. Industrial prime movers
Most industrial processes require objects or substances to be moved from one location to
another, or a force to be applied to hold, shape or compress a product. Such activities
are performed by prime movers, the workhorses of manufacturing industries.

A prime mover is defined as an initial source of motive power designed to receive and
modify force and motion as supplied by some natural source (wind, water, fuel) and apply
them to drive machinery.

In many locations all prime movers are electric motors and engines. However, these are
not the only means of providing prime movers. Enclosed fluids (both liquids and gases)
can also be used to convey energy from one location to another and, consequently, to
produce rotary or linear motion or apply a force.

Fluid power is the transmission of forces and motions using a confined, pressurized fluid.
In hydraulic fluid power systems, the fluid is oil, or less commonly water. Gas-based
systems are called pneumatic systems (from the Greek pneumn for wind or breath). The
most common gas is simply compressed air, although nitrogen is occasionally used.

Fluid power is ideal for high speed, high force, and high-power applications. Compared
to all other actuation technologies, including electric motors, fluid power is unsurpassed
for force and power density and is capable of generating extremely high forces with
relatively lightweight cylinder actuators.

Because oil has a high bulk modulus, hydraulic systems can be finely controlled for
precision motion applications. Another major advantage of fluid power is compactness
and flexibility. Fluid power cylinders are relatively small and light for their weight and
flexible hoses allows power to be snaked around corners, over joints and through tubes
leading to compact packaging without sacrificing high force and high power.

Fluid power is not all good news. Hydraulic systems can leak oil at connections and seals.
Hydraulic power is not as easy to generate as electric power and requires a heavy, noisy
pump. Hydraulic fluids can cavitate and retain air resulting in spongy performance and
loss of precision. Hydraulic and pneumatic systems become contaminated with particles
and require careful filtering.

Uses of fluid power systems

Fluid power systems may be used for Carrying out work by operating plant and machinery
using linear, swivel and rotary motion. Some general methods of material handling used
in industry, for example, maybe: clamping, shifting, positioning, orientating.

General applications maybe: packaging, feeding, door or chute control, material transfer,
turning and inverting of parts, sorting, stacking, stamping, and embossing.

Some general machining and work operations maybe: drilling, turning, milling, sawing,
finishing and buffing, forming.

Applications of fluid power

Some of the principal users of fluid power technology are:

• Manufacturing industries, notably the automotive industry, machine tool

manufacturers and domestic and commercial appliance manufacturers.
• Processing industries, such as chemical, petro-chemical, food processing, textiles,
paper, etc.
• Transportation systems, including marine and mobile construction plant utilities,
particularly in the gas industry
• Oil hydraulics is extensively used in aerospace industry. One common example
which many would have come across is the plane landing wheels that are lowered
or retracted with hydraulic power.
• Almost all earth moving machinery use hydraulic power in their systems.
• Defence systems.

1.2. A brief system comparison

Thera are two types of fluid power systems: Pneumatic system and Hydraulic system

1.2.1. Hydraulic system

The hydraulic power unit, as shown in Figure 1.1, can be considered to be composed of
components and accessories. Accessories aid or assist the fluid power. They are also used
to measure the system parameters like pressure and temperature. Whereas components
are used for adjusting the pressure and generating flow or direction.

Examples of accessories are reservoir, suction strainer, return line filter, oil level gauge,
pressure gauge, filler gauge, isolator, bell housing, and coupling. Examples of
components are pumps, valves, hydraulic cylinder, and hydraulic motor.
 Figure 1.1: A hydraulic power pack unit with accessories

Below is a table describing the different components and accessories used in hydraulic
power pack unit and their functions.

S/N Item description Function

1 Reservoir As the name indicates, it holds oil. The hydraulic oil is taken
out using pump and through piping and valves to cylinder/
hydraulic motor. Finally the oil comes back to the reservoir.

2 Pump The pump is used to move the oil from the reservoir and
through a set of valves to the hydraulic actuator (cylinder, or
motor).

3 Coupling Connects the pump to the motor

4 Bell housing Ensures alignment between the pump shaft and electric
motor shaft while coupling.

5 Motor Prime mover used to drive the pump

6 Oil level gauge Indicates the oil level in the reservoir

7 Suction strainer Connected to the suction line of the pump and serves as a
filter. Immersed in the oil in the reservoir, it ensures that bolts
and nuts and other metals do not get into the pump.

8 Breather filler The level of oil in the reservoir goes up and down when the
system is working. It serves as a breather for the reservoir to
the outside atmosphere, also used to fill up the oil of the
reservoir.

9 Vent plug in the Flushes out the oil when it is necessary.

reservoir

10 Pressure gauge Measures the working pressure of the hydraulic power pack

11 Valves The valves are basically categorized as: pressure control

valves, direction control valves, and flow control valves. A set
of valves is required for the power unit depending on the
application.

12 Manifold for The valves are mounted on blocks having internal oil
valves passages and provision for external piping.

13 Piping From the suction strainer to pump/ manifold/ valves to

hydraulic actuators, piping is needed. Hydraulic hose, pipe,
and tubes are used for this purpose.

14 Hydraulic Hydraulic cylinder or linear actuator is normally the final

cylinder or element where the hydraulic oil pushes the piston rod of a
hydraulic motor hydraulic cylinder and thereby moves the load.

A hydraulic motor can also be used in place of a hydraulic

cylinder. In such a case, rotary motion will be obtained
instead of linear actuation.

Advantages of hydraulic system

• Transmission of large forces using small components i.e. great power intensity
• Precise positioning
• Start-up under heavy load
• Even movements independent of load, since liquids are scarcely compressible and
flow control valves can be used.
 • Good control and regulation
• Favourable heat dissipation
• Hydraulic fluid can easily be transported in pipelines even over large distances
• Hydraulic pump need not be in continuous operation. Hydraulic fluid can be stored
in accumulators.
• Hydraulic fluids are relatively insensitive to fluctuations. This ensures reliable
operation, even under extreme conditions.
• Hydraulic fluid are very fast working media. This enables high working speeds to
be attained.
• Adjustable: Hydraulic fluid, speeds and forces are variable over wide ranges

Disadvantages

• Pollution of the environment by waste oil (danger of fire and accidents)

• Sensitivity to dirt
• Danger resulting from excessive pressures (severed lines)
• Temperature dependence (change in velocity)
• Unfavourable efficiency factor

1.2.2 Pneumatic system

Pneumatics is the study of systems operated by air under pressure. The air taken from
the atmosphere is compressed in a compressor and this compressed air is worked to act
on a specially designed surface like a vane wherein the resultant motion of the piston or
the vane is utilized as part of a machine.
 Figure 1.2: Typical pneumatic system

Figure 1.2 shows the components of a pneumatic system. The basic actuator is a cylinder,
with maximum force on the shaft being determined by air pressure and piston cross-
sectional area. Operating pressures in pneumatic systems are generally much lower than
those in a hydraulic system. Pneumatic systems therefore require larger actuators than
hydraulic systems for the same load.

The valve delivering air to the cylinder operates in a similar way to its hydraulic equivalent.
One notable difference arises out of the simple fact that air is free; return air is simply
vented to the atmosphere.

Air is drawn from the atmosphere via an air filter and raised to required pressure by an
air compressor (usually driven by an AC motor). The air temperature is raised
considerably by this compressor. Air also contains a significant amount of water vapour.
Before the air can be used it must be cooled, and this results in the formation of
condensation. So, the air compressor must be followed by a cooler and air treatment unit.

Compressibility of a gas makes it necessary to store a volume of pressurized gas in a

reservoir, to be drawn on by the load. Without this reservoir, a slow exponential rise in
pressure results in a similar slow cylinder movement when the valve is first opened. The
air treatment unit is thus followed by an air reservoir. Hydraulic systems require a
pressure regulator to spill excess fluid back to the tank, but pressure control in a
pneumatic system is much simpler. A pressure switch, fitted to the air reservoir, starts
the compressor motor when pressure falls and stops it again when pressure reaches the
required level.
 Figure 1.3: Pneumatic control system

Advantages

• Air is available practically everywhere in unlimited quantities.

• Air can be easily transported in pipelines, even over large distances.
• Air compressor need not be in continuous operation. Compressed air can be stored
in a reservoir and removed as required. In addition, the reservoir can be
transportable.
• Compressed air is relatively insensitive to temperature fluctuations. This ensures
reliable operation, under extreme conditions.
• Compressed air offers no risk of explosion or fire.
• Unlubricated exhaust air is clean. Any unlubricated air which escapes through
leaking pipes or components does not cause contamination.
• The operating components are of simple construction and therefore relatively
inexpensive.
• Compressed air is a very fast working medium. This enables high working speeds
to be attained.
• Pneumatic tools and operating components can be loaded to the point of stopping
and are therefore overload safe.
• Adjustable: With pneumatic air, speeds and forces are variable over wide ranges

Disadvantages
 • Compressed air requires good preparation. Dirt and condensate should not be
present.
• It is not always possible to achieve uniform and constant piston speeds with
compressed air.
• Compressed air is economical only up to a certain force requirement. Under normal
working pressure of 600 to 700 kpa (6 to 7 bar) and dependent on the travel and
speed, the output limit is between 40000 and 50000 Newtons.
• The exhaust air is loud.

The table below gives a comparison of the different power systems: hydraulic, pneumatic
and electric system.

Concept/ system Electrical Hydraulic Pneumatic

property

Prime mover Electric motor Pump driven by Compressor driven

electric motor/ by electric motor/
diesel engine diesel engine

Energy storage Limited (batteries) Limited Good (reservoir)

(accumulators)

Medium Electricity Hydraulic oil Compressed air

Distribution system Excellent, with Limited, basically a Good, compressed

minimal loss. Easy local facility air can be
by way of transported in
transmission reservoirs, and
towers and cables. compressors can
also be transported
to sites.

Magnitude of energy Cannot be Up to 400 bar Up to 12 bar

generated compared in terms pressure in pressure in
of pressure but can industrial industrial
generate applications applications
thousands of Kw

Transmission By way of cables/ Pipes and hoses Pipes and hoses

wires
 Energy cost Lowest Medium Highest

Rotary actuators AC and DC motors. Low speed. Good Wide speed range.
Good control on DC control. Can be Accurate speed
motor. AC motor is stalled. control is difficult.
cheap.

Linear actuators Short motion via Cylinders. Very Cylinders. Medium

solenoid. high force. force.
Otherwise via
mechanical
conversion.

Environment/ Not sensitive. Sensitive Not sensitive to

temperature/ environmental
humidity temperature
variations.

Drawbacks Danger from Leakage dangerous Noise

electric shock and unsightly. Fire
hazard.

1.3. Definition of terms

Any measurement system requires definition of the six units used to measure: length;
mass; time; temperature; electrical current; light intensity. Of these, hydraulic/ pneumatic
engineers are primarily concerned with the first three. Other units (such as velocity, force,
pressure) can be defined in terms of these basic units. Velocity, for example, is defined
in terms of length/time.

1.3.1. Mass and force

We all are used to the idea of weight, which is a force arising from gravitational attraction
between the mass of an object and the earth. A person weighs 75 kg on the bathroom
scales; this is equivalent to saying there is 75 kg force between his feet and the ground.

Weight therefore depends on the force of gravity. On the moon, where gravity is about
one-sixth that on earth gmoon = 1.662 m/s2), the author’s weight would be about 12.5 kg;
in free fall the weight would be zero. In all cases, though, the author’s mass is constant.
If a force is applied to a mass, acceleration (or deceleration) will result as given by the
well-known formula:

𝑭 = 𝒎𝒂

Weight, often confused with both force and mass, is the force that arises from the action
of gravity on a mass.

1.3.2. Pressure
Pressure occurs in a fluid when it is subjected to a force. In Figure 1.4 a force F is applied
to an enclosed fluid via a piston of area A. This results in a pressure P in the fluid.
Obviously increasing the force increases the pressure in direct proportion. Less obviously,
though, decreasing piston area also increases pressure. Pressure in the fluid can therefore
be defined as the force acting per unit area, or:

𝐹
𝑝=
𝐴

Figure 1.4: Pressure in a fluid subjected to a force

Exercise: a lifting platform is to lift a load of 15000 N and is to have a system pressure
of 75 bar. How large does the piston diameter need to be?

Given that: F = 15000 N

p = 75 bar = 75 ∙ 105 𝑃𝑎

𝐹 15000
𝐴= = = 0.002 𝑚2 = 20 𝑐𝑚2
𝑝 75 ∙ 105
𝜋 2
𝐴= 𝐷
4
 20 × 4
𝐷=√ = 5.04 𝑐𝑚
𝜋

Exercise: Instead of making calculations, it is possible to work with a diagram. The

stiction in the cylinder is not taken into consideration.

Given that: Force F = 100 kN

Operating pressure p = 350 bar

What is the piston diameter?

Reading (Figure 1.5 ): d = 60 mm

 Figure 1.5: Piston diameter, force and pressure

Pressure can also arise in a fluid from the weight of a fluid. This is usually known as the
head pressure and depends on the height of fluid. In Figure 1.5 the pressure at the
bottom of the fluid is directly proportional to height h. In the SI system head pressure is
given by:

𝒑 = 𝝆𝒈𝒉

Figure 1.6: Head pressure in a fluid

There are three distinct ways in which pressure is measured, shown in Figure 1.7. Almost
all pressure transducers or transmitters measure the pressure difference between two
input ports. This is known as differential pressure, and the pressure transmitter in Figure
1.7(a) indicates a pressure of p1 − p2.

In Figure 1.7 (b) the low-pressure input port is open to atmosphere, so the pressure
transmitter indicates pressure above atmospheric pressure. This is known as gauge
pressure, and is usually denoted by a ‘g’ suffix). Gauge pressure measurement is almost
universally used in hydraulic and pneumatic systems

Figure 1.7 (c) shows the pressure transmitter measuring pressure with respect to a
vacuum. This is known as absolute pressure and is of importance when the compression
of gases is considered. The relationship between absolute and gauge pressure is
illustrated in Figure 1.8.
 Figure 1.7: Different forms of pressure measurement

Figure 1.8: Relationship between absolute and gauge pressure.

1.3.3. Work, energy and power

Work is done (or energy is transferred) when an object is moved against a force, and is
defined as:

𝑾𝒐𝒓𝒌 = 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 𝒙 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒎𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒅

Power is the rate at which work is performed

𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 = 𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌/ 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆

 1.3.4. Torque
The term torque is used to define a rotary force, and is simply the product of the force
and the effective radius as shown in Figure 1. 8. We thus have:

𝑻 = 𝑭𝒙𝒅

Figure 1.9: Definition of torque

1.4. Pascal’s law

Pressure in an enclosed fluid can be considered uniform throughout a practical system.
There may be small differences arising from head pressures at different heights, but these
will generally be negligible compared with the system operating pressure. This equality
of pressure is known as Pascal’s law, and is illustrated in Figure 1.10 where a force of 5
kg f is applied to a piston of area 2 cm2 This produces a pressure of 2.5 kg f cm−2 at
every point within the fluid, which acts with equal force per unit area on the walls of the
system.

Figure 1.10: Forces and pressure in closed tanks

The applied force develops a pressure, given by the expression:

𝒑 = 𝑭/𝑨
The force on the first tank is 𝑭 = 𝒑 𝒙 𝑨

The force on the second tank is 𝒇 = 𝒑 𝒙 𝒂

From which can be derived: 𝑭 = 𝒇 𝒙 𝑨/𝒂

The expression above shows that an enclosed fluid may be used to magnify a force. In
Figure 1.10 a load of 2000 kg is sitting on a piston of area 500 cm2. The smaller piston
has an area of 2 cm2. An applied force f given by
2
𝑓 = 2000𝑥 500 = 8 kgf will cause the 2000 kg load to rise. There is said to be a mechanical
advantage of 250

Figure 1.11: Mechanical advantage

Energy must, however, be conserved. To illustrate this, suppose the left-hand piston
moves down by 100 cm. Because we have assumed the fluid is incompressible, a volume
of liquid 200 cm3 is transferred from the left-hand cylinder to the right-hand cylinder,
causing the load to rise by just 0.4 cm. So, although we have a force magnification of
250, we have a movement reduction of the same factor. Because work is given by the
product of force and the distance moved, the force is magnified and the distance moved
reduced by the same factor, giving conservation of energy.

The principle of Figure 1.11 is widely used where a large force is required with small
movement. Typical examples are clamps, presses, hydraulic jacks and motor car brake
and clutch operating mechanisms.

Exercise: A vehicle is to be lifted by a hydraulic jack. The mass m amounts to 1500 kg.
What force F1 is required at the piston?
Given that: load m = 1500 kg
10𝑚
Force due to weight 𝐹2 = 𝑚 ∙ 𝑔 = 1500𝑘𝑔 ∙ 𝑠2
= 15000 𝑁

Given that: 𝐴1 = 40 𝑐𝑚2 = 0.004 𝑚2

𝐴2 = 1200 𝑐𝑚2 = 0.12 𝑚2

𝐴1 ∙ 𝐹2 0.004 ∙ 15000
𝐹1 = = = 500 𝑁
𝐴2 0.12

Displacement transmission: If a load 𝐹2 is to be lifted a distance 𝑠2 in line with the

principle described above, the piston 𝑃1 must displace a specific quantity of liquid which
lifts the piston 𝑃2 by a distance 𝑠2 .

Figure 1.12: Displacement transmission

The necessary displacement volume is calculated as follows:

𝑉1 = 𝑠1 ∙ 𝐴1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉2 = 𝑠2 ∙ 𝐴2

Since the displacement volumes are identical (𝑉1 = 𝑉2), the following equation is valid:
 𝑠1 ∙ 𝐴1 = 𝑠2 ∙ 𝐴2

From this it can be seen that the distance 𝑠1 must be greater than the distance 𝑠2 since
the area 𝐴1 is smaller than the area 𝐴2 .

The displacement of the piston is in inverse ratio to its area. This law can be used to
calculate the values 𝑠2 and 𝐴1 .

𝑠1 ∙ 𝐴1 𝑠2 ∙ 𝐴2
𝑠2 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐴1 =
𝐴2 𝑠1

Pressure transfer

The hydrostatic pressure P1 exerts a force F1 on the area A1 which is transferred via the
piston rod onto the small piston. Thus, the force F1 acts on the area A2 and produces the
hydrostatic pressure P2. Since piston area A2 is smaller than piston area A1, the pressure
P2 is greater than pressure P1. Here too, the following law applies

𝐹
𝑃=
𝐴

Figure 1.13: Pressure transfer

From this, the following equations can be formulated for the forces F1 and F2:

𝐹1 = 𝑝1 ∙ 𝐴1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐹2 = 𝑝2 ∙ 𝐴2

Since the two forces are equal (F1 = F2), the equations can be balanced:

𝑝1 ∙ 𝐴1 = 𝑝2 ∙ 𝐴2

𝑝1 ∙ 𝐴1 𝑝1 ∙ 𝐴1
𝑝2 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐴2 =
𝐴2 𝑝2
 1.5. Pressure measurement
Behaviour of a fluid can generally be deduced from measurements of flow or pressure. A
flow transducer or transmitter has to be plumbed, in line, into a pipe, whereas pressure
transmitters can be added non-intrusively as tappings to the side of a pipe. The basic
fault-finding tool in both pneumatic and hydraulic systems is therefore a pressure gauge.
Often this is a simple gauge which can be plugged into various parts of the system via a
flexible connection.

1.6. Fluid flow

Hydraulic and pneumatic systems are both concerned with the flow of a fluid (liquid or
gas) down a pipe. Flow is a loose term that generally has three distinct meanings:

• Volumetric flow is used to measure volume of fluid passing a point per unit of time.
Where the fluid is a compressible gas, temperature and pressure must be specified
or flow normalized to some standard temperature and pressure (a topic discussed
later). Volumetric flow is the most common measurement in process control.
• Mass flow measures the mass of fluid passing the point in unit time.
• Velocity of flow measures linear speed (in m/s, say) past the point of
measurement. Flow velocity is of prime importance in the design of hydraulic and
pneumatic systems.

In hydraulics the flow rate is designated as Q. the following equation applies:

𝑉
𝑄=
𝑡
Q = flow rate [𝑚3 ⁄𝑠]

V = volume [𝑚3 ]

T = time [s]

If the time t is replaced by s/v (v=s/t) in the formula for the flow rate (Q=V/t) and the
volume is replaced by 𝐴. 𝑠, the following equation is produced:

𝑄 =𝐴∙𝑣

Q = flow rate [𝑚3 ⁄𝑠]

v = flow velocity [𝑚/𝑠]

A = Pipe cross-section [𝑚2 ]

The flow rate of a liquid in terms of volume per unit of time which flows through a pipe
with several changes in cross section is the same at all points in the pipe (Figure 1.14).
This means that the liquid flows through small cross-sections faster than through large
cross-sections. The following equation applies:

𝑄1 = 𝐴1 ∙ 𝑣1 𝑄2 = 𝐴2 ∙ 𝑣2 𝑄3 = 𝐴3 ∙ 𝑣3

As within one line the value for Q is always the same, the following equation of continuity
applies:

𝐴1 ∙ 𝑣1 = 𝐴2 ∙ 𝑣2 = 𝐴3 ∙ 𝑣3 = 𝑒𝑡𝑐 …

Figure 1.14: Flow rate

Types of fluid flow are illustrated in Figure 1.15. At low flow velocities, the flow pattern
is smooth and linear with low velocities at the pipe walls and the highest flow at the
centre of the pipe. This is known as laminar or streamline flow.

As flow velocity increases, eddies start to form until at high flow velocities complete
turbulence results as shown in Figure 1.15 (b). Flow velocity is now virtually uniform
across the pipe. The nature of the flow is determined by the Reynolds number, Rc, given
by the expression:

𝑣𝑑
𝑅𝐶 =
𝜈

Where v is flow velocity, d is pipe diameter, the 𝜈: kinematic viscosity. The Reynolds
number is a ratio and hence dimensionless. If Rc < 2300, flow is laminar. If Rc > 2300,
flow is turbulent.
 Figure 1.15: Types of fluid flow

Energy in a unit mass of fluid has three components:

• Kinetic energy from its motion, given by v2/2 where v is flow velocity;
• Potential energy from the height of the fluid;
• Energy arising from the pressure of the fluid, given by P/ρ where P is the pressure
and ρ the density.

Fluid is passing along a pipe in Figure 1.16. Neglecting energy losses from friction,
energies at points X, Y and Z will be equal. The flow velocity at point Y, however, is higher
than at points X and Z because of the smaller pipe diameter. Potential energy at each
point is constant because the pipe is horizontal, so we can write:

The net result of the expression is fluid pressure falls as flow velocity rises. Note, though,
that the pressure recovers as flow velocity falls again at point Z.

Figure 1.16: Relationship between pressure and flow

 1.7. Friction Heat and Pressure Drop
Friction occurs in all devices and lines in a hydraulic system through which liquid passes.
This friction is mainly at the line walls (external friction). There is also friction between
the layers of liquid (internal friction).

The friction causes the hydraulic fluid, and consequently also the components, to be
heated. As a result of this heat generation, the pressure in the system drops and thus,
reduces the actual pressure at the drive section.

The size of pressure drop is based on the internal resistances in a hydraulic system. These
are dependent on:

• Flow velocity (cross-sectional area, flow rate)

• Type of flow (laminar, turbulent)
• Type and number of cross-sectional reductions in the system of lines (throttles,
orifices)
• Viscosity of the oil (temperature, pressure)
• Line length and flow diversion
• Surface finish
• Line arrangement
The flow velocity has the greatest effect on the internal resistances since the resistances
rises in proportion to the square velocity.

Flow resistance in pipelines. The friction between the flowing layers of liquid and the
adhesion of the liquid to the pipe wall form a resistance which can be measured or
calculated as a drop in pressure.
Since the flow velocity has an influence on the resistance to the power of two, the
standard values should not be exceeded.
Example for calculating the values in the table: A flow with a velocity of v = 0.5
m/s flows through a pipeline with a nominal width of 6 mm.
The kinematic velocity = 100 mm2/s at 15℃
The density 𝜌 = 850 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
Calculate the pressure drop ∆𝑝 for 1 m length.
1 𝜌
∆𝑝 = 𝜆 ∙ ∙ ∙ 𝑣 2
𝑑 2
75
Figure for resistance of pipes 𝜆 = 𝑅𝑒 (resistance value)
Reynolds’ number Re:
𝑣∙𝑑
𝑅𝑒 =
𝜈
Given: 𝜈 = 100 𝑚𝑚 𝑠 = 1 ∙ 10 𝑚 𝑠, d = 6 mm = 0.006 m, v = 0.5 m/s
2⁄ 4 2⁄

0.5 × 0.006
𝑅𝑒 = = 30 (𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒
1 ∙ 104
75 75
Figure for resistance of pipes 𝜆 = 𝑅𝑒 = 𝑅𝑒 = 1.5 (𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒)
1 𝜌 2 1 850 𝑘𝑔 ∙ 𝑚
∆𝑝 = 𝜆 ∙ ∙ ∙ 𝑣 = 2.5 × × × (0.5)2 = 44270 2 2
𝑑 2 0.006 2 𝑚 ∙𝑠
2
∆𝑝 = 44270 𝑁/𝑚 = 0.4427 𝑏𝑎𝑟 (𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒)

Pressure losses through formed parts

Flow reversal causes a considerable drop in pressure in curved pipes, T-pieces, branches
and angle connections. The resistances which arise are chiefly dependent on the
geometry of the formed parts and the flow value.
These pressure losses are calculated using the form coefficient 𝜁 for which the most
common shapes are set as a result of experimental tests.
Since the form coefficient is heavily dependent on the Reynolds’ number, a correctio
factor b corresponding to the Re number is taken into consideration. Thus, the following
applies for laminar range:
𝜌 ∙ 𝑣2
∆𝑝 = 𝜁 ∙ 𝑏 ∙
2
Example: Calculate the pressure drop ∆𝑝 in an elbow with the nominal size 10 mm.
Given that: Flow speed v = 5 m/s
Density of the oil 𝜌 = 850 kg/𝑚3
Viscosity 𝜈 = 100 𝑚𝑚2 ⁄𝑠 at 150 ℃
First Re is calculated:
𝑣 ∙ 𝑑 5 × 0.01
𝑅𝑒 = = = 500
𝜈 0.0001
Factor from the table b = 1.5
Form coefficient from the table 𝜁 = 1.2

𝜌 ∙ 𝑣2 850 × (5)2
∆𝑝 = 𝜁 ∙ 𝑏 ∙ = 1.2 × 1.5 × = 19125 𝑁/𝑚2 = 0.19 𝑏𝑎𝑟
2 2
The pressure loss in the valves can be derived from the ∆𝑝 − 𝑄 characteristics of the
manufacturer.

1.8. Temperature
Fluid behaviour is determined to some extent by its temperature.

Temperature scales

A temperature scale is established by choosing two observable physical effects which are
dependent upon temperature and assigning numerical values to them. The Fahrenheit
and Celsius (previously known as Centigrade) scales use the freezing and boiling points
of water as the two reference points:
5
And 𝐶 = (𝐹 − 32) ×
9
 𝐶
From which 𝐹 = (9 × ) + 32
5

The SI unit of temperature is the Kelvin.

K = OC +273.1

1.9. Gas laws

For all practical purposes, liquids used in hydraulic systems can be considered
incompressible and insensitive to changes in temperature (provided the temperature
remains within some quite broad limits). The gas in a pneumatic system is very sensitive
to changes in pressure and temperature, and its behaviour is determined by the gas laws
described below.

Pressure and volume are related by Boyle’s law. In Figure 1.17 we have a volume of gas
V1 at pressure P1 (in absolute units, remember). This gas is compressed to volume V2,
which will result in a rise of pressure to P2, where:

P1V1 = P2V2 (i)

P: Absolute pressure

Figure 1.17: Boyle’s law

Provided the temperature of the gas does not change during the compression. A reduction
of pressure similarly leads to an increase in volume.

In practice, compression of a gas is always accompanied by a rise in temperature (as is

commonly noticed when pumping up a bicycle tire) and a reduction in pressure produces
a temperature fall (the principle of refrigeration).

For the expression above to apply, the gas must be allowed to return to its original
temperature.
In Figure 1.18, on the other hand, the temperature of a fixed volume of gas is controlled
by a heater. A rise in temperature from T1 to T2 results in an increase in pressure from
P1 to P2, where:
𝑃1 𝑃2
= (ii)
𝑇1 𝑇2

Figure 1.18: Relationship between pressure and temperature.

Expressions (i) and (ii) are combined to give the general gas law:
𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑃2 𝑉2
= (𝒊𝒊𝒊)
𝑇1 𝑇2

Where P1, V1, T1 are initial conditions and P2, V2, T2 are final conditions. As before,
expression (iii) assumes no heat is lost to, or gained from, the environment.

1.10. Hydraulics and Pneumatics Symbols

Like electrical circuit diagrams, graphical representations of hydraulic and pneumatic
systems are a shorthand way of representing the operation of a circuit by using standard
graphical symbols. Although the diagrams show the relationship between components,
they are not a piping diagram.

Hydraulics and pneumatics use the same general symbols, the difference being that
energy triangles, found on pumps and motors for example, are filled black on hydraulic
diagrams and left clear on pneumatic diagrams.

The symbols listed below are generally in accordance with ISO 1219, although
manufacturers do tend to use variations on this theme.

Valve symbol description

In general, the symbols are similar for pneumatic and hydraulics but each control medium
has specific characteristics that are unique.
 Figure 1.19: Directional control valves – symbol development

Figure 1.20: DCV Ports and positions (ways)

The directional control valve is represented by the number of controlled

connections and the number of positions (figure below). Each position is
shown as a separate square. The designation of ports is important when
interpreting the circuit symbols and the valve as fitted to the physical system.
To ensure that the correct lines, connections and valves are physically in
place there must be a relationship between the circuits and the components
used.

A numbering system is used to designate directional control valves and is in

accordance with ISO 5599. Prior to this lettering system was used. Both
systems of designation are shown as follows:
Figure 1.21: Examples of designation

The symbols listed below are generally in accordance with ISO 1219, al -
though manufacturers do tend to use variations on this theme.