SO YOU

THINK YOU KNOW

LIGHTNING
A COLLECTION OF ELECTRIFYING FAST FACTS!
PUBLISHED BY

Ronald L. Holle Daile Zhang

Consultant, Vaisala, Inc. PhD Candidate, Dept. of Hydrology and Atmospheric Sciences
Tucson, Arizona University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona, USA

For more information visit vaisala.com/lightning

© Vaisala 2017
As a meteorological consultant and a university general science
course instructor for many years, the authors have collected questions
regarding lightning that are frequently asked by customers, students
and friends. This booklet answers these questions and provides
additional knowledge to help the readers understand basic lightning
physics and lightning safety, as well as lightning detection.

The authors would like to thank the following people (in alphabetic
order) for proofreading the booklet: Hsin-I Chang, Brittany Ciancarelli,
Mary Ann Cooper, John Jensenius, Jessica Mackaro, James Moker,
Melanie Scott, and Sarah Warren.

PREFACE — 3
 Chapter I – Lightning Overview ............................ 5
 Phenomenon ...................................................... 6
 Physics................................................................... 21
 Distribution ......................................................... 26

Chapter II – Lightning Safety ................................. 34

 Human ................................................................... 35
 Property ............................................................... 44

Chapter III – Lightning Detection ........................ 48

Chapter IV – Special Lightning Topics ............... 52

 Science .................................................................. 53
 Triggers ................................................................. 56
 Photography ....................................................... 58

4 — TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIGHTNING OVERVIEW - PHENOMENON
Chapter
ONE

Phenomenon

Physics

Distribution


LIGHTNING OVERVIEW — 5
 What is lightning?

Lightning is a common atmospheric electricity

phenomenon. The American Meteorological
Society defines lightning as “the series of electrical
processes taking place continuously by which
charge is transferred along discharge channels
between electric charge centers of opposite sign.”
SPELLING TIP:

Further reading: Lang,T.J. et al., 2017: WMO world record lightning extremes: Longest reported flash
distance and longest reported flash duration. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, 98, 1153-1168.

6 — LIGHTNING OVERVIEW - PHENOMENON

2 types What are the differences between a
of Flashes pulse, stroke, and flash?

A pulse (or a cloud pulse) is a lightning

discharge that connects regions with opposite
polarity (+/-) within one cloud or between
A flash that only multiple clouds.
consists of cloud
pulses is called a
cloud flash.
A stroke (or a cloud-to-ground stroke) is a
lightning discharge that connects a charge region
A flash that has in a cloud to the ground.
at least one
cloud-to-ground
stroke is called a A lightning flash consists of one or more cloud
cloud-to-ground pulses and/or cloud-to-ground strokes that
flash, which is typically occurs within 1 second.
more dangerous
to lives and Further reading: Uman, M.A., 1986: All about lightning. Dover Press, 167 pp.
property.

LIGHTNING OVERVIEW - PHENOMENON — 7

 Does lightning travel up or down?

Typically, a cloud-to-ground flash starts with a

downward channel, but it is normally not visible
because of its very short duration. When it comes
close to the ground, it will induce an upward
channel from the ground. This upward channel will
connect to the first downward channel, and form
a bright channel (as we normally see) that travels
back up to the cloud through the same path.

In contrast, a cloud lightning flash which consists

of only cloud pulses travels mainly horizontally.

Further reading: Rakov,V.A., 2016: Fundamentals of lightning. Cambridge University Press, 257 pp.

8 — LIGHTNING OVERVIEW - PHENOMENON

What is the polarity of lightning?

Lightning can be both positively and negatively

charged. In a typical thunderstorm, there are
many more negative cloud-to-ground strokes
than positive ones. However, in the Great Plains in
the U.S., abnormal thunderstorms with relatively
more positive strokes have been found.

Further reading: Rakov,V.A., 2016: Fundamentals of lightning. Cambridge University Press, 257 pp.

LIGHTNING OVERVIEW - PHENOMENON — 9

 What is thunder? FAST
FACT

Heat from
lightning
causes air
to rapidly
expand
around it.
This sudden
expansion of
air causes a
Source credit: Environment and Climate Change Canada shock wave
Further reading: Uman, M.A., 1984: Lightning. Dover Press, 298 pp. that we hear
as thunder.

10 — LIGHTNING OVERVIEW - PHENOMENON

TRUE OR “Lightning and thunder occur
FALSE? simultaneously.”

Why do we see lightning first?

The speed of light is much greater than the speed
of sound, so the light arrives before the sound.

 Speed of light: 3 x 108 meters per second

(m/s) or 2 x 105 miles per second (mi/s).
TRUE  Speed of sound: 340 m/s or 0.21 mi/s.

How can I tell how far I am from the lightning?

After you see lightning, count the number of
seconds until you hear thunder. See the example
on the next page.

LIGHTNING OVERVIEW - PHENOMENON — 11

 Example

If you hear thunder 5 seconds after you see

lightning, how far away are you from the lightning?

Distance = Speed × Duration It takes 5

= 340 m/s × 5 sec* or = 0.21 mi/s × 5 sec seconds for
= 1,700 meters = 1.05 miles sound to travel
1 mile.
You are 1.7 km or about 1 mile away from the lightning.

*sec = second(s)

12 — LIGHTNING OVERVIEW - PHENOMENON

TRUE OR “Only thunderstorms produce
FALSE? lightning.”

Lightning also
occurs in volcanic
eruptions.
Lightning occurs
wherever there are
two regions with

FALSE opposite charges

between them,
whether it is in a
volcanic eruption Source credit: Sakurajima Volcano, Japan by Dr.
or a thunderstorm. Carrado Cimarelli, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität

Further reading: Behnke, S.A., and E.C. Bruning, 2015: Changes to the turbulent kinematics of a
volcanic plume inferred from lightning data. Geophysical Research Letters, 42, 4232-4239.

LIGHTNING OVERVIEW - PHENOMENON — 13

 Can you hear thunder more than
10 miles away?

Although thunder may be heard at a distance

greater than 10 miles, the hearing distance is
usually shorter if there is traffic noise, you are in a
building, or you are facing away from the storm.

Is there always thunder when lightning strikes?

YES. Lightning always produces thunder whether
you hear it or not.

Further reading: Uman, M.A., 1986: All about lightning. Dover Press, 167 pp.

14 — LIGHTNING OVERVIEW - PHENOMENON

TRUE OR “Soil composition can influence
FALSE? where lightning strikes.”

Cloud-to-ground lightning originates at very high

altitudes (typically above 5-7 km). The downward
lightning channel within a cloud-to-ground lightning
FALSE flash is NOT influenced by soil composition.

Further reading: Rakov,V.A., 2016: Fundamentals of lightning. Cambridge University Press, 257 pp.

LIGHTNING OVERVIEW - PHENOMENON — 15

 What is heat lightning? FAST
FACT

Heat
lightning
is ordinary
lightning -
it is just
far away.
Source credit: © Ronald L. Holle
Further reading: Uman, M.A., 1984: Lightning. Dover Press, 298 pp.

16 — LIGHTNING OVERVIEW - PHENOMENON

TRUE OR “The temperature of lightning is
FALSE? hotter than the surface of the sun.”

The temperature of lightning is about 30,000 Kelvin

(about 53,500 °F). The temperature of the surface
of the sun is about 6,000 Kelvin (about 10,300 °F).
Why don’t lightning strikes trigger hydrogen-helium
nuclear fusion reactions (such as inside the Sun)?
The temperature at the core of the sun is much
TRUE higher than at its surface. Nuclear fusion requires
a temperature more than tens of millions Kelvin,
which is only found at the core of the sun rather
than at its surface. The temperature of lightning
is not high enough to trigger this nuclear fusion.
Further readings: Uman, M.A., 1984: Lightning. Dover Press, 298 pp.
Prueitt, M.L., 1963:The excitation temperature of lightning. Journal of Geophysical Research, 68(3): 803-811.

LIGHTNING OVERVIEW - PHENOMENON — 17

 Is there lightning in tornadoes and
hurricanes?

YES. There is lightning in tornadoes.

Tornadoes are formed by thunderstorms
containing lightning. However, the frequency of
the lightning occurrence varies.
 
YES. There is lightning in hurricanes.
In a hurricane, lightning is more likely to occur in
the outer spiral rainbands than in the hurricane
eyewall where the strongest winds and heaviest
rain are located.
Further readings: Zheng, D., and D.R. MacGorman, 2016: Characteristics of flash initiations in a
supercell cluster with tornadoes. Atmospheric Research, 167, 249-264.
Stevenson, S.N., K.L. Corbosiero, and S.F. Abarca, 2016: Lightning in eastern North Pacific tropical
cyclones: A comparison to the North Atlantic. Monthly Weather Review, 144, 225-239.

18 — LIGHTNING OVERVIEW - PHENOMENON

TRUE OR “Lightning does not benefit Earth
FALSE? and humankind.”

Lightning plays an important role in:

 the atmospheric nitrogen cycle by
producing nitrate nutrients to help fertilize
the soil.
 the Global Electric Circuit, which interplays
between the Earth, thunderstorms, and
FALSE upper atmosphere.
 a possible mechanism for the origin of life.

Lightning is also visually attractive.

Further readings: Höller, H., U. Finke, H. Huntrieser, M. Hagen and C. Feigl, 1999: Lightning produced NOx
(LINOX) - Experimental design and case study results. Journal of Geophysical Research, 104, D11, 13911-13922.
Williams, E.R., 2009:The global electrical circuit: A review. Atmospheric Research, 91(2), 140-152.

LIGHTNING OVERVIEW - PHENOMENON — 19

 What are the duration and distance
records for a lightning flash?

Normally, a lightning flash lasts less than a second.

However, the longest duration of a lightning flash
was recorded at 7.7 seconds.

Normally, a lightning flash does not travel

horizontally more than 20 miles (about 30 km).
However, the farthest horizontal distance that a
flash traveled was recorded at 200 miles (321 km).

Further reading: Lang,T.J. et al., 2017:WMO world record lightning extremes: Longest reported flash
distance and longest reported flash duration. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, 98, 1153-1168.

20 — LIGHTNING OVERVIEW - PHENOMENON

TRUE OR “Lightning flickers because its
FALSE? temperature is very high.”

The temperature
has nothing
to do with
the flickering.
The flickering
is caused by

FALSE
multiple cloud-
to-ground
strokes with a
time interval of
less than a tenth
of a second.
Source credit: © Ronald L. Holle

LIGHTNING OVERVIEW - PHYSICS — 21

 How much energy does a lightning
flash typically release?

It is hard to estimate the energy released by a

lightning flash, but a typical range is about 109 to
1010 Joules. A common saying is that this amount
of energy is equivalent to the energy that lights
up a regular light bulb for several months.
Assuming the energy of a lightning flash is 109
Joules and a light bulb has a power of 100 watts
(Joules/sec), the light-up time can be calculated as:
Time = Energy/Power = 109 Joules/100 watts
= 107 seconds
= about 4 months
Further reading: Rakov,V.A., 2016: Fundamentals of lightning. Cambridge University Press, 257 pp.

22 — LIGHTNING OVERVIEW - PHYSICS

TRUE OR “Lightning never strikes the same
FALSE? place twice.”

In flat open land, it is very unlikely that lightning

strikes the same spot more than once over a long
period of time. However, natural and man-made
features (e.g., trees, buildings, and towers) that
stand out from the ground are more likely to be

FALSE
repeatedly struck by lightning.

The Empire State Building is a frequent target

for lightning strikes and thus a favorite subject of
lightning studies.

Further reading: Uman, M. A., 1986: All about lightning. Dover Press, 167 pp.

LIGHTNING OVERVIEW - PHYSICS — 23

 Can we collect and utilize the
energy from lightning?

NO.
1. Because the location of a lightning strike is unpredictable
(see p. 51), it is uncertain where to put a “container.”
2. Much of the energy produced by lightning comes
in the form of light, sound, and heat that cannot be
practically harvested.
3. No container is able to withstand such a short powerful
surge and then store this energy without it being “lost”.
4. Lightning transfers both positive and negative charges.
Even if we had a way to collect the energy, the opposite
charges would tend to neutralize each other.
5. There is no way to transport the energy to the power
grid or to convert the energy to alternating current (AC)
or direct current (DC).

24 — LIGHTNING OVERVIEW - PHYSICS

TRUE OR “Lightning always strikes the
FALSE? tallest structures.”

Lightning tends to strike taller buildings,

but it may strike a nearby shorter one under
certain conditions. The final striking location is
determined at the instant when the lightning
FALSE channel is about 30-50 meters above the ground
or an object. If a tall building is not within that
limited range, lightning will hit a shorter building
or object instead.

Further reading: Uman, M. A., 1986: All about lightning. Dover Press, 167 pp.

LIGHTNING OVERVIEW - PHYSICS — 25

 How often does lightning occur around the globe?

Vaisala’s Global Lightning Dataset GLD360 network currently detects

nearly two billion lightning occurrences every year. These include both
cloud-to-ground strokes and cloud pulses.

Do some places have more lightning than others?

Yes. Lightning is not equally distributed around the globe. More lightning
occurs over land than over the ocean. Lightning also occurs more in the
tropics than elsewhere. See the GLD360 lightning map to the right.

Further reading: Holle, R.L., 2016: A summary of recent national-scale lightning fatality studies.
Weather, Climate, and Society, 8, 35-42.

26 — LIGHTNING OVERVIEW - DISTRIBUTION

How often do cloud-to-ground flashes strike in the U.S.?
TRUE OR “Florida is the lightning capital of
FALSE? the United States.”

Three locations in Florida have the highest lightning

flash densities in the U.S. — near Tampa, West Palm
Beach, and Daytona Beach.
How many lightning flashes occur in the United
States each year?
Vaisala’s National Lightning Detection Network detects

TRUE an average of 20 million cloud-to-ground flashes over

the contiguous 48 states every year. See the map on
the left. In addition, there are about 3-4 times more
cloud flashes as there are cloud-to-ground flashes.
Further readings: Holle, R.L., K.L. Cummins, and W.A. Brooks, 2016: Seasonal, monthly, and weekly
distributions of NLDN and GLD360 cloud-to-ground lightning. Monthly Weather Review, 144, 2855-2870.
Medici, G., K.L. Cummins, D.J. Cecil,W.J. Koshak, and S.D. Rudlosky, 2017:The intra-cloud lightning fraction in the
contiguous United States. Monthly Weather Review, 145, 4481-4499.

LIGHTNING OVERVIEW - DISTRIBUTION — 29

 How often does lightning strike FAST
the ground? FACT

CLOUD PULSES CLOUD-TO-GROUND

STROKES
On average,
about 1/3
of lightning
reaches the
ground and
the other
2/3 stays in
the cloud.
However, the
Source credit: © Ronald L. Holle actual ratio
Further reading: RMedici, G., K.L. Cummins, D.J. Cecil,W.J. Koshak, and S.D. Rudlosky, 2017: The intra- within each
cloud lightning fraction in the contiguous United States. Monthly Weather Review, 145, 4481-4499.
thunderstorm
can vary.
30 — LIGHTNING OVERVIEW - DISTRIBUTION
TRUE OR “Lightning is most common in the
FALSE? afternoons.”

Around
2/3 of all
lightning over
land occurs
between
noon and the
TRUE late afternoon
hours of 16-18
local time.

Further reading: Holle, R.L., 2014: Diurnal variations of NLDN-reported cloud-to-ground lightning in
the United States. Monthly Weather Review, 142, 1037-1052.

LIGHTNING OVERVIEW - DISTRIBUTION — 31

 Is the seasonal distribution of FAST
lightning different around the world? FACT

YES.
See the
seasonal
variations
of lightning
occurrence
in different
Further reading: Holle, R., R. Said, and M. Scott, 2017: Lightning variations: A large data set
comprising five years of lightning detection data is helping to draw global comparisons. 
continents.
Meteorological Technology International, September, 139-140.

32 — LIGHTNING OVERVIEW - DISTRIBUTION

TRUE OR “In the U.S., lightning is most
FALSE? common in summertime.”

About 2/3
of lightning
over land
occurs
during

TRUE the three

summer
months in
the U.S.

Further reading: Holle, R.L., K.L. Cummins, and W.A. Brooks, 2016: Seasonal, monthly, and weekly
distributions of NLDN and GLD360 cloud-to-ground lightning. Monthly Weather Review, 144, 2855-2870.

LIGHTNING OVERVIEW - DISTRIBUTION — 33

 Chapter
TWO

Human

Property


34 — LIGHTNING SAFETY
TRUE OR “When thunder roars, go indoors.”
FALSE?

In the United States and most developed

countries, as well-constructed buildings are
available and accessible most of the time.
People are safe in these buildings, so going
indoors is a good recommendation.

TRUE*
*However, in some developing countries or areas, as
buildings are poorly built, such as those with thatched
roofs and mud walls. These buildings are not lightning-
safe, and therefore, going indoors may not be safe.

Further reading: www.lightningsafety.noaa.gov; www.ACLENet.org

Roeder,W.P., R.L. Holle, M.A. Cooper, and S. Hodanish, 2011: Communicating lightning safety effectively.
Preprints, 5th Conference on the Meteorological Applications of Lightning Data, January 23-27,
Seattle,Washington, American Meteorological Society, 18 pp.

LIGHTNING SAFETY - HUMAN — 35

 Is it safe to use a mobile phone
during a thunderstorm?

YES. Only use a mobile phone inside a safe vehicle

or building. It is safe to use a mobile phone as long
as you are inside a safe building or vehicle. However,
it is not safe to use a mobile phone outdoors during
a thunderstorm, and this is only because it is just not
safe to be outside. The lack of safety has nothing to
do with the mobile phone itself because cellphones
do NOT attract lightning.
In general, being outside during a thunderstorm
is always dangerous! Beware that using a corded
phone during a thunderstorm can also be dangerous!
Further reading: Cooper, M.A., 2008: Is it dangerous to use a cell phone in a thunderstorm?
Lightning fact and fiction. Bottom Line Personal, 29, June 1, 13-14.

36 — LIGHTNING SAFETY - HUMAN

TRUE OR “A person can survive being
FALSE? struck by lightning.”

Lightning usually has a very short duration

(normally less than 1/5 of a second) and most of the
energy tends to travel over the body rather than go
through it. That is why some people can survive.
However, sometimes, it causes severe injuries
TRUE (mainly neurological) that can be devastating and
lead to life-long debilitating effects.

Further readings: www.lightning-strike.org

Cherington, M., J.Walker, J. Boyson, R. Glancy, H. Hedegaard, and S. Clark, 1999: Closing the gap on the
actual numbers of lightning casualties and deaths. Preprints, 11th Conference on Applied Climatology,
Dallas,TX, American Meteorological Society, 379-380.

LIGHTNING SAFETY - HUMAN — 37

 Can rubber tires save you from a
direct strike to your car?

NO. It is the metal shell of a car, rather than the

rubber tires, that provides protection.

When lightning strikes a car, the current travels

through the exterior metal shell of the car
and then to the ground via the axles and tires.
Consequently, a person fully inside the car will be
protected from the lightning current.

Further reading: Holle, R.L., 2008: Lightning-caused deaths and injuries in the vicinity of vehicles.
Preprints, 3rd Conference on Meteorological Applications of Lightning Data, January 20-24,
New Orleans, Louisiana, American Meteorological Society, 10 pp.

38 — LIGHTNING SAFETY - HUMAN

TRUE OR “Lightning is the deadliest storm
FALSE? hazard in the U.S.”

Both tornadoes and

floods have killed
more people than
lightning in the last
30 years in the U.S.
The U.S. death rate

FALSE
caused by lightning
is about 30 people
per year during the
last ten years.
Further readings: Lopez, R.D., and R.L. Holle, 1998: Changes in the number of lightning deaths in
the United States during the twentieth century. Journal of Climate, 11, 2070-2077.
Roeder,W.P., 2012: Lightning has fallen to third leading source of U.S. storm deaths. Preprints, National
Weather Association Annual Meeting, Madison,Wisconsin, 9 pp.

LIGHTNING SAFETY - HUMAN — 39

 Are tents and small shelters safe
during a thunderstorm?

NO. Tents have no metal exterior frame that is

strong enough to carry the lightning current to
ground to protect a person inside. You should
leave a tent and seek a safe building or a vehicle
during a thunderstorm.

Small shelters, such as sun shelters, beach shelters,

bus shelters, rain shelters, picnic shelters, agricultural
shelters, and small road-side shops are unsafe. They
are rarely built with lightning protection.

Further reading: Holle, R.L., 2010: Lightning-caused casualties in and near dwellings and other buildings.
Preprints, International Lightning Meteorology Conference,Vaisala,April 21-22, Orlando, Florida, 19 pp.

40 — LIGHTNING SAFETY - HUMAN

TRUE OR “A direct strike is the only way a
FALSE? person can be injured by lightning.”

Most lightning safety advice only focuses on the

direct strike. However, as shown in this diagram,
direct strike is the least common way to be killed
or injured by lightning.
Instead, ground
current which will
cause step voltage
FALSE is the most likely
cause of lightning
deaths and injuries.

Source credit: Environment and Climate Change Canada (ECCC)

Further reading: Cooper, M.A. and R.L. Holle, 2010: Mechanisms of lightning injury should affect
lightning safety messages. Preprints, International Lightning Meteorology Conference,Vaisala,
April 21-22, Orlando, Florida, 5 pp.

LIGHTNING SAFETY - HUMAN — 41

 Is it safe to stand under a tree
during a thunderstorm?

NO. Around 10% of all lightning fatalities and

injuries in the world are related to trees. When a
tree is struck by lightning, a side flash can “jump”
horizontally from the tree trunk to a person next
to the tree. In addition, the lightning current will
flow outward from the trunk across the ground
to people or animals standing beneath the tree.
Moreover, pieces of bark and branches can
explode horizontally.

Further reading: Holle, R.L., 2012: Lightning-caused deaths and injuries in the vicinity of trees.
Preprints, International Conference on Lightning Protection, September 2-7,Vienna, Austria, 8 pp.

42 — LIGHTNING SAFETY - HUMAN

TRUE OR “Rubber-soled shoes will save
FALSE? you from lightning.”

A thin layer of rubber at the bottom of your

shoes is impossible to save you from the power
of a direct lightning strike.

However, if you are far enough away from

the lightning strike location, then you may be
safe because the step voltage decreases with
FALSE distance. Therefore, it is the distance, rather than
the rubber-soled shoes that may save you from a
lightning strike.

Further reading: Roeder,W.P., R.L. Holle, M.A. Cooper, and S. Hodanish, 2011: Communicating
lightning safety effectively. Preprints, 5th Conference on the Meteorological Applications of
Lightning Data, January 23-27, Seattle,Washington, American Meteorological Society, 18 pp.

LIGHTNING SAFETY - HUMAN — 43

 How do lightning rods work? FAST
FACT

Lightning rods do not keep lightning from striking a

building, but provide a safe path for the current to
reach the ground. There are three components to the
protection provided by lightning rods:
1. A rod extending above the roof (air terminal)
2. A thick cable from the rod to the ground (down conductor) Lightning
3. A heavy rod pounded into the ground (ground terminal) rods are very
When lightning strikes a lightning rod on a building, the common
current travels through the cable to the ground without on sensitive
going inside the building. Lightning protection systems installations
must be installed by a properly-trained technician. such as
hospitals and
Further reading: Uman, M.A., 2008:The art and science of lightning protection. Cambridge University Press, 240 pp. utilities.

44 — LIGHTNING SAFETY - PROPERTY

How do surge protectors work?

Most often, lightning current surges through the

electric wires into a house after it strikes a power
pole. Surge protectors are designed to protect
your electronic devices from being damaged or
destroyed by diverting the overflow.

Further reading: Uman, M.A., 2008: The art and science of lightning protection. Cambridge
University Press, 240 pp.

LIGHTNING SAFETY - PROPERTY — 45

 Are passengers safe if lightning
strikes a plane?

YES. Passengers inside a commercial plane are

safe from a lightning strike. Instead of going inside
the plane, the lightning current travels around the
conducting metal exterior and dissipates into the
air. There is also special lightning protection for
the fuel tanks and electronic devices.

Nevertheless, an airplane needs to be inspected

before and after each flight to make sure that
there is no major damage from a suspected
lightning strike.

Further reading: Mulvey, G.J., J.F. Miller, and J.P Moriarty, 2017: Atmospheric electrical phenomena:
A pilot’s view. Weatherwise, 70, 32-39

46 — LIGHTNING SAFETY - PROPERTY

TRUE OR “Lightning is a major cause of
FALSE? wildfires in the U.S.”

Due to the extremely high temperature of cloud-

to-ground lightning, trees and other organic
materials can be set afire. In the western United
States, about one half of all forest fires are
initiated by lightning, mostly in summer when

TRUE ”dry lightning” is frequent. “Dry lightning” refers

to a phenomenon when rain from a thunderstorm
evaporates before reaching the ground, and
therefore the fire cannot be extinguished.

Further readings: www.nifc.gov/fireInfo/fireInfo_stats_lightng.html

www.ec.gc.ca/foudre-lightning/default.asp?lang=En&n=48337EAE-1

LIGHTNING SAFETY - PROPERTY — 47

 Chapter
THREE

48 — LIGHTNING DETECTION
TRUE OR “We can detect where lightning
FALSE? has struck.”

Lightning emits unique electromagnetic signals at a

wide range of frequencies (about 1 Hz to 3 × 109Hz).
When two or more ground-based lightning sensors
detect a lightning signal, the data are sent to a
central processor where the lightning occurrence
times and the corresponding angles between the

TRUE lightning to the sensors are processed. The location

of the lightning is then determined by statistical
and geometrical computations.

Further readings: Cummins, K.L., and M.J. Murphy, 2009: An overview of lightning locating systems:
History, techniques, and data uses, with an in-depth look at the U.S. NLDN. IEEE Transaction on
Electromagnetic Compatibility, 51, 499-518.
Nag, A., M.J. Murphy,W. Schulz, and K.L. Cummins, 2015: Lightning locating systems: Insights on
characteristics and validation techniques. Earth and Space Science, 2.

LIGHTNING DETECTION — 49
 Can satellites detect lightning
from space?

YES. As of 2017, three U.S. satellite-based

instruments have been, or are currently being
used for lightning observations. They observe
lightning from above the thunderstorms in
contrast to ground-based lightning detection
networks. To improve the detection accuracy,
they use a very narrow range of electromagnetic
signals in the near-infrared band.

Further readings: Goodman, S.J., R.J. Blakeslee,W.J. Koshak et al., 2013: The GOES-R Geostationary
Lightning Mapper (GLM). Atmospheric Research, 125:34-49.
Mach, D.M., H.J. Christian, R.J. Blakeslee et al., 2007: Performance assessment of the Optical Transient
Detector and Lightning Imaging Sensor. Journal of Geophysical Research - Atmospheres, 112, D09210.

50 — LIGHTNING DETECTION
TRUE OR “We can predict exactly where
FALSE? lightning is going to strike.”

There is no accepted method to predict exactly

when and where lightning is going to strike,
although the location of a thunderstorm and its

FALSE movement can be tracked by radar and other

instruments with a scanning period of 10 to 30
minutes. Currently, it is impossible to determine the
precise location of each lightning strike in advance.

LIGHTNING DETECTION — 51
 Chapter
FOUR

Science

Triggers

Photography


52 — SPECIAL LIGHTNING TOPICS

What are fulgurites?

Fulgurites are
naturally-produced
glassy material
that are formed
from lightning
striking and melting
sand, soil, or other
sediments. They are
usually elongated
and hollow, and
can be bought at
mineral shops. Source credit: © Ronald L. Holle

Further reading: Wright, F.W. Jr., 2010: Florida’s fantastic fulgurite find. Weatherwise, 51, 27-31

SPECIAL LIGHTNING TOPICS - SCIENCE — 53

 What is ball lightning?

There have been reports from around the world

of an electrical phenomenon that appears in the
shape of a ball and only lasts a few seconds. This
ball lightning typically occurs inside an enclosed
space. There are no commonly-agreed-upon
hypotheses on how ball lightning forms at this time.

Further reading: Uman, M.A., 1986: All about lightning. Dover Press, 167 pp.

54 — SPECIAL LIGHTNING TOPICS - SCIENCE

TRUE OR “All lightning occurs within the
FALSE? troposphere.”

Although lightning we normally see during

a thunderstorm occurs entirely within the
troposphere, a larger thunderstorm can produce
electrical phenomena that shoot upward
above the storm from the troposphere into
FALSE the stratosphere, and even higher up into the
mesosphere and ionosphere. These phenomena
are called sprites and jets.

Further reading: Lyons,W., 2017: Photographing weather in the dark.Weatherwise, 70:4, 20-27,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080

LIGHTNING
SPECIAL LIGHTNING
OVERVIEW - PHENOMENON
TOPICS - SCIENCE — 55
 Can we artificially trigger lightning
from the ground?

YES. Small rockets have been

successfully used to trigger
lightning at various locations
around the world. These
triggered flashes are used to
study lightning physics and to
test the performance of lightning
detection networks and other
materials such as utility lines.

Source credit: State Key Laboratory on Severe Weather, Chinese Academy of Meteorological
Sciences. Provided by Dong Zheng
Further readings: Rakov,V.A., 2016: Fundamentals of Lightning. Cambridge University Press, 257 pp.
Yijun, Z,W. Lu, and S. Chen, 2016: A review of advances in lightning observations during the past
decade in Guangdong. Journal of Meteorological Research, 30(5), 800-819.

56 — SPECIAL LIGHTNING TOPICS - TRIGGERS

TRUE OR “Tall objects can initiate lightning.”
FALSE?

Tall objects such as

TV antennas, wind
turbines, and tall
buildings can initiate
lightning, although this
happens infrequently.

TRUE
These events are easily
identified in photos by
their upward channels
from the objects.
Source credit: Sao Paulo, Brazil. Provided by Dr. Marcelo Saba, National Institute for Space
Research, Brazil
Further reading: Saba, M.M.F., A.R. Paiva, C. Schuman et al. 2017: Lightning attachment process to
common buildings. Geophysical Research Letters, 44, doi:10.1002/2017/GLO72796.

SPECIAL LIGHTNING TOPICS - TRIGGERS — 57

 How can you photograph lightning?

One way is to take a long exposure that will

include several lightning channels in the same
photo. Another way is to take a video and pull out
the frames when there was lightning. A final way is
to point a camera toward an active thunderstorm
and continuously take photos, but expect a large
number of images with no lightning.
Source credit: A long exposure (several minutes) photo of lightning in Tucson,AZ. © Ralph H.Wetmore II.
Further reading: Wetmore, R.A., 2010: Thirty years of lightning photography in southern Arizona.
ISBN10:0982566212, 112 pp.

58 — SPECIAL LIGHTNING TOPICS - PHOTOS

TRUE OR “Lightning has various colors.”
FALSE?

TRUE All lightning channels start as bright white.

Depending on the type of particles in the air
between the camera and the lightning channel,
lightning can appear to be blue, purple, red, or
yellow when its light reaches you.
Further reading: Salanave, L. E., 1980: Lightning and its spectrum: An atlas of photographs,
University of Arizona Press, 136 pp.

SPECIAL LIGHTNING TOPICS - PHOTOS — 59

 Why is southern Arizona one of the best
places in the U.S. to photograph lightning?

Although southern Arizona is not the lightning

capital, it is the lightning photography capital of
the U.S. Thunderstorms form during the monsoon
season (July to early September), and the cloud
bases are high (typically about 3,000 meters, or
10,000 feet). Therefore, the lightning channels
can be seen from far away. Plus, southern Arizona
is adorned with cacti, surrounded by mountains,
and has colorful sunsets (See the lightning photos
from Tucson, Arizona on the next 2 pages).

Further reading: Wetmore, R.A., 2010: Thirty years of lightning photography in southern Arizona.
ISBN10:0982566212, 112 pp.

60 — SPECIAL LIGHTNING TOPICS - PHOTOS

© Ralph H.Wetmore II
© Ralph H.Wetmore II
 U.S. National Weather Service Lightning Safety
lightningsafety.noaa.gov

 Vaisala Inc.
vaisala.com/lightning

 Department of Hydrology & Atmospheric

Sciences, University of Arizona
has.arizona.edu

WEBSITES — 63
Did you know?
Thunder is always produced by lightning,
whether you hear it or not.

The longest lightning flash has been measured

as 200 miles (321 kilometers) long.

The temperature of lightning is hotter than the

surface of the sun.

Volcanoes can produce lightning.